CSM 165: Predicate Logic

Kwame Atta Gyamfi (PhD)

Dept. of Mathematics
KNUST

January 16, 2024

Summary of topics

1 Predicates

2 Quantifiers
Predicates Quantifiers

Summary of topics

1 Predicates

2 Quantifiers

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Predicates Quantifiers

Predicates I

Definition 1 (Predicate)
A predicate refers to the part of a sentence that attributes a
property of the subject.

Example 2

Ghana is rich in natural resources.

x represents the world population.
...

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Some key concepts

1 A predicate contains a finite number of variables.

2 A predicate becomes a propositional statement when
specific values are substituted for the variables.

Illustration
1 A predicate that just involves only one variable x may be
denoted by P(x).
2 Here, P is the notation for the propositional function and
x is the variable mostly for the subject.
3 The statement P(x) is said to be the value of the
propositional function P defined at x.
4 A propositional function is neither True nor False, unless a
value of the variable has been assigned from its Domain.
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Domain of discourse
Domain of discourse: Is the set of all values of a variable that
can replace it.

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Exercises

Example 3
Discuss the following statements in the context of predicate
logic.
(a) The statement x > 2, for x = 0 and x = 7.2, where the
domain for the variable consists of all real numbers.
(b) x 2 + y 2 = z 2 , for x = 3, y = 4, z = 5 and for
x = 5, y = 6 , z = 7, where the domain for each of the
three variables consists of all positive variables.

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Predicates Quantifiers

Summary of topics

1 Predicates

2 Quantifiers

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Quantifiers

Any type of logic with quantifiers is called Predicate logic.

proposition logic Predicate logic

1 Some people in this class 1 There exists a person in this

have red eyes. room that has red eyes.
2 All cats like to chase all 2 For each cat x, and each
mice. mouse y , cat x likes to chase
3 Every person has a mouse y .
mother. 3 For each person A, there
exists a woman B such that B
is the mother of A.

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Universal quantifier I
Let P(x) be an expression with a free variable x. Let U be the
collection of all possible values of x.
Definition 4 (Universal quantifier)
A universal quantifier applied to P(x) is the statement,
denoted (∀x in U)P(x), which is true for all possible value x in
U.
Statements with the universal quantifiers can also be stated as:
For all values of x in U, the statement P(x) is true.
For each x in U, the statement P(x) is true;
The statement P(x) is true for all x in U.
All values of x in U satisfy the P(x).
A value for x for which P(x) is false is called a
counterexample to the universal statement ∀xP(x).
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Unviversal quantifier II

Example 5
Determine
√ the truth values of the universal statement
∀x(x ≥ x) for the following domains.
(a) All positive integers less than or equal to 3.
(b) All positive real numbers less than or equal to 3.

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Existential quantifier
Let P(x) be an expression with a free variable x.
Let U be the collection of all possible values of x.

Definition 6 (Existential quantifier)

A existential quantifier applied to P(x) is the statement,
denoted (∃x in U)P(x), which is true for at least one of x in U.

Different ways of saying

There exists some x in U such that P(x) holds;
There is x in U such that P(x) holds;
There exists at least one x in U such that P(x) holds;
For some value of x in U, the condition P(x) holds;
It is the case that P(x) is true for some x in U.
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Example 7
Determine
√ the truth values of the universal statement
∃x(x < x) for the following domains.
(a) All positive integers less than or equal to 3.
(b) All positive real numbers less than or equal to 3.

Example 8

1 ”Some integers are even and prime”

”There exists x such that x is even and x is prime”
E(x) = ”x is an even number” M(x) = ”x is a prime
number”
2 (∃x ∈ Z) [E(x) ∧ M(x)]

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Free and bound variables

Let P(x) and Q(x, y ) be predicates.
A variable x is called a free variable of P(x) if the set of
possible values is not limited (or specified).
A variable x is called a bound variable of P(x) if the set
of possible values is limited (or specified).

Example 9

P(x, y ) = ”x + y > 0.” Here x, y are free variables.

Q(y ) = ”For all positive real numbers x, the inequality
x + y > 0 holds.” Here y is a free variable and x is a bound
variable.
P = ”For all positive real numbers x and all real numbers
y, the inequality x + y > 0 holds.”
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Logical equivalences

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Bound and free variables II: Examples

Example 10
Identify the bound and free variables and the scopes of the
quantifiers in the following statement.

(∃x(x − y + z = 2)) ∨ (∀y(x − y − z = 1)) .

Show that ∃x(P(x) ∨ Q(x)) and ∃xP(x) ∨ ∃xQ(x) are

logically equivalent.
Show that ∀xP(x) ∨ ∀xQ(x) and ∀x(P(x) ∨ Q(x)) are not
logically equivalent.
Show that ∃xP(x) ∧ ∃xQ(x) and ∃x(P(x) ∧ xQ(x)) are not
logically equivalent.
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Negations of quantifiers
The rules for negations of quantified statements, which are
called De Morgan’s laws for quantifiers, are as follows:
(
∀xP(x) ≡ ∃xP(x)
∃xP(x) ≡ ∀xP(x)

Example 11
Determine the negations of the following statements:
All prime numbers are odd.
There is an honest politician.
Rich people do not have empathy.
Some people do not live to be 100 years old.
Every person who is a vegetarian is healthy.
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Nested Quantifiers
1 We can form statements with more than one quantifier, as
long as different quantifiers involve different variables.
Suppose P(x, y) = ”x + y 2 = 3” where x, y ∈ R.
(∀y )(∃x)P(x, y) is a valid statement.
For all y , there exists x such that x + y 2 = 3.
For each y, there is some x such that x + y 2 = 3.
Statement is true since x = 3 − y 2 .
2 The order of appearance of the quantifiers is important.
(∃y )(∀x)P(x, y) is different from (∀y )(∃x)P(x, y ).
There exists some x such that for all y , the equation
x + y 2 = 3 holds. FALSE.
A very important occurrence of the importance of the order
of multiple quantifiers is in the “ϵ-δ” proofs treated in real
analysis
 courses.

lim f (x) = L ⇔ ∀ϵ > 0 : ∃δ > 0 : ∀x : (|x − a| < δ) →
x→a
(|f (x) − L| < ϵ)
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Statement When true? When false?

(∀x)(∀y )P(x, y) P(x, y) is true There exist a pair x, y
(∀y )(∀x)P(x, y) for every pair (x, y). for which P(x, y ) is false.
(∀x)(∃y )P(x, y) For every x there There exist x such
is a y for which that P(x, y) is false
P(x, y) is true. for every y.
(∀y )(∃x)P(x, y) For every y there is There exist y such
an x for which that P(x, y) is
P(x, y) is true. false for every x.
(∃x)(∀y )P(x, y) There exist x for For every x there
which P(x, y) is a y for which
is true for every y. P(x, y ) is false.
(∃y )(∀x)P(x, y) There exist y for For every y there
which P(x, y) is is an x for
true for every x. which P(x, y ) is false.
(∃x)(∃y )P(x, y) There exist a pair x, y P(x, y ) is false
(∃y )(∃x)P(x, y) for which P(x, y) for every pair x, y .
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Truth value of nested qantifiers

Example 12

1 The statement ”∃x ∈ R such that x + 2 = 7” is true.

Because, we can choose x = 5
2 The statement ”x + 2 = 7 ∀x ∈ R” is false.
Because x + 2 ̸= 7 when x ̸= 5.
3 The statement ”∀y ∈ R ∃x ∈ R such that x + y = 4” is true.
Because no matter what value of x is chosen, we can
choose y = 4 − x. Furthermore, we have
x + y = x + (4 − x) = 4.
4 The statement ”∃y ∈ R such that ∀x ∈ R, x + y = 4” is
false.

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Guidelines for Truth value of nested quantifiers

Think of it in terms of a competitive game to conclude
whether a proposition with nested quantifiers is true.
1 The game has two players, both with the same
knowledge but different roles:
- Verifier: Wants to demonstrate that the proposition is true.
- Falsifier: Wants to demonstrate that the proposition is
false.
The Rules of the Game ”Verify or Falsify”:
2 Read the quantifiers from left to right, choosing values of
variables.
- When you see ∀, then falsifier gets to select the value.
- When you see ∃, then verifier gets to select the value.
3 If the verifier can always win, then the proposition is true.
4 If the falsifier can always win, then it is false.
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Example 13

1 Attempt to play the game with Example 12.

Sometimes helpful to use parentheses: ”∃y ∈ R (such that
∀x ∈ R, (x + y = 4))”.
2 Play the game: Let B(x, y) := “x’s birthday is followed
within 7 days by y ′ s birthday.”
Suppose I claim that among you: ∃x ∀y B(x, y ).
What about ∀x ∃y B(x, y)?

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