Foundation of Mathematics Unit 13

Unit 13 Matrices
Structure:
13.1 Introduction
Objectives
13.2 Definition of a Matrix
13.3 Operations on Matrices
13.4 Square Matrix and Its Inverse
13.5 Determinants
13.6 Properties of Determinants
13.7 The Inverse of a Matrix
13.8 Elementary Row & column Transformation
Rank of matrix
13.9 Consistency of system of linear equations
13.10 Solution of Equations Using Matrices and Determinants
13.11 Solving equations using determinants
13.12 Characteristic equations, Eigen values, Eigen vector
13.13 Cayley Hamilton Theorem
13.14 Summary
13.15 Terminal Questions
13.16 Answers

13.1 Introduction
The theory of matrices, introduced by French mathematician Cayley in
1957, is presently a powerful tool in the study of different branches of
Mathematics, Physical sciences, biological sciences and business
applications. The concept was initially developed for solving equations.
Objectives:
At the end of the unit you would be able to
 solve determinant using their properties
 find the solution of equations using matrices and determinant
 have the concept of eigen values and vectors

13.2 Definition of a Matrix

Definition: A matrix A is a rectangular array of numbers arranged as m
horizontal lists, called rows, each list having n elements; the vertical lists

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called columns.
It is written as

a11 a12 ......... a1n 

a a22 a2 n 
 21
. 
 
A  . 
. 
 
. 
a ............. a mn 
 m1
Note: The element in the ith row and jth column is aij. So A is also written as
 
or simply aij . A is called an m  n matrix. We
also write the(i, j)th entry as aij. When m = n, A is called a square matrix (also
called an n – square matrix A)

2 3 4 1
Example A  1 0 6 5  ,
4 6 8  3 
5 
 7  1 0 2 
B  2 1 3 , C    , D  3 1  4 
 8 
  5 0  6 
 1

are 3  4,1  3, 4  1 and 3  3 matrices respectively.

Definition: Two matrices A  aij   and B  bij   are equal if

(i) the number of rows of A and B are the same

(ii) the number of columns of A and B are the same

(iii) aij  bij for all i, j.

Example: Find the values of a, b, c, d if

2a  2 b 2a  2 b  6 2 
 2c  d 
 c  d  14 10 

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Solution: Equating the corresponding entries of the matrix, we get

2a + 2b = 6 2a – 2b = 2
2c + d = 14 c – d = 10
By adding the first two equations, we get 4a = 8. so a = 2.
2b = 6 – 2a = 6 – 4 = 2. So b = 1
Similarly,
3c = 24. So c = 8, d = 14 – 2c = 14 – 16 = –2

S.A.Q.1. How many entries are there in an m  n matrix ?

13.3 Operations on Matrices

In this section we define the following operation on matrices
a) Addition
b) Subtraction
c) Scalar multiplication

Definition: If A  aij    
and B  bij are two m  n matrices then A + B is
defined as an m  n matrix as follows:

A  B  a ij  b ij 11ijmn
Note: For getting the sum of A and B, we add to an entry in A, the entry in B
in the same place. We can add only two matrices of the same size.

 
Definition: If A  aij and B  bij   are two m  n matrices then A – B is
defined as an m  n matrix as follows:


A  B  a ij  b ij 11ijmn
Definition: If A  aij   and k is any scalar then kA is an m n matrix
defined as follows:
 1i m
kA  kaij
1 j n

2 3 4  7 8 9 
Example: If A    and B    find A + B, A – B, 2A + 3B
5 6 7  1 2 3 

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2 3 4  7 8 9 
Solution: A  B    
5 6 7  1 2 3 

2  7 3  8 4  9  9 11 13 
  
 5  1 6  2 7  3  6 8 10 

2 3 4  7 8 9  2  7 3  8 4  9   5  5  5 
AB     
5 6 7  1 2 3   5  1 6  2 7  3   4 4 4 

2 3 4  7 8 9 
2 A  3B  2  3 1 2 3 
5 6 7   

2( 2 ) 2( 3 ) 2( 4 ) 3 7  3 8  3 9 
  
 2 5  2 6  2 7    3 1 3 2  3 3 

 4 6 8  21 24 27 
 
10 12 14   3 6 9 

4  21 6  24 8  27 
 
10  3 12  6 14  9 
25 30 35 
 
13 18 23 
We list some special matrices in the next example.
Example:

0 0  0 
a)    is called the zero matrix.

0 0 0 

We can write it as O. We can have zero matrix of any order.

1 0  0 
0 1  0 
b)   is called then n – square unit matrix.
 
 
0 0  1 
(Note: The number of rows is equal to the number of columns in the unit
matrix. It is denoted by In or simply I when n is understood.)

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2 0 0 0
0 4 0 0 
c)  is called a diagonal matrix. A square matrix is diagonal
0 0  1 0 
 
0 0 0 3
matrix if only the entries on the diagonal are nonzero and other entries
are 0 s.
d) A diagonal matrix having the same number along the diagonal is called
a scalar matrix. A scalar matrix is simply kIn for some scalar k and some
positive integer n.

 
Definition: If A  aij is an m  n matrix then the transpose of A denoted

by AT,is defined as AT  a ji  
1 j  n
1i  m

Note: The transpose of an m  n matrix is an n  m matrix.

Just as addition of real numbers is commutative, the addition of matrices is
also commutative. As far as addition is concerned matrices behave like
numbers. The following theorem lists properties of addition of matrices.
Theorem: If A, B, C are m  n matrices and k and I are scalars.
a) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
b) A + 0 = 0 + A where 0 is the m  n zero matrix
c) A + (–A) = (–A) + A = 0 (Here –A denotes (–1) A)
d) A + B = B + A
e) k(A + B) = kA + kB
f) (k + I) A = kA + IA
g) (kI) A = k (lA) = l(kA)
h) lA = A
i) (A + B)T = AT + BT
j) A 
T T
A
k) I n T  In
The theorem can be proved by using the definition of sum of two matrices
and scalar multiple of a matrix.
If A and B are two matrices then AB is defined only when the number of
columns of A = number of rows of B.

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Definition: If A is an m  n matrix and B is an n  p matrix then the product

of A and B, denoted by AB, is an m  p matrix and is defined by

AB  abik  ai1 b1k  ai 2 b2 k  ......  ain bnk

for1  i  m, 1  k  p,

Note: (ab)ikcan be understood as follows.

 b1k 
b 
ai1 , ai 2 , ........ ain  is the i row of A,  2 k  Is the kth column of B and both
th
  
 
bnk 
these have n elements. For calculating (ab)ik, multiply the respective
elements of ith row of A and kth column of B and add them. The resulting
number is (ab)ik.
Example: Find AB when

1 2 
 2 0 1
A  and B  4 6 
 1 0 1 0 1 

Solution A is a 2  3 matrix and B is a 3  2 matrix. So AB is a 2  2 matrix.

 2 1  0 4   10  2 2   0 6   11   2 5

AB     
 11  0 4   10   12   0 6   11  1  1
S.A.Q.2. Find BA for matrices A and B given in above example
We have seen that A + B = B + A when A and B are matrices of the same
size. But AB  BA in general. It can happen that one of the products is
defined whereas the other product is not defined. Let us illustrate this with
an example.
Example: Find two matrices A and B such that
a) AB is defined but BA is not
b) BA is defined but AB is not
c) Both are defined but AB  BA
d) Both are defined and AB = BA

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Solution:
 4 2  1
 1 2 3
a) Assume A    and B   3 4 0 
 2 0 1  0 1  2 
Then AB is defined as the number of columns of A = 3 = number of
rows of B.
Number of columns of B = 3  number of rows of A. Hence BA is not
defined.

 4 
 1 2 3
b) If A   3  and B   then BA is defined, as number of
  2 0 1
 0 
columns of B = 3 = number of rows of A.
Number of columns of A = 1  number of rows of B. Hence AB is not
defined.
 4 2 
 1 2 3
c) Assume A    and B   3 5 
  2 0 1 23  0 1
32

1 4   2 3   3 0  12   2 5   3 1 

AB   
 2  4   0 3   10   2 2   0 5   11
2 15 
 
8  3 
 4 2 
 1 2 3
BA   3 5   2 0 1 
 0 1  

 4 1  2  2   4 2   2 0   4 3   2 1
 3 1  5  2  3 2   5 0  3 3   5 1 
0 1  1 2  0 2   10  0 3   11 
 8 8  10 
   7 6 14 
 2 0 1
Hence AB  BA

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0 1 2 1 0 0 
d)  
Consider A  2  1 3  and B  0 1 0 
3 4 0  0 0 1 

0 1 2 1 0 0 
Then AB  2  1 3  0 1 0 
 
3 4 0  0 0 1 

 0 1  10   2 0  0 0   11  2 0  0 0   10   2 1 

  2 1  10   3 0  2 0   11  3 0  2 0   10   3 1 
3 1  4 0   0 0  3 0   4 1  0 0  3 0   4 0   0 1

0 1 2
 2  1 3 
3 4 0 

1 0 0  0 1 2
  
BA  0 1 0  2  1 3 
0 0 1  3 4 0 

10   0 2   0 3  11  0  1  0 4  12   0 3   0 0 

 0 0   12   0 3  0 1  1 1  0 4  0 2   13   0 0 
0 0   0 2   13  0 1  0  1  14  0 2   0 3   10 

0 1 2
 2  1 3 
3 4 0 

Thus AB = BA
Theorem: If A is an m  n matrix and B is an n  p matrix and k is any
scalar, then
a) (AB)T = BTAT
b) Al n  A and l m A  A
c) k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)
d) OA = O, BO = O where the four zero matrices are k  m, k  n, p  t
and n  t matrices respectively (for some k and t).

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The proof of above theoremfollows from the definition of product of two

matrices.
We can define the product of 3 matrices A, B, C when
Number of columns of A  Number of rows of B 
 ……………… (13.1)
And Number of columns of B  Number of rows of C

The following theorem describes the properties of product of three matrices.

Let A, B, C be 3 matrices. Then the following hold good whenever the sums
and products of matrices appearing below are defined.
a) (AB) C = A(BC) (Associative law)
b) A(B + C) = AB + AC (Left distributive law)
c) (B + C) A = BA + CA (Right distributive law)
Proof follows from definition

2 4   1 2
S.A.Q. 3. If A  4 2  and B   4 6  find A + B, 2A – 3B, 3B – 2A, (A –
 
6 2    1 0 
B)T and (B – A)T.

4 6 0   2 4 6
S.A.Q. 4. If A    and B   
0  1 2   1  1 1
Verify that (A + B)T = AT + BT
S.A.Q. 5. Find a matrix A such that

 4  1  2 2 
3A   
 2 1  1 4 

1  2  3 2
S.A.Q. 6. If X  Y    and X  Y    find X and Y.
3 4  1 0 
S.A.Q. 7. A matrix A is said to be symmetric if A = AT. Show that A + AT is
symmetric for a 3  3 matrix A

 2 1 3  1 2

S.A.Q. 8. If A   1 2 1 and B    1 3 

 0 4  2   2 1

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  5 10 
Show that AB    5 5  Does BA exist ?
 0 10 
 2 3 1

S.A.Q.9. If A   3 1 3 
 5 2  4 
 10  10  10 
show that (A – I) (A + 2I) =   3  3  3 
 11 11 11 

13.4 Square Matrix and its Inverse

We know that a square matrix is an n n matrix for some integer n. The set
of n n square matrices satisfy some additional properties.
We know that AIn = InA = A for any n n square matrix A. We can multiply
two n n matrices and the product is an n nmatrix. In general we can
define AA, AAA etc.
We define powers of a square matrix as follows. We define A0 = In,
A 2  AA, A3  AAA,....., A n  
AA
.....
 A ….. (13.2)
n times

The set of all n n matrices satisfy the properties of indices (powers) of

numbers.
Note Am An = Am+n = An . Am ......... (13.3)
1  1 
If a is a non zero real number then we know that a     a  1.
a a
A similar property holds good for some square matrices. In the case of
1
numbers is called the reciprocal of a. But in the case of matrices it is
a
called the inverse of a square matrix.
Definition:A square matrix A is invertible (or non singular) if there exists a
square matrix B such that AB = BA = In ………….. (13.4)
B is called the inverse of A and is denoted by A – 1.
Note: If A has an inverse then A is called as invertible matrix.
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Foundation of Mathematics Unit 13

 3  5 2 5   3  5  2 5 
Example: Let A    If B    then AB  
 1 2 1 3   1 2  1 3 
32  51 35  53  1 0
  
 12  21  15  23 0 1
2 5  -1
Hence   is the inverse of A. That is B = A
1 3 
Theorem: If B is the inverse of a square matrix A then A is the inverse of
the matrix B.
Proof: As B is the inverse of A,then by definition,
AB = BA = In ………. (13.5)
So BA = AB = In ………………………….. (13.6)
From (12.6) we see that A satisfies the condition for the inverse of B. Hence
A is the inverse of B.

Now we are going to see a method for finding the inverse of a matrix.
However you will have a formula for the inverse of a 2  2 matrix
a b  1  d  b
Example: If A   , then A 1   ………….. (13.7)
c d 

ad  bc  c a
For the present, you can verify that
1 a b   d  b  1 ad  bc 0  ad  bc 1 0
AA 1         I
ad  bc  c d   c a  ad  bc  0  bc  ad  ad  bc 0 1
0  1  0 1
S.A.Q. 10. If A    , show that A 1   
1 0  1 0 
 26  7 12   1 2  1
S.A.Q. 11. Verify that  11 3  5  is the inverse of
 3 8 2
 
  5  1 2  4 9  1

13.5 Determinants
The determinant of an n – square matrix A is a unique number associated
with A and is denoted by det (A) ( ) or | A|. | A | is called a determinant of
order n.

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 a11 a12  a1n  a11 a12  a1n

a a22  a2 n  a 21 a 22  a 2 n
If A   21 then | A | is denoted by
     
 
an1 an2  a nn  a n1 a n 2  a nn

As the definition of | A | is complex for a general n – square matrix A, we

define determinant of orders 1, 2, 3 and then extend it for a general n –
square matrix A.
Evaluation of determinants
Definition: The determinants of orders 1, 2, 3 are defined as follows
a) a11  a11
a11 a12
b)  a11 a22  a12 a21
a21 a22
(We can understand the determinant in the following way).
We (i) multiply the elements in the diagonal from left to right (ii) multiply the
elements in the diagonal from right to left (iii) subtract product got in (ii) from
the product got in (i)
a11 a12 a13
a22 a23 a21 a23 a 21 a22
c) a21 a22 a23  a11  a12  a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a31 a32 a33

Note: We can calculate the value of a determinant of order 3 as follows:

1. Consider the first element a11 in the first row. Attach the sign + (plus)
2. Delete the row and column in which a11 appears; that is first row and first
a22 a23
column. We get
a32 a33
a22 a23
3. Multiply + a11 and the value of
a32 a33
4. Consider the second element a12 in first row. Attach the sign – (minus)
5. Delete the row and second column in which a12 appears; that is the first
a21 a23
row and second column. We get
a31 a33

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a21 a23
6. Multiply – a12 and the value of
a31 a33
7. Consider the third element a13 in the first row. Attach the sign + (plus)
8. Delete the row and column in which a13 appears; that is the first row and
a21 a22
third column. We get
a31 a32
a21 a22
9. Multiply + a13 and the value of
a31 a32
Add the values got in steps 3, 6 and 9. This is the value of the given
determinant.
Note: We usually denote a determinant by the symbol  (read as Delta).
0 2 3
Example: Evaluate the determinant of 1 4 7
2 0 4
Solution:
4 7 1 7 1 4
0 2 3
0 4 2 4 2 0
= 0 – 2[1(4) – 2(7)] + 3[1(0) – 2(4)]
= 0 – 2 (4 – 14) + 3(0 – 8)
= –2(–10) – 24
= 20 – 24
= –4
Thus   4

Evaluation of a determinant in term of any row or column

a11 a12 a13
Let A= a 21 a 22 a 23 .Recall the definition of determinant of 3-square
a31 a32 a33
matrix, we obtained
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23 a 21 a 22
A  a11  a12  a13
a 32 a 33 a 31 a 33 a 31 a 32

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a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

The 2 nd– order determinants , , are
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
called the minors of a11, a12, a13. We can denote the minors by M11, M12,
and M13. If we attach the signs, these are called cofactors of a11, a12, a13.
We denote them by A11, A12, A13. Then above determinant canalso be
written as
| A | = a11A11,a12A12, a13A13.
We can also define minors of a21, a22, a23, a31, a32, a33 in a similar manner.
For example.
a11 a12
M 23 
a31 a32

(M23 is got by deleting the second row and third column of A)

The cofactors can be defined in a similar manner using the rule of signs
given by (13.8)
   
   ………………………….. (13.8)
 
    
Any cofactor is got by multiplying the minor and its sign given in (13.8). For
example cofactor for a32 is – M32.
a11 a13
So A32  
a21 a23
Thus we can expand  in term of any row or column in a similar way. (13.9)
gives the expansion in term of various rows and columns.

  a11 A11  a12 A12  a13 A13 

 a21 A21  a22 A22  a23 A23 
 a31 A31  a32 A32  a33 A33 
 …………………………………. (13.9)
 a11 A11  a21 A21  a31 A31 
 a12 A12  a22 A22  a32 A32 

 a13 A13  a23 A23  a33 A33 

You may wonder why so many expansions given in (13.9) are necessary. If
a row or column has many zeros then evaluating by the elements of that row
or column makes the evaluation simpler.

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1 2 4
Example: Evaluate determinant of 4 0 0
1 4 5
Solution: As the second row has two zeros, we expandby the elements of
the second row.
  a21 A21  a22 A22  a23 A23
 4 A21  0 A22  0 A23
2 4
 4  1
4 5
(Note: For (2, 1) position, the sign is –. See (13.8)).
= – 4[2(5) – 4(4)]
= – 4(10 – 16)
= – 4(–6)
= 24
The evaluation of a determinant of order n is similar.
a11 a12 a13 a14
a21 a22 a23 a24
For example, if A 
a31 a32 a33 a34
a41 a42 a43 a44
Then | A | = a11A11 + a12A12 + a13A13 + a14A14
The signs of cofactors can be defined by
    
    
  ………………………… (13.10)
    
 
    
1 4 7 2
2 4 8 4
Example: Evaluate
4 0 0 1
1 2 3 0

Solution As the third row has two zeros we expand by the elements of third
row. The signs of cofactors of A isdetermined by using (13.10)
| A | = a31A31 + a32A32 + a33A33 + a34A34
= 4A31 + 0A32 + 0A33 + 1A34

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4 7 2 1 4 7
 4 1 4 8 4  1 1 2 4 8
2 3 0 1 2 3
 8 4 4 4 4 8   4 8 2 8 2 4 
 4 4 7 2   11
  2 3  4  7 

 3 0 2 0 2 3   1 3 1 2 
= 4[4(0 – 12) – 7 (0 – 8) + 2(12 – 16)] – 1[1 (12 – 16) – 4(6 – 8) + 7(4 – 4)]
= 4[4(–12) –7 (–8) + 2 (–4)] –1[1 (–4) –4 (–2) + 7(0)]
= 4 (– 48 + 56 – 8) –1 (–4 + 8)
= 4(–56 + 56) –1 (4)
= 4(0) – 4
=–4
Thus | A | = –4

S.A.Q. 12: Evaluate the following determinants

1 2 1 0 1 1 5 6 4
a) 3 1 2 b) 1 0 1 c) 7 4 3
0 1 2 1 1 0 2 1 6

S.A.Q. 13: Evaluate the following determinants

0 1 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 3 1 2 0 1 0 1 1 5 6 4
a) b) c)
1 1 1 4 0 1 1 0 4 7 4 3
0 0 1 2 1 1 1 1 7 2 1 6

13.6 Properties of Determinants

In this section we list some properties of determinants. These properties
enable us to evaluate a determinant in an easier way.
a11 a12 a13 ma11 ma12 ma13
Property 1: If   a21 a22 a23 then m  a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
Let A11, A12, A13 denote the cofactors of a11, a12, a13in . These are also
the cofactors of ma11, ma12, ma13, in m.

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ma11 ma12 ma13

So a21 a22 a23 = ma11 A11 + ma12A12 + ma13A13
a31 a32 a33
= m (a11A11 + a12A12 + a13A13)
= m.
Note: This property holds good when any row or column of  is multiplied by
m. This property essentially means that any common factor of a row or
column can be taken outside the determinant.
Remark: If A is a matrix then mA is got by multiplying each entry of A by m.
In the case of determinant m is got by multiplying the entries of a single
row or column by m.

Example:
12 18 30 2 6  3 6  5 6  2 3 5
2 4 1  2 4 1 6 2 4 1
1 3 5 1 3 5 1 3 5

Property 2: If |A| = det (A), then det (AT) = |A|

a b  a c 
Proof: If A    then AT   
c d  b d 
So | A | = ad – bc = |AT|
So the second order minors of A and AT have the same value. As the sign of
a cofactor is the same in both A and AT, the value det (AT) through
expanding along the first column is equal to det (A) through expanding along
the first row.
Hence det (AT) = |A|
Property 3: If two rows or columns of a determinant  are interchanged
then the value of the  is unchanged but the sign get changed.

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 a11 a12 a13 

Proof: Let A  a21 a22 a23  If the second and third rows are
a31 a32 a33 
 a11 a12 a13 
interchanged we get B  a31 a32 a33 
a21 a22 a23 
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
B  a11  a12  a13
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
= a11 (a32a23 – a22a33) – a12 (a31a23 – a21a33) + a13 (a31a22 – a32a21)
 a11 a22 a33  a32 a23   a12 a21a33  a31a23   a13 a21a32  a31a22 
 a a23 a21 a23 a21 a22 
 a11 22  a12  a13 
 a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32 
 | A|
Property 4: If a determinant  has two identical rows then the value of the
determinant is 0.
Proof: If we interchange two identical rows then the value of the new
determinant is   . (By property 3). But the new determinant is the same as
. So – =  or  = 0.
1 4 7 9
2 5 4 7
Example: Evaluate  
9 8 7 9
1 4 7 9

Solution: The first and fourth rows of  are identical. By property 4,  = 0.

Property 5: The value of a determinant remains the same when multiple of
some rows are added to a particular row. The same is true for columns.
Note: For example,
a b c a  kd  lg b  ke  lh c  kf  li
d e f  d e f
g h i g h i

Since we add k times the second row and l times the third row to the first
row, the determinant will be same.

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4 7 10
Example: Evaluate   2 4 6
1 2 5
Solution: The first entry in the first row (R1) is 4. To make it 0, we subtract 4
times the third row (R3). Thus R1 of  is replaced by R1 – 4R3 (This is
indicated on the right of the determinant). Similarly if we subtract 2R3 from
R2 we get 0, as the first element in R2. In the resulting determinant the first
column has two zeros and a one. This makes the evaluation (along the first
column) easier.
4 7 10
 2 4 6
1 2 5
4  4 1 7  4 2  10  4 5  R1  4 R 3
 2  2 1 4  2 2  6  2 5  R 2  2 R 3
1 2 5 R3
0  1  10
 0 0 4
1 2 5
 1  10
 0 A11  0 A21  1 (by expanding along the first column)
0 4
= 0 + 0 +1 (4 – 0)
=4
1 1 1 1
1 1a 1 1
Example: Evaluate
1 1 1b 1
1 1 1 1c
1 1 1 1
1 1a 1 1
Solution:  
1 1 1b 1
1 1 1 1c

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1 1 1 1 R1
0 a 0 0 R 2  R1

0 0 b 0 R 3  R1
0 0 0 c R 4  R1
a 0 0
 1 0 b 0  0 A21  0 A31  0 A41
0 0 c
b 0 0 0 0 b
a 0 0
0 c 0 c 0 0
= a (bc – 0)
= abc.
Example: Show that
1 1 1
bc ca a  b  a  b  b  c  c  a 
b c
2 2
c a
2 2
a  b2
2

1 1 1
Solution: bc ca ab
b c2 2
c a2 2
a2  b2
1 0 0 C1
 bc ab ac C 2  C1
b c
2 2
a b
2 2
a c
2 2
C 3  C1
ab ac
1  0 A12  0 A13
a b2 2
a  c2
2

 
 a  b a 2  c 2  a  c  a 2  b 2  
= (a – b) (a – c) (a + c) – (a – c) (a – b) (a + b)
= (a – b) (a – c) [a + c – a – b]
= (a – b) (a – c) (c – b)
= (a – b) [– (c – a)] [–(b – c)]
= (a – b) (b – c) (c – a)

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1 a a2
S.A.Q. 14: Evaluate   1 b b2
1 c c2
0 a b
S.A.Q. 15: Prove that  a 0 c 0
b c 0
x  1 x  2 1
S.A.Q. 16: Evaluate    x  2   x  3 1
 x  3  x  4  1
S.A.Q. 17: Evaluate the following determinants
1 2 3 4 0 1 1 1
2 3 4 5 1 0 1 1
a) b)
3 4 5 6 1 1 0 1
4 5 6 7 1 1 1 0

13.7 The Inverse of a Matrix

In this section we give a method of finding the inverse of square matrix.
 a11 a 12 a13 
Definition: If A  a21 a22 a23  then the adjoint matrix of A (denoted by
a31 a32 a33 
T
 A11 A 12 A13 
Adj A) is given by Adj A   A21 A22 A23 
 A31 A32 A33 
1 2 3 
Example: Find the adjoint of matrix A  2 3 4 
3 4 5 
Solution:
3 4
A11   1  3 5   4 4   1
4 5
2 4
A12   1   1 10  12   2
3 5

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2 3
A13   1  8  9  1
3 4
2 3
A21   1   1 10  12   2
4 5
1 3
A22  1  5  9  4
3 5
1 2
A23   1   1 4  6   2
3 4
2 3
A31  1  8  9  1
3 4
1 3
A32   1   1 4  6   2
2 4
1 2
A33  1  3  4  1
2 3
T
 A11 A12 A13 
 Adj A   A21 A22 A23 
 A31 A32 A33 
T
 1 2  1

  2 4 2 
 1 2  1
 1 2  1

  2 4 2 
 1 2  1
We use Adj A for evaluating the inverse of a matrix.
A square matrix is invertible if and only if A  0. When A  0 , , the
inverse of a matrix A is given by
1
A 1  Adj A ………………………. (13.11)
A
If |A| = 0, the matrix A is called singular; otherwise it is non singular. So a
matrix is invertible if and only if it is nonsingular.

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a b 
Example: Find the inverse of  
c d 

Solution: A11 = d, A12 = –c, A21 = –b, A22 = a.

T
 d  c  d  b
So Adj A     
 b a   c a 
|A| = ad – bc. Hence
1  d  b
A 1  ………. (13.12)
ad  bc   c a 
1 1 1

Example: Find the inverse of A   1  1 1
2 1  1
Solution:
1 1 1 1
A11  1  0 ; A12   1   1  1  2   3 ;
1 1 2 1
1 1 1 1
A13  1  3; A21   1   1  1  1  2 ;
2 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
A22  1  3 ; A23   1   1 1  2   1;
2 1 2 1
1 1 1 1
A31  1  1  1  2 ; A32   1   1 1  1  0 ;
1 1 1 1
1 1
A33  1  1  1  2
1 1
T
0 3 3 0 2 2

Adj A  2  3 1 
 3  3 0 
2 0  2  3 1  2 
|A| = a11A11 + a12A12 + a13A13
= 1 (0) + 1(3) + 1(3)
=6

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 1 1
 0
0 2 2 3 3
adj A 1   
0  
1 1
A 1   3  3  0
| A| 6 2 2 
 3 1  2  1 1 1

 2 6 3 
2 3  1

S.A.Q.18: Find the inverse of A   1 1 1
3  1  1
1 0 1 
S.A.Q. 19: Test whether A exists when A  2 4 6 
-1

1 2 3 
1 3 3 
S.A.Q. 20: Find the inverse of A  1 4 3 
1 3 4 
13.8 Elementary Row Transformation
Let A be any matrix. Then following are the three transformation
which can be performed on A
Elementary Row Transformation
: Interchange of and rows
Multiplying the row by some non zero constant
Adding a times row to the row
Elementary Column Transformation
: Interchange of and Column
Multiplying the column by some non zero constant
Adding a times column to the column

Example: TransformA = by

(i) Elementary row transformation

(ii) Column Transformation

Solution: (i) Given A =

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Divide the first row by 3 i.e.

Now in the next step we will subtract first row from the second row i.e.

Now in the next step we will subtract (-4) times first row from the third row
i.e.

That is,

(ii) Column Transformation:

A=

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2
3

Note: Matrix transformed by elementary transformation are equivalent .

13.8.1 Rank of Matrix
Let A be an matrix. Then we say that rank of A is r if
i) At least one minor of order r is non-zero.

ii) All minors of higher order are zero.

Thus, rank of matrix A is defined as the highest order of a non- zero minor of
A.
In other words, it is maximum number of linearly independent rows or
columns of matrix.
Simple procedure of determining rank of matrix is by elementary row or
column transformation

Example: Find the rank of

Solution: We will find the rank with the help of elementary row
transformation
Multiply first row by i.e.,

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Now, we will multiply first row by 4 and add to the second row i.e., ,
we get

Now, we will multiply first row by 5 and add to the Third row i.e., , we
get

Now, adding second and third row( ), we get

Thus since there are only 2 non-zero linearly independent rows, hence rank
A = 2.

Example: Find the rank of

Solution: We will find the rank with the help of elementary row
transformation
Multiply first row by i.e.,

Now, we will multiply first row by -4 and add to the second row i.e., ,
we get

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Multiply first row by -2 and add to the Third row i.e., , we get

Now, multiplying second row by ( ), we get

Now, adding second and third row( ), we get

Since it has three non- zero linearly independent row so its rank is 3.

SAQ 21: Find the rank of following matrix

(i)

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(ii)

(iii)

13.9 Consistency of System of equations

Consider m linear equations in n unknowns say as

We can write it as

Where

Matrix is called coefficient matrix and is called augmented matrix of

the system.
If the system of equation possesses a solution then we call the system of
equation as consistent. If they do not possesses a solution then the system
is called inconsistent.
The system of equation can have one or more than one solutions.
Important results
1. The system of equation is consistent if and only if the
matrices and are of same rank.

2. If the number of equations m number of unknowns n and

i) If rank of to rank of , then equations are inconsistent

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ii) If rank of to rank of ,the number of unknowns, then

equations are consistent & have a unique solution.

iii) If rank of to rank of ,the number of unknowns, then

equations are consistent & have a infinite number of solutions
iv) Since for homogeneous system of equations, rank of rank of

Hence homogeneous system of equation always have solution

and so consistent
v) If the number of equations is same as number of unknowns, then
a non-zero solution exists only if the coefficient matrix is non-
singular
i.e. |A| 0

Example: Discuss the consistency of the system of equation:

Solution: We can write the system of equation

Now, lets calculate rank of

Rank A = 1, since the determinant of A is zero, so it has one linearly
independent row.
Rank of
Find all the determinant of matrices of i.e.,

So none of the is non singular hence rank of So,

rank of = Rank of =1 < 2 (the number of unknowns)
So, the system has infinitely many solutions.
Example: Discuss the consistency of the system of equation

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(ii)

Solution: We can write the system of equation

as

Note that here the number of unknowns is 3.

Now, lets find rank of matrix
Lets calculate rank by elementary transformation method
Rank A

Since the above matrix have three linearly independent rows so rank of

Rank of

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Rank of =3
Therefore, Rank A = Rank of =3= no. of unknowns
So the system has unique solution.
(ii) We can write the system of equation

as

Note that here the number of unknowns is 3.

Now, lets find rank of matrix
Lets calculate rank by elementary transformation method
Rank A

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Hence only two independent rows

So rank is 2
Now, Find rank of

So three independent rows. Rank of

Since rank A < rank of , so no solution exists.
Example: Investigate for which values of a and b, the system of equation is
consistent and inconsistent.

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Solution: We have

Here, number of unknowns (n) = 3

So now, lets find rank of

i) Let in this case for any value of b, we have rank of

rank A=3= no. of unknowns

Therefore, the system is consistent and has unique solution for

and b = any value.

ii) If a = 5 and , in this case we have rank of and rank

A=2. So the system has no solution and is inconsistent.

iii) If a = 5 and , in this case we have rank of rank A=2.

So the system consistent and have infinite number of solution.

SAQ 22: Check whether the following system of equations are consistent or
not
i)

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ii)

iii)

13.10 Solution of Equations using Matrices and Determinants

Matrices are useful in representation of data. For example if we want to
classify the students of a class in terms of gender and their grades then we
can use a matrix for representing the information. Suppose we have three
 a11 a12 a13 
grades A, B, C. Then the matrix 
a23 
represents.
a21 a22
The classified data:
a11 denotes the number of male students who got grade A.
a12 denotes the number of male students who got grade B
a13 denotes the number of male students who got grade C.
a21 denotes the number of female students who got grade A.
a22 denotes the number of female students who got grade B.
a23 denotes the number of female students who got grade C.
Solving linear equations using matrices
We can also use matrices for solving m equations in n variables. The ideas
is to represent n equations as a single matrix equation and then solve the
matrix equation. The next example illustrates this.
Example: Solve x + y = 3
2x + 3y = 8
Solution: The given system of equations is equivalent to the single matrix
equation AX = B where

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1 1  x  3 
A  X   B 
2 3  y  8 
Multiplying both side of AX = B by A–1. we get X = A–1 B.
By definition of A-1, we have
1  3  1  3  1
A 1   
1 3   2 1  2 1  2 1 
 3  1 3   3 3   18   1 
X   
 2 1 8   2 3   18  2 
Hence x = 1, y = 2
Example: Solve the equations
x+y+z=6
x + 2y + 3z = 14
–x + y – z = –2
Solution: The given systems of equations is equivalent to A X = B where
 1 1 1 x  6 

A 1 2   
3  x   y  B   14 
 1 1  1  z   2 
2 3
A11  1  2  3  5
1 1
1 3
A12   1   1  1  3  2
1 1
1 2
A13  1  1  2  3;
1 1
1 1
A21   1   1  1  1  2 ;
1 1
1 1
A22  1  1  1  0 ;
1 1
1 1
A23   1   1 1  1  2 ;
1 1
1 1
A31  1  3  2  1;
2 3

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1 1
A32   1   13  1  2 ;
1 3
1 1
A33  1  2 1  1
1 2
|A|=a11A11 + a12A12 + a13A13
= 1(–5) + 1(–2) + 1(3)
= –5 – 2 + 3
= –7 + 3
= –4.
T
 5  2 3
1
0  2 
Adj A
A 1    2
| A| 4
 1  2 1
 5 2 1
1
A 1
   2 0  2 
4
 3 2 1
 5 2 1 6 
1
X A 1
B    2 0  2   14 
 
4
 3  2 1  2 
  5 6   2 14   1 2 
   2 6   0 14   2  2 
1
4
 3 6   2 14   1 2  

 30  28  2
    12  0  4 
1
4
 18  28  2 
4 
    8 
1
4
  12 
1 
 2 
3 
Hence x = 1, y = 2, z = 3

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13.11 Solving equations using determinants

We can also solve a system of n linear equations in n variables using
determinants. The method is provided by Cramer’s rule. Cramer’s rule for
three equations in three variables.
Consider the system of three linear equation in three variables x, y, z.
a11x + a12y + a13z = b1
a21x + a22y + a23z = b2
a31x + a32y + a33z = b3
Let  be the co-efficient determinant i.e., the determinant of the coefficients
a11 a12 a13
of the variables x, y, z such that   a21 a22 a23  0
a31 a32 a33
(If  = 0 the system has no unique solution).
By Cramer’s rule we have
b1 a12 a13 a11 b11 a13 a11 a12 b1
b2 a22 a23 a21 b2 a23 a21 a22 b2
b3 a32 a33 a31 b3 a33 a31 a32 b3
x y z
  
or
1 2 3
x y z
  
Note: As in the previous section the system of equations Ax = B. Then |A| =
. Now 1 is obtained by replacing the first column of  by B. Similarly 2
and 3 are obtained by replacing the second and third columns of  by B
respectively.
Example: Solve
2x + 3y + 4z = 20
x + y + 2z = 9
3x + 2y + z = 10
Solution: In this example,
2 3 4 20 3 4 2 20 4 2 3 20
  1 1 2 1  9 1 2 2  1 9 2 3  1 1 9
3 2 1 10 2 1 3 10 1 3 2 10
 = 2(1 – 4) – 3 (1 – 6) + 4(2 – 3) = 5
1 = 20(1 – 4) – 3(9 – 20) + 4 (18 – 10) = 5

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2 = 2(9 – 20) – 20(1 – 6) + 4 (10 – 27) = 46

3 = 2(10 – 18) – 3 (10 – 27) + 20(2 – 3) = -15
Hence
1  46 3
x  1, y  2  , z  3.
  5 
S.A.Q. 23. Solve the following system of equations using matrices
a) 2x + 3y – z = 9 b) 2x – y + 3z = – 9
x+y+z=9 x+y+z=6
3x – y – z = –1 x–y+z=2
S.A.Q. 24. Solve the following system of equations using Cramer’s rule
a) 5x – 6y + 4z = 15 b) x + y + z = 9
7x + 4y – 3z = 19 2x + 5y + 7z = 52
2x + y + 6z = 46 2x + y – z = 0

13.12 Characteristicequation, eigenvalues, eigen vector

Consider the set of equations

Or

That is,
=>

where is unit matrix, is square matrix and is scalar, is

column matrix.
Then the non-trivial solution i.e. for , the value of is called eigen
value or characteristic value of a matrix and the corresponding to the
value of is called the eigen vector or characteristic vector of .
The equation is called characteristic equation of A

Example: Find the characteristic equation of

Solution: The characteristic equation of is | |

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Therefore,

=>

=>

=>
=>
Thus, the characteristics equation is
Example: Find the characteristics equation, eigen value and eigen vector of

Solution: The characteristic equation of is | |

Therefore,

Implies
=>
=>
=>
Thus, the characteristics equation is
Eigen values are the solution of characteristics equations i.e.,
Now we will find the eigen vector corresponding to each of eigen value.
For,

We have to find the value of

Thus,

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So, where C is arbitrary constant.

For, Thus,

So, where C is arbitrary constant.

Example: Find the characteristics equation, eigen value and eigen vector of

Solution: The characteristic equation of is | |

Therefore,

=>
=>
=>
=>
Thus, the characteristics equation is
Eigen values are the solution of characteristics equations i.e.,
Now we will find the eigen vector corresponding to each of eigen value.
For,

We have to find the value of

Thus,

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=>,
So, where is arbitrary constant.
For, Thus,

=>
So, where is arbitrary constant.
SAQ 25: Determine characteristics equation, eigen value and eigen vector
of
(i)

(ii)

13.13. Cayley Hamilton Theorem

It states that ”Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristics equation.”
That is, if A is any square matrix and is its characteristics equation,
then .
Example: Verify Cayley-Hamilton Theorem for the matrix

Solution: The characteristic equation of is | |

Therefore,

=>
=>
=>
Thus, the characteristics equation is
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Now, we have to verify that

So,
Hence A satisfies the characteristic equation.

Example: Find the characteristic equation of matrix

and verify Cayley-Hamilton Theorem.

Solution: The characteristic equation of is |

Therefore,

=>

=> ( )
=> ( )
=>
Thus, the characteristics equation is
Now, we have to verify that

So,

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Hence A satisfies the characteristic equation.

SAQ 26: Verify Cayley’s Hamilton Theorem for the matrix

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

13.14 Summary
In this unit, we discussed about the concept of matrices and its inverse with
good examples .Studied about determinantsand its different properties.
Also, we use different methods for solving equations with the help of
standard examples.

13.15 Terminal questions

1. Find the values of x, y, z and t satisfy the matrix relationship
 x3 z4 t 2   1  4 2t  5 
2 y  5 4 x  5 3 t  1   5 2 x  1  20 
  
2. Find the values for x, y, z that satisfy the matrix relationship
2 x   2 6  4 x  2
3    
 y z   1 2 z   y  z 3 

3. Find a matrix A satisfying

3 2   3 4 
5  1  2 A   5  1
   

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1 2 
1 2 0  1 2 3  
4. If A    , B  1 1  1 and C  1 1 
1 1 0    1 1 
Show that AB = AC. (In the case of real numbers, ab = ac will imply that
b = c. But this is not so for matrices as this example shows)
1 0  2 3 1 0

5. If A  0  3 1 and B   2 0 3  evaluate AB – BA.

2 1 0   0 2  1

 2  4 
6. If A    , show that A 2  4A
 3 6
1 2 
7. If A    , show that A – 2A – 5I = 0
2

3 1 
1 2 
8. If A    find AAT and ATA
3  1
1 2 
9. If A    Evaluate A2 and A3.
4  3 
2 5  4  6 
10. If   A  find A.
1 3  2 1 
5 3  2 1 
11. If A    find A
7 4  3 2 
2 1   3 2   2 4 
12. If   A   , find A.
3 2   5  3   3  1
13. Evaluate the following determinants
1 4 9 a h g a c b
a) 4 9 16 b) h b f c) b a c
9 16 25 g f c c b a
14. Evaluate the following determinants
2 4 2 3 2 1 1 3 4 2 1 2
1 2 1 0 1 2 4 2 2 1 2 3
a) b) c)
2 0 1 3 0 3 1 1 3 2 4 1
2 3 2 3 1 2 5 0 2 3 0 2

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bc bc 1
15. Show that ca c  a 1  a  b  b  c  c  a 
ab a  b 1
16. Evaluate the following determinants
1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 3 6 10
a) b)
1 3 6 10 1 4 10 20
1 4 10 20 1 5 15 35
1 a bc
17. Show that 1 b c  a  0
1 c ab

b2c 2 bc bc
18. Prove that c a 2 2
ca c  a  0
2
a b 2
ab a  b

19. Solve the following system of equations using (i) matrices (ii) determinants
a) x + 2y – z = 3 b) 2x + 3y – z = 9
3x – y + 2z = 2 x+y+z=9
2x – 2y + 3z = 2 3x – y – z = –1
c) a + b + z = 6 d) 2a + 3b + c = 8
a + 2b + 3c = 14 4a + b + c = 6
–a + b – z = –2 a+b+c=3
20. Test whether the system of linear equation is consistent. If consistent
then solve.
i)

ii)

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21. For what values of , the system

has i) unique solution, ii) infinite number of solutions

13.16 Answers
Self Assessment Questions
1. mn entries
0 0 3
2.  2 0 10 
 1 0 1 
3 6   1 2  4 8
 4  6 1 0 7  1 0 7
  
3. 8 8  ,  4  14  , 
 2  4 2  ,  2 4
  2 
5 2   15 4  20 6    

 2 1
5.  
 1 1
2 0   1  2 
6. X  , Y   
1 2   2 2
8. BA does not exist since the number of columns of B = 2  3 = the
number of rows of A.
12. a) –9 b) 2 c) 419
13. a) –9 b) 2 c) 419
(Expand using the first column, first column and first row respectively.)
14. = (a – b) (b – c) (c – a)
16. The row operations are R2– R1 and R3 – R2. Answer is 0.
17. a) Answer 0; the row operations are R1, R, – R1, R3 – R2, R4. b) –3.
The row operations R1, R2, R3 – R2, R4 – R3 reduce  to
1 1 1
 1 1 1 0 . Apply R1, R2 – R1, R3.
0 1 1

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 0 4 4
1 
18. 4 1  3 
16 
 4 11  1
19. As |A| = 0, A–1 does not exist.
 7  3  3
20.  1 1 0 
 1 0 1
21. (i) 3, (ii) 1, (iii) 3
22. (i) inconsistent (ii) inconsistent (iii) inconsistent
23. a) x = 2, y = 3, z = 4 b) x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
24. a) x = 3, y = 4, z = 6 b) x = 1, y = 3, z = 5

25. ,

(ii) , ,

Terminal Questions
1. x = –2, y = –5, z = –8, t = –7
2. x = 4, y = 1, z = 3
 3 1
3.  
 0 0
0 8 9
5. 2  1  14 
6 5 1
5 1  10  1
8.  ,  
1 10   1 5 
 9  4  7 30 
9. A 2   , A3  
 8 17   60  67 
1
2 5  4  6  2  23 
10. A  2 1   0
1 3     8 

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1
2 1  5 3   1 1 
11. A    
3 2  7 4   2  1
2 1   3 2   2 4 
12. Let B    , C  , D 
3 2   5  3  3  1
Then BAC = D. So A = B–1 DC–1,,
 2  1 3 2   24 13 
B 1    , c 1    , A 
 3 2  5 3   34 18 
13. a) –8b) abc + 2fgh – af2 – bg2 – ch2 c) a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc
14. a) – 15 (Row operations: R1, R2, R3 –R1, R4 – R1)
b) 102 (Row operations: R1 + 2R4, R2 + R4, R3, R4
c) 87 (column operations: C1 + 4C3, C2 + 2C3, C3, C4 + 2C3).
15. Apply row operations R1, R2 – R1, R3 – R1. Expand using last column.
16. a) and b) answer 1 (Apply row operations R1, R2 – R1, R3 – R1, R4 – R1)
ba ab
17. Apply R1, R2 – R1, R3 – R1, we get . This is equal to (b –
c a ac
a) (a – c) – (a – c) (c – a) – (b – a) (a – c) – (–1) (–1) (b – a) (a – c) = 0
18. Multiplying R1 by a, R2 by b and R3 by c and then dividing by abc we
get
ab 2 c 2
abc ab  c 
1
 2
a bc 2
abc bc  a 
abc 2 2
a b c abc c a  b 

bc 1 ab  ac
a2 b2c 2
 ca 1 bc  ab (By taking out abc from columns 1 and 2)
abc
ab 1 ca  bc
bc 1 ab  ac  bc
 abc ca 1 bc  ab  ca C 3  C1
ab 1 ca  bc  ab
bc 1 1
 abc  ab  bc  ca  ca 1 1 (by taking out ab + bc + ca from C3)
ab 1 1
19. a) x = –1, y = 4, z = 4 b) x = 2, y = 3, z = 4
c) a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 c) a = 1, b = 2, c = 0

Manipal University of Jaipur Page No: 450

Foundation of Mathematics Unit 13

20. (i) Consistent , x = 1, x = 1 = y = z

(ii) Consistent , x = 2-k, y = k, z = 1
21. (i)

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