are the critical limits for flare design as outlined in API 521, focusing on safety, environmental

compliance, and operational integrity:

1. Thermal Radiation Limits

 Occupied Areas: Maximum allowable thermal radiation exposure is 1.58 kW/m² (500
BTU/hr·ft²) to ensure safe conditions for personnel.
 Unoccupied Areas: Thermal radiation can be higher, up to 4.73 kW/m² (1500
BTU/hr·ft²), provided no personnel are present.
 Emergency Exposure: Short-term exposure for escape scenarios is limited to 6.31
kW/m² (2000 BTU/hr·ft²) to prevent severe burns.

2. Flare Tip Exit Velocity

 To ensure proper combustion, exit velocity is limited to:

o 20 m/s (65 ft/s) for non-smokeless flares.
o Higher velocities (up to 120 m/s or 400 ft/s) may be allowed for smokeless flares,
depending on design and auxiliary systems like steam or air assist.

3. Stack Height and Dispersion

 Flare stack height must ensure safe dispersion of gases to prevent hazardous ground-level
concentrations.
 Lower Flammable Limit (LFL): Concentrations at ground level must be less than 50%
of the LFL in worst-case scenarios.
 Toxic gas concentrations must comply with local environmental regulations (e.g., H2S
limits).

4. Noise Levels

 Noise at the base of the flare stack should not exceed 85 dB(A) to protect personnel
working near the flare.

5. Pressure Drop
  Maximum allowable pressure drop through the flare system (including piping, knockout
drum, and tip) is typically limited to 3–5% of upstream design pressure to avoid
excessive backpressure on relief valves.

6. Purge Gas Rate

 A continuous purge gas flow is required to prevent air ingress and formation of explosive
mixtures. The minimum rate is calculated based on flare diameter, typically ensuring a
linear velocity of at least 0.03 m/s (0.1 ft/s).

7. Smokeless Combustion

 For smokeless flares, auxiliary systems (e.g., steam or air assist) must maintain
combustion efficiency and comply with visible emissions limits (< 20% opacity).

8. Thermal Stress and Materials

 Materials must withstand temperatures up to 982°C (1800°F) during continuous

operation and transient events like emergency blowdowns.

9. Liquid Carryover

 Knockout drums must limit liquid carryover to no more than 0.1% of the flare gas flow
to avoid damage and instability at the flare tip.

10. Backpressure Limits

 Relief devices feeding the flare system should not experience backpressure exceeding
10% of set pressure (for conventional relief valves) or 30% of set pressure (for pilot-
operated valves).

Here are the critical limits for Pressure Safety Valve (PSV) design as per API 520/521, which
are widely followed for process safety:
1. Set Pressure

 Conventional PSVs: The set pressure should be equal to or less than the maximum
allowable working pressure (MAWP) of the protected system.
 Pilot-Operated PSVs: May allow a slightly higher set pressure, depending on the
application.

2. Accumulation Limits

 Non-Fire Case (Single Device): The pressure is allowed to rise up to 10% above the
MAWP during a relief event.
 Non-Fire Case (Multiple Devices): Accumulation must be limited to 16% of the
MAWP.
 Fire Case: Accumulation can rise up to 21% above the MAWP during fire exposure
scenarios.

3. Blowdown (Relieving Pressure to Reseating)

 Blowdown is typically 2-7% of the set pressure to ensure proper reseating of the valve
without repeated cycling.

4. Overpressure Limits

 PSVs must relieve sufficient flow to prevent system pressure from exceeding the
specified accumulation limits.

5. Backpressure Tolerance

 Conventional PSVs: Maximum backpressure should not exceed 10% of the set
pressure to avoid performance degradation.
 Balanced Bellows PSVs: Can tolerate higher backpressure (up to 40% or more,
depending on the valve design).
 Pilot-Operated PSVs: Can handle variable or higher backpressure if properly designed.

6. Sizing for Capacity

  PSVs must be sized to handle the worst-case relief scenario, ensuring the valve provides
the required flow rate at relieving conditions.
 Relief capacity is determined based on scenarios like blocked outlet, fire exposure, or
thermal expansion.

7. Maximum Temperature

 The PSV materials must withstand the highest operating or relief temperature,
especially in fire or thermal expansion scenarios.

8. Inlet Pressure Drop

 The pressure drop in the inlet piping to the PSV should not exceed 3% of the set
pressure, to prevent chattering and ensure stable valve performance.

9. Outlet Piping Pressure Drop

 Pressure drop in the outlet piping, including any flare or header system, should not
exceed 10% of the set pressure. Excessive backpressure can impair valve operation.

10. Reseating Pressure

 PSVs must reseat securely after the pressure falls below 90-95% of the set pressure,
avoiding leakage and repeated opening.

11. Materials of Construction

 Materials must be compatible with the process fluid and operating conditions, including
corrosion resistance, to maintain valve integrity.

12. Spring-Loaded PSVs Operating Range

 PSVs are generally designed to operate effectively within 90-110% of the set pressure,
beyond which performance may degrade.
The critical design limits for aviation turbine fuel (ATF) storage tanks, based on relevant
API standards (e.g., API 650, API 2000, and API 2610), are crucial for ensuring safety,
operational efficiency, and compliance. Below are the key design parameters:

1. Tank Design Pressure and Vacuum Limits

 Storage tanks are typically designed as atmospheric tanks with a pressure range of +18
kPa (2.5 psig) to -3.5 kPa (0.5 psig), unless specifically designed for higher pressures.
 Vacuum relief must be adequate to prevent collapse during product withdrawal or
temperature drops.

2. Materials of Construction

 Materials must be compatible with aviation turbine fuel (Jet-A, Jet-A1, etc.), typically
requiring low-carbon steel or corrosion-resistant alloys as per API 650.
 Welds and internal surfaces may require treatment or coatings to prevent contamination
of the fuel.

3. Design Temperature Limits

 Tanks should be designed for expected ambient and fuel storage temperatures, typically
between -40°C (-40°F) to 60°C (140°F), depending on regional climate conditions.
 Thermal insulation may be required in extreme climates.

4. Water and Sediment Drainage

 Tanks must include a bottom slope (minimum 1:100) or equivalent drainage system for
effective removal of water and sediment to prevent microbial contamination and maintain
fuel quality.

5. Roof Design

 Cone-roof or dome-roof tanks are commonly used for aviation fuel to minimize vapor
space and reduce the risk of contamination or vapor losses.
 Floating roofs are generally avoided due to potential contamination risks for aviation
fuels.
6. Venting and Breathing Capacity

 Venting systems must comply with API 2000, designed to handle thermal expansion and
contraction, as well as filling and withdrawal rates without overpressurizing the tank.
 Emergency vents should accommodate vapor release during fire exposure or high flow
rates.

7. Contamination Control

 Tanks must include provisions for cleaning, such as manways and inspection hatches.
 Internal coatings or linings may be required to prevent rust and particulate contamination.

8. Lightning Protection and Grounding

 Tanks storing aviation turbine fuel must comply with NFPA 780 or equivalent standards
for lightning protection and grounding to prevent static discharge.

9. Fire Protection

 Tanks must be located with adequate spacing as per API 2610 or NFPA 30, considering
fire exposure and spill containment.
 Fire suppression systems (foam pourers or sprinklers) may be required for larger tanks.

10. Tank Sizing and Capacity Limits

 Tank capacity should allow for 95% fill to prevent overfilling.

 Freeboard (headspace) must accommodate thermal expansion of the stored fuel.

11. Secondary Containment

 Tanks must include a diked area or containment wall capable of holding at least 110%
of the tank volume to prevent environmental spills.
12. Internal Floating Suction

 Tanks must be equipped with an internal floating suction line to draw fuel from the
middle or upper portion of the tank, avoiding water and sediment accumulation at the
bottom.

13. Tank Settlement and Foundation

 Tanks must be built on a stable foundation with proper settlement allowances to prevent
structural damage or uneven drainage.

14. Vapor Control and Recovery

 Tanks must include provisions for vapor loss control (e.g., pressure/vacuum valves) to
minimize emissions and prevent contamination.

15. Inspection and Maintenance

 Tanks must meet periodic inspection requirements as per API 653 to assess corrosion,
structural integrity, and contamination risks.

These limits and design criteria ensure safe storage, maintain fuel quality, and comply with
industry standards. Would you like help preparing detailed explanations or calculations for an
interview?

. Fire Water Pump Selection

 Types of Pumps:
o Centrifugal pumps (horizontal split-case, vertical turbine, end suction, or inline)
are commonly used.
o Vertical turbine pumps are recommended when the water source is below pump
level.
 Capacity:
 o Must meet the maximum expected fire flow demand, with a minimum flow of 500
GPM (gallons per minute), as per NFPA 20.
 Pressure Requirements:
o Fire pumps should deliver not less than 140% of the rated capacity at 65% of
rated head and maintain a minimum pressure of 100 psi at the highest outlet.

2. Water Supply Requirements

 Adequate and Reliable Water Source:

o The system must have a dependable water supply capable of maintaining the
required flow rate for the duration of the fire event (e.g., tank, reservoir, or
municipal supply).
 Duration:
o NFPA 20 and NFPA 13 specify water supply duration, typically 2 hours for
high-hazard areas and 1 hour for moderate hazards.

3. Driver Requirements

 Electric Motor or Diesel Engine Drivers:

o Diesel engines must have sufficient fuel for at least 8 hours of continuous
operation.
 Backup Power Supply:
o For electric-driven pumps, a backup generator or secondary power source is
recommended to ensure reliability during emergencies.

4. Fire Water Pump Room Design

 Pump Room Protection:

o The fire pump room must be protected with adequate ventilation, temperature
control (min. 4°C (40°F)), and fire-resistant construction.
 Accessibility:
o Must ensure easy access for operation and maintenance.

5. Jockey Pump Requirements

 A jockey pump must be installed to maintain system pressure and prevent the fire pump
from short cycling.
  Jockey pumps should have a capacity of 10 GPM or less with pressure slightly higher
than the fire pump cut-in pressure.

6. Fire Pump Testing and Performance

 Hydrostatic Testing:
o Fire pumps must be hydrostatically tested at 1.5 times the maximum operating
pressure for structural integrity.
 Performance Testing:
o Pumps must demonstrate their ability to deliver flow and pressure at 0%, 100%,
and 150% of rated capacity during commissioning.

7. System Pressure Requirements

 Design Pressure:
o Must meet the highest demand pressure at the most remote sprinkler or hydrant,
accounting for losses in piping and fittings.
 Pressure Relief Valve:
o Installed to prevent over-pressurization in the pump discharge line.

8. Fire Water Distribution System

 Pipe Sizing and Layout:

o Pipes must be sized to deliver the required flow rate without exceeding acceptable
friction losses.
 Hydrant Placement:
o Hydrants should be located within 50 meters (165 feet) of protected structures,
as per NFPA 14.

9. Automatic Start and Manual Stop

 Fire pumps must start automatically upon system pressure drop but require manual
intervention to stop, ensuring continuous operation during a fire.

10. Suction and Discharge Requirements

  Suction Design:
o Suction piping must be sized to avoid cavitation, maintaining a velocity of less
than 15 ft/s.
 Discharge Design:
o Include a check valve, pressure gauge, flow meter, and isolation valve for
monitoring and control.

11. Fire Water Tank Requirements (if used)

 Capacity:
o Tanks must provide adequate water for the entire firefighting duration (e.g., 2
hours for high-risk areas).
 Fill Rate:
o Must refill within 8 hours to maintain readiness for subsequent events.
 Fire Water Tank Protection:
o Tanks must be protected against freezing and contamination.

12. Maintenance and Testing

 Weekly Run Tests:

o Fire pumps should be tested weekly to ensure reliability, with both diesel and
electric systems tested under load at least annually (as per NFPA 25).
 Inspection Frequency:
o Conduct regular inspections of valves, piping, and water supply to ensure system
integrity.

By adhering to these design criteria, fire water pumps and systems ensure effective firefighting
capabilities while meeting NFPA standards for safety and reliability. Would you like help
tailoring these criteria to a specific scenario or system design?

The standard flow rate from a fire hydrant in refinery and petrochemical facilities is guided
by NFPA 24 (Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains) and NFPA 15
(Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems). The flow requirements are influenced by the risk
profile, fire hazards, and local regulations. Below are the typical guidelines:

1. Flow Rate for Fire Hydrants

 Standard Flow Rate:

o Each fire hydrant in a refinery or petrochemical facility should provide a
minimum flow of 1,000 GPM (gallons per minute) at a residual pressure of 100
psi (7 bar).
 High-Hazard Areas:
o For high-hazard areas (e.g., tank farms, process units, or flammable liquid
storage), hydrants may be required to deliver flows up to 1,500–2,000 GPM,
depending on the scenario and firewater system design.

2. Number of Simultaneous Hydrants

 The fire water system must be designed to supply two or more hydrants operating
simultaneously at their rated flow, ensuring adequate coverage of the hazard area.

3. Hose Connections

 Hydrants typically have two 2½-inch outlets and one 4½-inch pumper outlet, with
flows adjusted to meet system demand.

4. Hydrant Spacing

 NFPA 24 recommends hydrants be spaced not more than 300 feet (91 meters) apart for
refinery and petrochemical facilities to ensure quick access to firefighting water.

5. Fire Water System Duration

 Fire water supplies (including hydrants) must provide the required flow for a minimum
duration of:
o 2 hours for high-hazard facilities (as per NFPA 15 and NFPA 30).
6. Residual Pressure

 Hydrants must maintain a minimum residual pressure of 100 psi during flow to ensure
effective firefighting.

7. Supporting Fire Water Pumps

 Fire water pumps feeding the hydrant system must meet the total flow demand, including
simultaneous hydrants and other firewater needs (e.g., sprinklers or deluge systems).

Summary of Key Numbers for Refineries/Petrochemicals:

Parameter Standard Value

Minimum flow per hydrant 1,000–2,000 GPM
Residual pressure 100 psi (7 bar)
Hydrant spacing ≤ 300 feet (91 meters)
Fire water duration 2 hours (high-hazard areas)
Simultaneous hydrants At least 2 hydrants in operation

These requirements ensure hydrants provide adequate flow and pressure for firefighting teams in
high-risk refinery and petrochemical environments. Would you like to explore related design
calculations or equipment recommendations?

As a Process Head in a chemical project, your role is crucial for ensuring that the project is
executed efficiently, safely, and within budget. Here are the key priorities you should focus on:

1. Process Design and Development

 Ensure Technical Integrity: Oversee the development of process flow diagrams (PFDs),
P&IDs, and mass/energy balances to guarantee that the plant design is robust and meets
the process requirements.
 Optimize the Design: Collaborate with engineering teams to ensure the process design is
efficient, safe, and scalable, while meeting environmental and sustainability goals.
 Technology Selection: Evaluate and recommend appropriate technologies, including
licensing and custom solutions, to achieve project goals.

2. Safety and Environmental Compliance

  Safety Systems Design: Ensure that all safety requirements, including relief systems,
shutdown systems, and safety instrumented systems (SIS), are incorporated into the
design.
 HAZOP Studies: Lead or oversee HAZOP studies to identify potential hazards and
operability issues in the process design, recommending mitigating actions.
 Environmental Impact: Ensure compliance with environmental regulations (e.g.,
emissions, waste management) by evaluating environmental impact assessments (EIAs)
and incorporating them into the design.

3. Coordination and Communication

 Cross-Disciplinary Coordination: Facilitate effective communication between process,

mechanical, electrical, and civil teams to ensure the project progresses smoothly and on
schedule.
 Stakeholder Engagement: Regularly communicate with senior management,
contractors, and clients to update on progress, challenges, and milestones.
 Manage External Vendors: Collaborate with vendors and licensors to ensure timely
procurement of equipment and materials.

4. Cost Control and Budget Management

 Budget Oversight: Work closely with the project management team to monitor CAPEX
and OPEX, ensuring that the project stays within budget and any variances are addressed.
 Cost Optimization: Identify and implement cost-saving measures without compromising
quality or safety.
 Schedule Management: Oversee timelines for the project, ensuring that critical
milestones are achieved, and any delays are proactively managed.

5. Process Safety Management (PSM)

 Ensure Compliance: Ensure all PSM regulations and best practices are followed
throughout the project lifecycle.
 Documentation and Training: Ensure that safety manuals, operating procedures, and
training programs are developed for safe plant operation.
 Risk Mitigation: Identify high-risk areas in the process design, including pressure relief
systems, hazardous chemicals, and emergency scenarios, and ensure mitigation plans are
in place.

6. Quality Assurance and Control

 Design Review: Lead and participate in design reviews, ensuring that the process design
meets both internal and external quality standards.
 Vendor Quality Control: Ensure that the equipment and materials sourced from vendors
meet design specifications and industry standards.
 Commissioning and Testing: Oversee the testing and commissioning phase to verify
that the process systems are functioning as expected.
7. Regulatory and Compliance Requirements

 Ensure Legal Compliance: Ensure the project complies with local, regional, and
international codes and regulations (e.g., API, ASME, NFPA).
 Obtain Permits: Ensure that all necessary permits (e.g., environmental, construction) are
obtained before construction begins.

8. Innovation and Technology Improvement

 Process Optimization: Continuously look for opportunities to improve process

efficiency and reduce energy consumption.
 Incorporate New Technologies: Stay updated on new developments in process
technology and automation to improve the plant’s performance and profitability.

9. Risk Management

 Identify Potential Risks: Regularly assess and mitigate risks related to technology,
design, safety, and external factors.
 Contingency Planning: Develop and maintain contingency plans for major risk
scenarios, such as equipment failure or process upsets.

10. Team Leadership and Development

 Team Management: Provide direction, mentoring, and leadership to the process

engineering team, fostering a collaborative and innovative work environment.
 Training and Development: Ensure that team members are properly trained, particularly
on process safety and new technologies.

By focusing on these priorities, you'll help ensure that the chemical project proceeds smoothly,
remains within scope and budget, and meets all safety, quality, and regulatory requirements.
Would you like more insights on any specific area of this responsibility