Theoretical study

1) What is the principle of PV Cell

A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic (PV) cell, is a device made from semiconductor
materials like silicon, gallium arsenide, and cadmium telluride, which converts sunlight
directly into electricity. When sunlight strikes the surface of the cell, it creates free electrons
and holes at the positive and negative junctions of the material. These junctions, when
connected to direct current (DC) electrical equipment, allow current to flow, powering the
equipment. This process relies on the photovoltaic effect, where photons from sunlight
energize electrons within the semiconductor, causing them to move and generate an electric
current, forming the foundation of solar power generation.

Figure 1: Working Principle of A PV CELL

2) What are the different types of PV cell? What is the best technology, why?
Photovoltaic (PV) cells come in various types, with crystalline silicon PV modules being the
most common, classified into monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon. Monocrystalline
silicon modules generally offer higher conversion efficiency (15%-24%) compared to
polycrystalline ones (13%-16%). Amorphous silicon (a-Si) PV modules, also known as thin-
film silicon modules, absorb light more effectively than crystalline silicon, allowing them to
be manufactured thinner. These modules are ideal for applications where high efficiency is
less critical and cost-effectiveness is prioritized, offering efficiencies around 6%. Hybrid
silicon PV modules, combining single crystalline silicon with thin layers of amorphous
silicon, enhance sensitivity to low or indirect light and achieve higher conversion efficiency,
around 17%. The best PV technology depends on specific needs, including efficiency,
available space, and budget constraints. However, monocrystalline silicon PV cells are often
considered the best due to their higher efficiency (18%-22%), durability, and long lifespan
(25+ years). They convert more sunlight into electricity, making them ideal for space-limited
applications. While more expensive, their superior performance and longevity make them the
top choice for residential and commercial solar installations.

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 Single Crystalline Silicon Polycrystalline Silicon Amorphous Silicon
PV Module PV Module PV Module

Figure 2: Type of PV CELL

3)
a) What are the factors that may vary the Short circuit current? Explain.

The short circuit current in photovoltaic system is influenced by several factors. Changes in
sunlight intensity directly affect the amount of light reaching the panels, impacting the
current. Higher temperatures can reduce the efficiency of the solar cells, leading to alterations
in the current. Shading, caused by shadows or obstructions, blocks sunlight and results in
current fluctuations. The angle at which sunlight strikes the panels also affects energy
conversion, influencing the current. Additionally, system faults, such as damaged components
or faulty connections, can cause variations in the short circuit current.

b) What are the factors that may vary the Open circuit voltage? Explain.

Several factors can impact the open circuit voltage in photovoltaic systems. Sunlight intensity
plays a direct role, as higher intensity generally leads to higher voltage output. Temperature
also affects the voltage, with higher temperatures typically causing a decrease in open circuit
voltage. Shading or obstructions on the solar panels can reduce sunlight exposure, leading to
fluctuations in voltage. Additionally, the materials used in solar cell fabrication influence the
open circuit voltage, as different materials exhibit distinct voltage characteristics.

c) Conclude the dimensioning factors of a PV cell.

The key dimensioning factors of a photovoltaic (PV) cell include solar irradiance, which
determines the amount of sunlight received per unit area and directly impacts power output.
Temperature also plays a significant role, as higher temperatures generally reduce cell
efficiency. The type of cell material, such as silicon, influences its efficiency and electrical
properties. The orientation and tilt of the panel relative to the sun affect its energy capture and
overall efficiency. Shading reduces the light reaching the cell, decreasing its output. The

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efficiency of the cell dictates how effectively sunlight is converted into electrical energy, and
over time, age and degradation reduce the cell's performance and output.

4) Define: Elevation angle, Declination angle, Latitude angle, azimuth angle and
Hour angle. Explain with a graph.

Elevation angle: The elevation angle (used interchangeably with altitude angle) is the
angular height of the sun in the sky measured from the horizontal. Confusingly, both altitude
and elevation are also used to describe the height in meters above sea level. The elevation is
0° at sunrise and 90° when the sun is directly overhead (which occurs for example at the
equator on the spring and fall equinoxes).The elevation angle varies throughout the day. It
also depends on the latitude of a particular location and the day of the year.

Figure 3: Elevation angle

From the previous figure, a formula for the elevation angle at solar noon can be determined
according to the formula:

α =90+φ-δ

When the equation above gives a number greater than 90° then subtract the result from 180°.
It means the sun at solar noon is coming from the south as is typical the northern hemisphere.
Where:
φ is the latitude of the location of interest (positive for the northern hemisphere and negative
for the southern hemisphere).
δ is the declination angle, which depends on the day of the year.

Declination angle: The declination angle, denoted by δ, varies seasonally due to the tilt of
the Earth on its axis of rotation and the rotation of the Earth around the sun. If the Earth were
not tilted on its axis of rotation, the declination would always be 0°. However, the Earth is
tilted by 23.45° and the declination angle varies plus or minus this amount. Only at the spring
and fall equinoxes is the declination angle equal to 0°.

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 Figure 4: Declination angle

The declination angle can be calculated by the equation:

δ=−23.45 ° ×cos ( 360

d is the day of the year with Jan 1 as d = 1

Latitude angle: This is the angle between a line that points from the center of the Earth to
a location on the Earth's surface and a line that points from the centre of the Earth to the
equator.
For example, the latitude for Djibouti is 11.572076 and for Tunisia, It is 36.806389.

Figure 5: Latitude angle

Azimuth angle: The azimuth angle is the compass direction from which the sunlight is
coming. At solar noon, the sun is always directly south in the northern hemisphere and
directly north in the southern hemisphere. At the equinoxes, the sun rises directly east and sets

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directly west regardless of the latitude, thus making the azimuth angles 90° at sunrise and
270° at sunset. In general however, the azimuth angle varies with the latitude and time of year
and the full equations to calculate the sun's position throughout the day is:
sinδcosφ−cosδsinφcos(HRA )
Azimuth=co s−1 [ ]
cosα

Figure 6: Azimuth angle

Hour angle: The hour angle is the angular distance the sun has moved from its position at
solar noon, measured in degrees or time. It is defined as the angle between the solar meridian
(the line running from the north to the South Pole) and the meridian passing through a specific
location. In the morning, the hour angle is negative as the sun is east of the local meridian,
ranging from -180° at sunrise to 0° at solar noon. In the afternoon, the hour angle becomes
positive as the sun moves west of the local meridian, increasing from 0° at solar noon to
+180° at sunset. The hour angle changes by 15° per hour, with 0° representing solar noon.

Figure 7 : hour angle