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CHAPTER – 4
Transfer Function, Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graph

4.1. TRANSFER FUNCTIONS:

The transfer function of a linear time invariant continuous system is defined to be the ratio of
Laplace transform of the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable with all the initial
conditions taken to be zero. The complete transfer function of a system is obtained by determining the
transfer function of the various components of the system and then combining them according to their
connections. Since the characteristics of linear systems depend only on the properties of elements in the
system, the transfer function describes the same.
Consider the linear time invariant system defined by the following differential equations:
n
d y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) dy (t )
a0 n
 a1 n 1
 ….. + a n 1  a n y (t )
dt dt dt
d m x(t ) d m1 x(t ) dx(t )
= b0 m
 b1 m 1
 ........  bm1  bm x(t ) ( n  m)
dt dt dt
Where y is the output of the system and x is the input. The transfer function of this system is the ratio of
the Laplace transformed output to the Laplace transformed input when all initial conditions are zero, or
L[output ]
Transfer function = G(s) = zero initial conditions
L[input ]
Y ( s ) b0 S m  b1 S m1  ..........  bm1 S  bm
= 
X ( s ) a 0 S n  a1 S n 1  ...........  a n 1 S  a n
By using the concept of transfer function, it is possible to represent system dynamics by algebraic
equations in s. If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the
system is called an nth order system.

4.1.1. HOW TO DETERMINE TRANSFER FUNCTIONS?

1. Write a set of linearly independent integral-differential equations in (n+1) variables the input
( independent variable), the output and (n-1) other independent variables.
2. Convert the equations in frequency domain by taking Laplace transform assuming initial
conditions as zero.
3. Solve the resulting set of n linearly independent algebraic equations in the n dependent
variables for the Laplace transform of the output in terms of the Laplace transform of the input.
4. Find the relation between Laplace transform of output and input eliminating intermediate
variables. The resultant equation is the transfer function.
4.1.2. THE PROPERTIES OF THE TRANSFER FUNCTIONS:
1. The transfer function is defined only for a linear time invariant system. It is not defined for
non-linear systems.
2. The transfer function between an input variable and an output variable of a system is defined
as the Laplace transform of the impulse response. Alternately, the transfer function between a
pair of input and output variables is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the
Laplace transform of the input.
3. All initial conditions of the system are set to zero.
4. The transfer function is independent of the input of the system.
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5. The transfer function of a continuous data system is expressed only as a function of the complex
variable s. It is not a function of the real variable, time, or any other variable that is used as the
independent variable. For discrete data systems modeled by difference equations, the transfer
functions of z when the z-transform is used.
4.1.3. ADVANTAGES OF TRANSFER FUNCTION:
Transfer function is a very strong tool for analyzing a control system and offers the following
advantages.
1. We get mathematical models all system components hence, of the overall system. It allows us to
analyze the individual components of the system.
2. Stability analysis of the system can easily be carried out. We get information about poles, zeros,
characteristic equations, etc.
3. The use of Laplace transform approach allows converting integral differential time domain
equations to simple algebraic equations.
4. The transfer function is expressed in terms of complex variable ‘s’ which is not a function of the
real variable time or any other variable, which is used as the independent variable.
5. Transfer function is the property and unique equation of the system and its value depends on
the value of parameters of the system and is independent of the input.
4.1.4. DISADVANTAGES OF TRANSFER FUNCTION:
However, transfer function suffers from the following disadvantages.
1. It can be applied only to linear and time invariant systems.
2. We get no information from transfer function regarding the physical structure of the system.
3. Initial conditions do affect the system performance but these are neglected while determining
transfer function and hence, loose their importance.
4.2. BLOCK DIAGRAMS:
A block diagram of a control system is a simplified pictorial representation of various system
components alternatively called system elements. The block diagram is drawn to establish a
mathematical relationship between the input, error and output. A general block diagram consists of the
individual blocks that represent the transfer function of the individual elements.

Let the input output behaviour of a linear system or an element be given by its transfer
C ( s)
function G ( s )  ,
R(s)
Where, R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input variable.
C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output variable.
This can be represented as a block diagram as shown in fig 4.1.

R(s) G(s) C(s)

Input Output
Fig. 4.1.
From the above block diagram, it can be observed that, C(s) = R(s)G(s).
A typical block diagram consists of one or more summing junctions, forward and feedback paths,
take off points. In a block diagram representation three ingredients are commonly present. They are ,
1. Functional Block: This is a symbol that represents the transfer function between the input
R(s) to an element and the output C(s) of the element. The block contains a transfer function.
In figure 4.2 (a).
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2. Summing Point : This has a symbol as shown in fig.4.1(b), the output of summing point is
the algebraic sum of the signals entering to it. Next to each input signal is a plus or minus symbol
indicating the sign associated with the variable. The output of the given summing point is E(s) = R(s) –
C(s). In figure 4.2 (b).
3. Take off Point: A take off point on a branch is a physical point in the system where the
desired signal is tapped off to utilize elsewhere. In figure 4.2 (c).

+
R(s) G(s) C(s) R(s) E(s) C(s) C(s)
--
C(s)
C(s)

Fig. 4.2(a) Fig. 4.2(b) Fig. 4.2(c)

4.2.1. HOW TO DRAW THE BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Consider a simple R-L circuit shown in fig.4.3

Vi L Vo
i

Fig. 4.3
Apply KVL,
di
Vi  Ri  L …………………………………………………………………………. (4.1)
dt
di
V0  L …………………………………………………………………………. (4.2)
dt
Laplace transform of equations (4.1) & (4.2) with initial condition zero
Vi ( s )  I ( s ) R  SLI ( s )
Vi ( s )  I ( s )( R  SL) …………………………………………………………………... (4.3)
V0 ( s )  SLI ( s ) ……………………………………….................................................... (4.4)

V0 ( s ) sL
From equations (4.3) & (4.4),  ………………………………………………….. (4.5)
Vi ( s ) R  sL
Vi  V0
From fig 4.3 i  ……………………………………………………………………………. (4.6)
R
di
V0  L ………………………………………………………..……………………. (4.7)
dt
Laplace transform of equations (4.6) & (4.7)
1
I ( s )  [Vi ( s )  V0 ( s )] ………………………………………………………………. (4.8)
R
V0 ( s )  sLI ( s ) ……………………………………………………………………..… (4.9)
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For right hand side of equation (4.8) we use a summing point
Vi(s) Vi(s) – Vo(s) Vi(s) – Vo(s) 1/R I(s)
+ Vi(s) +
- -

Vo(s) Vo(s)

Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5

The output of the summing point is given to block and output of the block is I(s) as per equation (4.8)
Form equation (4.9) the output of block I(s) is given to another block containing the element sL & the
output of the second block is V0

sL Vi(s) 1/R sL
I(s) V0 + V0(s)
-

Fig.4.6 Fig 4.7

Combining the fig 4.5 & 4.6 we get required block diagram.
4.2.2. MULTIPLE INPUT & MULTIPLE OUTPUT (MIMO) SYSTEMS:
Multiple input and multiple output systems mean that the system consists of a number of inputs
and outputs. When multiple inputs are present in a linear system, then each input can be treated
independently of the others. Finally, the complete output of the system is obtained by superposition
theorem. In other words, the outputs corresponding to each input are added together to obtain the net
output. Consider a two input linear system shown in fig. 4.8

Figure 4.8 with two input system.

Here the two inputs are R(s) and U(s). If R(s) and U(s) are taken individually, then the two block
diagrams will be as shown in figs. 4.9 and 4.10 respectively.

Fig. 4.9 with R(s) input.

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Fig. 4.10 with U(s) input.

OR ( s)  G1 ( s )G2 ( s )
Step 1: Put U(s) = 0, for fig. 4.9; 
R ( s ) 1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s )

OU ( s ) G2 ( s )U ( s )
Step 2: Put R(s) = 0, for fig. 4.10; 
U ( s ) 1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s )
G2 ( s)
Hence, the total output will be, O(s) = OR(s) + OU(s) = [G1 ( s ) R ( s )  U ( s )]
1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s )
4.2.3. BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION:
When a number of blocks are connected, the overall transfer function can be obtained by block
diagram reduction technique. The following rules are associated with the block reduction technique.
 Rule No.1. Cascade connection of blocks:
When two or more blocks are in cascade, the resultant block is a product of the individual block
transfer function. Consider the two blocks are in cascade shown in fig.4.11

R(S) G1(S) G2(S) C(S) R(S) G1(S) G2(S) C(S)

Fig 4.11 Fig 4.12

C1 ( s )
From fig.4.11,  G1 ( s ) ………………………………………………..………………… (4.10)
R(s)
C ( s)
 G2 ( s ) ………………………………………………………………..… (4.11)
C1 ( s )
C ( s) C (s) C ( s)
From equation (4.10) & (4.11), .   G1 ( s )G2 ( s )
R ( s ) C1 ( s ) R ( s )
The equivalent diagram is shown in fig 4.12.
 Rule No.2. Parallel connection of blocks:
When two or more blocks are connected in parallel as shown in fig.4.13, the resultant block is the
sum of individual block transfer function.
G1(s)
+
R(S)
G2(s) C(S) R(S) G1(s)+G2(s)+G3(s) C(S)
+

+
G3(s)

Fig. 4.13. Fig.4.14

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From fig.4.13,
C ( s )  R( s )G1 ( s )  R( s )G2 ( s )  R ( s )G3 ( s )  R ( s )[G1 ( s )  G2 ( s )  G3 ( s )]
C ( s)
 G1 ( s )  G2 ( s )  G3 ( s )
R(s)
The equivalent diagram is shown in fig.4.14.
 Rule No.3. Moving a take off point ahead or left (or in the direction opposite of signal flow)
of a block:
If a take off point is moved ahead of a block, a block with same transfer function will introduce in
the branch of a take off point, as shown in fig.4.15.
1 G(s) 2
X1(s) Y1(s)=x1(s)G(s) = X1(s) G(s) Y1(s)=x1(s)G(s)
2 1
Y1(s)
G(s) Y1(s)
Fig. 4.15(a) Fig. 4.15(b)
Moving a take off point from 2 to 1 is equal to avoiding the signal from passing through G(s). To
compensate for this change, multiply the take off signal by G(s).
Another example of moving a take off point to the left is shown in fig.4.16. In this example take off
branch has a gain H(s).
1 G(s) 2
X1(s) Y1(s)=x1(s)G(s) = X1(s) G(s) Y1(s)=x1(s)G(s)
2 1
H(s) Y1(s)H(s)
G(s)H(s) Y1(s)H(s)
Fig.4.16(a) Fig.4.16(b)
 Rule No.4. Moving a take off point after or right (or in the direction of signal flow) of a
block:
If a take off point is moved after the block, a block with the reciprocal of the transfer function is
introduced in the branch of a take off point as shown in fig.4.17 a take off point P is moved to the right
of the block G(s). The signals X 1 ( s ) and Y 1( s ) should not change in value when the take off point is
moved to the right of the block.
1 G(s) 2 2 x1(s)G(s)
X1(s) Y1(s = X1(s) G(s) Y1(s)
1

X1(s) 1/G(s) X1(s)

Fig.4.17(a) Fig.4.17(b)
Moving a take off point from 1 to 2 is equal to multiplying the signal X 1 ( s) by G(s) so, to
compensate for this change, divide the take off signal by G(s) by after moving the take off point.
Another example of take off point is shown in fig.4.18. In this example take off branch has a gain H(s).
X1(s) 2 X1(s)
1 G(s) Y1(s) G(s) X1(s)H(s) Y1(s)
=
1 2
H(s)/G(s)
X1(s)H(s)
H(s) X1(s)H(s)

Fig.4.18(a). Fig. 4.18(b).

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 Rule No.5. Moving a summing point to the right (or after) of a block:
Fig 4.19 shows a system in which the summing point is to be moved to the right of the block G(s).

1 2 X1(s)
X1(s) G(s) C(s) G(s) 2 C(s)
+ =
+
- 1 --
X2(s) G(s)
X2(s)
Fig.4.19(a).
Fig.4.19(b).

1 2 X1(s)
X1(s) G(s) C(s) G(s) 2 C(s)
+ =
+
- 1 --
G(s)H(s)
H(s) X2(s)
X2(s)
Fig.4.20(a).
Fig.4.20(b).
The output C(s) before the summing point is moved from 1 to 2
C(s) = [ X 1 ( s) - X 2 ( s) ] G(s) = X 1 ( s) G(s) - X 2 ( s) G(s) ………………………...…………… (4.12)
The output C(s) after the summing point is moved from 1 to 2
C(s) = X 1 ( s ) G(s) - Q(s) .……………………………………………………………………..... (4.13)
Equation (4.12) & (4.13) must be equal. Therefore,
Q(s) = G(s) X 2 ( s ) …………………………………………………………………………….. (4.14)
When the summing point is moved to the right of the block, then the signal X 2 ( s ) must be
multiplied by G(s) before shifting the summing point from 1 to 2.
Another example of shifting the summing point is shown in fig 4.20. In this example Q(s) has a
given of H(s).
Note: To shift the summing point to the right of the block G(s), multiply the signal entering the
summing block by G(s).
 Rule No.6. Moving a summing point to the left (or ahead) of a block:

R (s)
R (s) G(s) C(s) + G(s) C(s)
=
1 2 + --
1 2
- Q(s)
X1(s) 1/G(s)
X1(s)
Fig.4.21(a).
Fig.4.21(b).
Fig 4.21 shows a system in which the summing junction is to be moved to the left of a block G(s).
The output C(s) before the summing point is moved from 2 to 1.
C(s) = R(s)G(s) - X 1 ( s ) ………………………………....……………. (4.15)
The output C(s) after the summing point is moved from 2 to 1
C(s) = [R(s) – Q(s)]G(s) = R(s)G(s) – Q(s)G(s) .…....………………. (4.16)
 - 52 -
Comparing equation (4.15) & (4.16) we have
X ( s)
X 1 ( s ) = Q(s)G(s); Q(s) = 1 ……………………………. (4.17)
G(s)
When the summing point is moved to left of the block, then the signal X 1 ( s ) must be divided by
G(s). Another example of moving a summing point is shown in fig 4.22. In this example, Q(s) has a
gain of H(s).

R (s)
R (s) G(s) C(s) + G(s) C(s)
=
1 2 + --
1 2
- Q(s)
X1(s) 1/G(s)
H(s) X1(s)
Fig.4.22(a).
Fig.4.22(b).
Note : To shift the summing point to the left of the block G(s) divide the signal entering the
summing blocks by G(s).
 Rule No.7. Eliminating feedback loop:
The closed loop control system can be represented by the block diagram as shown is fig.4.23. The
following terminologies are used to call the blocks and signals of the system represent by the block
diagram.
E(s)
R (s) G(s) C(s)
Input +
- B(s)
H(s)

Fig.4.23
R(s) = Reference input; C(s) = Output signal. ; B(s) = Feedback signal.
E(s) = Actuating signal. G(s) = C(s)/E(s) is called forward path transfer function.
H(s) = B(s)/C(s) is called feedback transfer function.
C ( s)
G(s)H(s) is called loop gain. The overall transfer function is called closed loop transfer function.
R(s)
E ( s)
The ratio is called actuating signal ratio.
R(s)
From fig. 4.23, we can observe that
E(s) = R(s) – B(s), But B(s) = C(s)H(s)
E(s) = R(s) – C(s)H(s)
 C(s) = E(s)G(s) = [R(s) – C(s)H(s)] G(s)
C(s) = G(s)R(s) – G(s)C(s)H(s)
C(s)[1+G(s)H(s)] = G(s)R(s)
C ( s) G( s)
= …………………………………………………………… (4.18)
R(s) 1  G( s) H ( s)
 - 53 -
Note: A feed back control system whose open loop transfer function G(s) and feed back transfer
G (s)
function H(s) can be replaced by a single block with transfer function .
1  G(s) H (s)
In addition to the above rules, we have to note the following points.
(a) Any two summing points may be interchanged.
P R
R C = P C
+ + + +
+ + + +
Q C
S S Q
Fig 4.24
(b) Any summing points having more than two inputs may be bifurcated into two summing points.
Q
Q
+
+ +
R C = P C
+ +
+ +
S Fig 4.25. R
(c) Similarly any two summing points can be combined

+ R R
+ +
P C = P C
+ +
+ +
Q
Q
Fig 4.26
 Rule No.8. Eliminating a forward loop:

X G1(s) + Y =
X G1 - G2 Y
-

G2(s)
Fig 4.27
 Rule No.9. Moving a take off point beyond a summing point:
X-Z
X + X-Z = X +
- - +
X X
Z
Z + X-Z

Z
 - 54 -
Fig 4.28
 Rule No.10. Moving a take off point ahead of a summing point:
X+Y
X + X+Y = +
X
+ +-
X+Y
Y
Y + X+Y
+
Y
Fig. 4.29.

Points to be remembered while doing block diagram reduction

1. If a block diagram consists of many feedback loops, then find the innermost feedback loop.
2. If it does not contain any take off and / or summing points inside the loop, simplify the
innermost feedback loop to a single block using rule 7.
3. If it consists of any takeoff and/or summing points inside the innermost loop, then simplify
then by using rule 2 to 6. After eliminating such points, simplify the inner most loop using rule
7.
4. If any path consists of any cascaded blocks then combine them using rule 1.
5. If there is any parallel path then use rule 2 to simplify it.
6. Repeat above steps according the requirement until you left with one block with input R(s) and
output C(s).

Example 4.1: Derive the transfer function using block reduction technique.

R(s)
G1 G2 C(s)
+ + +
- - -
H1 H2

H3
Solution: There are two internal closed loops, remove these loop by using rule-7.
R(s) G1
G1 C(s)
+ 1  G1 H 1
1  G1 H 1
- H3
Two blocks are in cascade, use rule no. 1
G1G2
R(s) (1  G1H1 )(1  G2 H 2 ) C(s)
+
-
H3
 - 55 -
Again use rule-7,
G1G2
R(s) 1  G1 H1  G2 H 2  G1H 3G2  G1G2 H1H 2 C(s)

So, C ( s)

G1G2 .
R ( s) 1  G1H1  G2 H 2  G1H 3G2  G1G2 H1H 2
Example 4.2: Find the overall transfer function of the system shown in figure.
-
1 + 1 1 1 Vo(s)
Vi(s)
+ R1 sC1 R2 sC 2
+
- -

Solution : Step 1:
sC2

-
Vi(s) + Vo(s)
1 1 1 1
+ R1 sC1 + R2 sC 2
- -

Step 2:

sC2
-
Vi(s) 1 + 1 Vo(s)
1
R1 sC1
+ + sR 2 C 2
- -
Step 3:
sC2

-
Vi(s) 1 + 1 1 Vo(s)
+ R1 sC1 sR 2 C 2  1
-
Step 4:

sC2
-
1 + 1 1
Vi(s) Vo(s)
R1 sC1 sR2 C 2  1
+
-
1+ sR2C2
 - 56 -

Step 5:
sC2

-
Vi(s) + 1 Vo(s)
1 sC1  R2 C1C 2 s 2
+ R1
-
1+ sR2C2

Step 6:

Vi(s) 1 1 Vo(s)
+ R1 2
sC1  s R2C1C2  sC2
-
1+ sR2C2

Step 7:
1
Vi(s) sR1C1  sR1C 2  s 2 R1 R2 C1C 2 Vo(s)
+
-
1+ sR2C2

Step 8:
1
Vi(s) Vo(s)
1  s ( R1C1  R1C1  R2 C 2 )  sR1C 2  s 2 R1 R2 C1C 2

Vo ( s ) 1
 2 Ans.
Vi ( s ) s R1 R2 C1C 2  ( R1C1  R2 C 2  R1C 2 ) s  1

Example 4.3 : Find the overall transfer function of the system shown in figure.
 - 57 -

H2

-
R(s) G1 + G2 G3 C(s)
+ +
- -
H1

Solution:
Step 1: Shift the take off point beyond block G3:
H2/G3

-
R(s) G1 + G2 G3 C(s)
+ +
- -
H1

Step 2:
H2/G3

-
R(s) G1 + G2 G3 C(s)
+ 1  G3 H 1
-
Step 3:
H2/G3

-
R(s) G1 + G 2 G3 C(s)
+ 1  G3 H 1
-

Step 4:

R(s) G1 G 2 G3 C(s)
+ 1  G3 H 1  G 2 H 2
-

Step 5:
 - 58 -

R(s) G1G 2 G3 C(s)

+ 1  G3 H 1  G 2 H 2
-

Step 6:
R(s) G1G 2 G3 C(s)
1  G1 H 1  G 2 H 2  G1G 2 G3

C ( s) G1G2 G3
 Ans.
R ( s ) 1  G1 H 1  G2 H 2  G1G2 G3
Example 4.4 : Find the overall transfer function of the system shown in figure.

G4

+
R(s) G1 G2 + G3 C(s)
+ +
- - -
H1 H2

Solution:
G4

+
R(s) G1 G2 + G3 C(s)
+ +
- - -
H1 H2

Step 1: Move the take off point left of block G2 and split the three inputs summing points into two
summing points.
G4

+
R(s) G1 G2 + G3 C(s)
+ + +
- - -
G2H1 H2
 - 59 -

Step 2:
R(s) G1 G3 C(s)
1  G1G2 H1 G2+G4 1  G3 H 1
+
-

Step 3:
R(s) G1G3 (G2  G4 ) C(s)
(1  G1G2 H1 )(1  G3 H 2 )
+
-

Step 4:
G1G3(G2 G4) C(s)
R(s) (1G1G2H1)(1G3H2) G1G3(G2 G4)

C ( s) G1G2 G3  G1G3 G4
 Ans.
R ( s ) 1  G1G2 H 1  G3 H 2  G1G2 G3 H 1 H 2  G1G2 G3  G1G3G4

4.3. SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH (SFG):

A signal flow graph is a graphical representation of a control system, in which the system
variables are represented as nodes, and the relationship between the variables are indicated by directed
branches joining the corresponding nodes. Each branch is labeled with appropriate transfer function.
This is an alternative approach to that of block diagram reduction.
The advantage of signal flow graph over the block diagram is that the system transfer functions
are obtained without the necessity of manipulating the signal flow graph.
4.3.1. SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH (SFG) FROM BLOCK DIAGRAM :
Consider the block diagram representation of a system as shown in fig 4.30. Its equivalent signal
flow graph representation is shown in fig 4.31.
X2 X3 X4 X5
X1 G1 G2 G3 G4
+ +
+ +

H1
H2
Fig 4.30 Block diagram of a system.
H1

G1 X2 G2 X3 G3 G4 X5
X1
X4
H2

Fig.4.31 Equivalent signal flow graph.

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To draw the signal flow graph from the block diagram, input and output signals has to be named
as nodes (here x1 and x5 ). Name the summing points are one node (here x 2 ). Name the take off point as
another node (here x3 ). If there is no block between summing points and take off point. Name it as signal
node (here x 4 ). The blocks G1 , G2 , G3 and G4 are branches connecting the nodes from x1 through x5 . H 2
is a feed back branch connecting x3 and x 2 . H 1 is a special branch called self loop connecting x 4 itself.

4.3.2. SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH (SFG) TERMINOLOGY :

The different signal flow graph terms are explained below.

1. Node: It is a system variable which is equal to the sum of all incoming signals at the node. Out going
signals from the node affect the value of the node variable. For example x1 , x 2 , x3 , x 4 and x5 are nodes.
The value of the variable (node) x 2 is given by
x 2 = G1 x1 + H 2 x3
Similarly the value of x 4 is,
x 4 = x 3 G3 + H 1 x 4
In these two cases the nodes are acting as summing point. The variable x5 can be expressed as,
x 5 = x 4 G4
That is the node variable is transmitted through the branch G4 from the node x 4 . In this case the node
acts as a transmitting point. Here the signal is amplified G4 times.
2. Branch: A branch is a directed line between nodes. The branch gain is known as transmittance.
3. Transmittance: Transmittance is gain between nodes. Such gains are expressed in terms of transfer
functions.
4. Input node / Source node: It is a node which has only outgoing branches. For example the node x1
in fig 4.31 is a source node.
5. Output node / Sink node: It is a node which has only incoming branches. For example, the node x5
in fig. 4.31 has incoming branch only. Hence it is called a sink node.
6. Chain node / Mixed node: It is a node which has both incoming and outgoing branches. In fig. 4.31
x 2 , x3 and x 4 have both incoming and outgoing signals. Hence they are called chain nodes.
7. Path: A set of successively connected branches (or one node to another node) through which signal
flows in the same direction is called a path.
8. Forward Path: It is a path from the input node to the output node. In fig.4.31 the path,
x1  x2  x3  x 4  x5 is a forward path.
9. Feed back path or closed loop: This is a loop which starts from a particular node and ends at the
same node. For example x 2  x3  x 2 form a closed path and is called closed loop.
10. Self loop: It also starts from a node and ends at the same node, having only one branch. For
example: x 4  x 4 is a self loop shown in fig.4.31.
11. Non-touching loop: Two loops are non-touching if they do not have any node in common (loops
x2  x3  x 2 and x 4  x 4 do not have any node in common, hence they are non-touching loops.).
12. Path gain: It is the product of all branch gains in a path. For example, the path gain of the path
x1  x 2  x3  x 4  x5 is G1 G2 G3 G4 .
13. Loop gain: It is the product of branch gains in a closed loop. For example, loop gains of the loop
x 2  x3  x 2 is G2 H 2 .
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4.3.3. CONSTRUCTION OF SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH (SFG) :
Signal Flow Graphs from Linear Equations:
Let us consider a system described by a set of linear equations.
x 2  a12 x1  a 32 x3  a 42 x 4
x3  a 23 x 2
x 4  a 24 x 2  a 34 x3  a 44 x 4
x5  a 25 x 2  a 45 x 4
Where, x1 is the input variable and x5 is the output variable. When constructing signal flow
graph, the nodes are used to represent variables. Therefore locate the nodes x1 , x2 , x3 , x 4 and x5 as
shown in fig 4.32.
0 0 0 0 0
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
Fig.4.32.

The first equation states that x 2 is equal to the sum of three incoming signals and the corresponding
signal flow graph is shown in fig.4.33.
a42
a12
x1 x 2 a32 x3 x4 x5

Fig.4.33.

Similarly the signal flow graphs for the remaining three equations are shown in fig 4.34.
a23

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
(a)
a44

X1 X2 X3 X4 X5

a24

(b)
a45

X1 X2 X3 X4 X5
a25

(c)
Fig 4.34.
The complete signal flow graph is shown in fig 4.35.

a42
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a44
a12 a45
a23
X1 X2 a32 X3 X4 X5

a24
a25
Fig.435. signal flow graph of linear equations.
4.3.3.1. PROCEDURE TO DRAW SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH (SFG) FROM BLOCK
DIAGRAM
Steps to draw signal flow graph from block diagram are
1. Replace the input signal and output signal by nodes.
2. Replace all the summing points by nodes.
3. Replace all the take off points by nodes.
4. If the branch connecting a summing point and take off point has unity gain, then the
summing point and take off point can be combined and represented by a signal node as
shown in fig.4.36.
1
G2 1
G2 ≡
+
-1
-- H1
H1

Fig.4.36 (a) Fig.4.36 (b)

5. If there are more take off points from the same signal then all take off points can be
combined and represented by a signal node as shown in fig.437and 438
2 G2 2
G2 ≡
H2
H2 H3

H3

Fig. 4.37(a) Fig. 4.37(b)

3 G2 3
G2 ≡
H2
H2 H3

H3

Fig.4.38 (a) Fig.4.38 (b)

6. If the gain of the link connecting two summing points is one, then the two summing points
can be combined and can be replaced by a signal node as shown in fig.4.39
4
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G1 4 G1
R ≡ R
+ + -H1
-- --
H1
-1

Fig. 4.39(a) Fig. 4.39(b)

7. If a summing point subtracts a signal instead of adding then multiply the transmittance by
-1 while representing in signal flow graph as shown in fig.4.39.
Example : 4.5: Draw the signal flow graph for the block diagram shown in fig.440
G4

+
R(s) --
G2 G3 C(s)
G1
+ + +
-- -- --

H1
H2

Fig.4.40.
Solution: Mark the nodes 1 and 6 by using rule1. Similarly mark node 2 by using rule 6, mark node 3 by
using rule 4, mark node 4 by using rule 3 and mark node 5 by using rules 2 & 4. Now mark the branch
gains equal to the respective blocks. Fig 4.41 shows the marking of nodes. The complete signal flow
graph is shown in fig 4.42.
G4
Node-2 +
Node-3
R(s) Node-4 +
G2 G3 C(s)
G1
+ + + Node-6
-- -- -- Node-5
Node-1

H1
H2

Fig.4.41.

Fig.4.42
4.3.4. MASON’S GAIN FORMULA:
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Mason’s gain formula is used for the determination of over all transfer function (gain) of a
system. It is a convenient and easy way of finding the relation between the input and output variables
from the signal flow graph. The number of steps involved in block diagram reduction is high and it is a
time consuming procedure. On the other hand, any complex block diagram can be converted into signal
flow graph and the transfer function can be easily obtained using Mason’s gain formula.
Mason’s gain formula is given by
 p k ( s) k ( s)
T(s) =
( s )
Where, k = Number of forward paths.
p k (s ) = gain of the k th forward path.
(s ) = Determinant of the graph.
= 1 – (sum of individual loop gains) + (sum of gain product of all combinations of two
non touching loops) – (sum of gain products of all combinations of three non
touching loops) + ………….
 k (s ) = the value of (s ) for that part of the graph not touching the k th forward path.
C
Example: 4.6: Find out of the following signal flow graph fig.4.43 using Mason’s gain formula.
R

Fig.4.43

Solution: The number of forward paths are 2.

Forward path 1 is shown in fig.4.44.

Figure 4.44.
Path gain P1 = G1 G2 G4 G5.
Forward path 2 is shown in fig. 4.45.

Fig. 4.45.
Path gain P2 = G1 G2 G3.
Loops:
The number of single loops are six and they are shown in fig. 4.46(a to e)
Loop 1:
 - 65 -

Loop gain L1 = - H2G4G5. (a)

Loop 2:

Loop gain L2 = - G2G4G5H1 (b)

Loop 3:

Loop gain L3 = - G1G2G4G5 (c)

Loop 4:

Loop gain L4 = - G1G2G3 (d)

Loop 5:

Loop gain L5 = - G2G3H1 (e)

Loop 6:

Loop gain L6 = - G3H2 (f)

The number of two and above non-touching loops zero.

Mason’s gain formula
 - 66 -
1
T (s) 
(s)
 PK (s) K ( s)
( s )  1  (G4 G5 H 2  G2 G4 G5 H 1  G1G2 G4 G5  G1G2 G3  G2 G3 H 1  G3 H 2 )  0
 1  G4 G5 H 2  G2 G4 G5 H 1  G1G2 G4 G5  G1G2 G3  G2 G3 H 1  G3 H 2
 K ( s )  ( s) for the part of the graph which is not touching kth forward path.
 1 ( s )  1  0  1,  2 ( s )  1  0  1,
P ( s ) 1 ( s )  P2 ( s ) 2 ( s )
 T ( s)  1
( s )
G1G2 G4 G5  G1G2 G3
 . Ans.
1  G4 G5 H 2  G2 G4 G5 H 1  G1G2 G4 G5  G1G2 G3  G2 G3 H 1  G3 H 2

Exercise – 4
Using block diagram reduction and signal flow diagram techniques, find out the transfer function
of the following systems given below,
1.

2.

3.

4.
 - 67 -

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.
 - 68 -

10. Find out the transfer function from signal flow diagram.

Solution: The gain of the forward paths:

g1  G2G4G6
g 2  G3G5G7
g3  G2G1G7
g 4  G3G8G6
g5  G2G1H 2G8G6
g 6  G3G8 H1G7
Individual Loops gain:
L1  G4 H1
L2  G5 H 2
L3  H1G1 H 2G8
Two non-touching loops gain: L1L2  G4 H1G5 H 2
1  1  G5 H 2 ;  2  1  G4 H1 ; 3  1 ;  4  1 ;  4  1 ; 5  1 and  6  1 .
  1  G4 H1  G5 H 2  H1G1 H 2G8  G4 H1G5 H 2
So, the transfer function,
C g11  g 2  2  g3 3  g 4  4  g5  5  g 6  6

R 

G2G4G6 (1  G5 H 2 )  G3G5G7 (1  G4 H1 )  G1G2G7  G3G8G6  G2G1H 2G8G6  G3G8 H1G1G7

 Ans.
1  G4 H1  G5 H 2  H1G1 H 2G8  G4 H1G5 H 2
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