ISL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to Osmania University)

DEPT.OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRONICS
LAB MANUAL
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List of Experiments :
1 CRO-Applications, Measurements of R, L and C using LCR meter, Color code method and
soldering practice.
2 Characteristics of Semiconductors diode (Ge,Si and Zener).
3 Static Characteristics of BJT-Common Emitter .
4 Static Characteristics of BJT-Common Base .
5 Static Characteristics of FET .
6 RC-Phase Shift Oscillator .
7 Hartley and Colpitts Oscillators .
8 Common Emitter Amplifier .
9 Astable Multivibrator.
10 Full-wave rectifier with and without filters .
11 Operational Amplifier Applications .
12 Strain Guage Measurement .
13 Analog-to-Digital and Digital to Analog Converters.
Note: At least ten experiments should be conducted in the Semester
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GENERAL GUIDELINES AND SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS

1. Sign in the log register as soon as you enter the lab and strictly observe your lab timings.
2. Strictly follow the written and verbal instructions given by the teacher / Lab Instructor. If
you do not understand the instructions, the handouts and the procedures, ask the instructor
or teacher.
3. Never work alone! You should be accompanied by your laboratory partner and / or the
instructors / teaching assistants all the time.
4. It is mandatory to come to lab in a formal dress and wear your ID cards.
5. Do not wear loose-fitting clothing or jewellery in the lab. Rings and necklaces are usual
excellent conductors of electricity.
6. Mobile phones should be switched off in the lab. Keep bags in the bag rack.
7. Keep the labs clean at all times, no food and drinks allowed inside the lab.
8. Intentional misconduct will lead to expulsion from the lab.
9. Do not handle any equipment without reading the safety instructions. Read the handout
and procedures in the Lab Manual before starting the experiments.
10. Do your wiring, setup, and a careful circuit checkout before applying power. Do not
make circuit changes or perform any wiring when power is on.
11. Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits.
12. Do not insert connectors forcefully into the sockets.
13. NEVER try to experiment with the power from the wall plug.
14. Immediately report dangerous or exceptional conditions to the Lab instructor / teacher:
Equipment that is not working as expected, wires or connectors are broken, the equipment
that smells or “smokes”. If you are not sure what the problem is or what's going on, switch
off the Emergency shutdown.
15. Never use damaged instruments, wires or connectors. Hand over these parts to the Lab
instructor/Teacher.
16. Be sure of location of fire extinguishers and first aid kits in the laboratory.
17. After completion of Experiment, return the bread board, trainer kits, wires, CRO probes
and other components to lab staff. Do not take any item from the lab without permission.
18. Observation book and lab record should be carried to each lab. Readings of current lab
experiment are to be entered in Observation book and previous lab experiment should be
I
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written in Lab record book. Both the books should be corrected by the faculty in each lab.
19. Handling of Semiconductor Components: Sensitive electronic circuits and electronic
components have to be handled with great care. The inappropriate handling of electronic
component can damage or destroy the devices. The devices can be destroyed by driving to
high currents through the device, by overheating the device, by mixing up the polarity, or
by electrostatic discharge (ESD). Therefore, always handle the electronic devices as
indicated by the handout, the specifications in the data sheet or other documentation.
20. Special Precautions during soldering practice
a. Hold the soldering iron away from your body. Don't point the iron towards you.
b. Don't use a spread solder on the board as it may cause short circuit.
c. Do not overheat the components as excess heat may damage the components/board.
d. In case of burn or injury seek first aid available in the lab or at the college dispensary.

II
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Experiment No: 1

Study of CRO & Measurement of Voltage Amplitude & Frequency

Aim:
1. Study of CRO and to find the Amplitude and Frequency using CRO.
2. To measure the Unknown Frequency & Phase difference using CRO.
Components and Equipments Required: Cathode-ray oscilloscope, Function Generator (2),
Decade Resistance Box (DRB), Capacitor, CRO Probes and Bread Board.
Theory:

An outline explanation of how an oscilloscope works can be given using the block diagram
shown below.

Fig. 1: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Like a television screen, the screen of an oscilloscope consists of a Cathode Ray Tube.
Although the size and shape are different, the operating principle is the same. Inside the tube is a
vacuum. The electron beam emitted by the heated cathode at the rear end of the tube is
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accelerated and focused by one or more anodes, and strikes the front of the tube, producing a
bright spot on the phosphorescent screen.

The electron beam is bent, or deflected, by voltages applied to two sets of plates fixed in
the tube. The horizontal deflection plates or X-plates produce side to side movement. As you can
see, they are linked to a system block called the time base. This produces a saw tooth waveform.
During the rising phase of the saw tooth, the spot is driven at a uniform rate from left to right
across the front of the screen. During the falling phase, the electron beam returns rapidly from
right ot left, but the spot is 'blanked out' so that nothing appears on the screen. In this way, the
time base generates the X-axis of the V/t graph.

The slope of the rising phase varies with the frequency of the saw tooth and can be
adjusted, using the TIME/DIV control, to change the scale of the X-axis. Dividing the
oscilloscope screen into squares allows the horizontal scale to be expressed in seconds,
milliseconds or microseconds per division (s/DIV, ms/DIV, µs/DIV). Alternatively, if the squares
are 1 cm apart, the scale may be given as s/cm, ms/cm or µs/cm.

The signal to be displayed is connected to the input. The AC/DC switch is usually kept
in the DC position (switch closed) so that there is a direct connection to the Y-amplifier. In the
AC position (switch open) a capacitor is placed in the signal path. The capacitor blocks DC signals
but allows AC signals to pass.

The Y-amplifier is linked in turn to a pair of Y-plates so that it provides the Y-axis of the
the V/t graph. The overall gain of the Y-amplifier can be adjusted, using the VOLTS/DIV control,
so that the resulting display is neither too small nor too large, but fits the screen and can be seen
clearly. The vertical scale is usually given in V/DIV or mV/DIV.

The trigger circuit is used to delay the time base waveform so that the same section of the
input signal is displayed on the screen each time the spot moves across. The effect of this is to
give a stable picture on the oscilloscope screen, making it easier to measure and interpret the
signal.
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Changing the scales of the X-axis and Y-axis allows many different signals to be
displayed. Sometimes, it is also useful to be able to change the positions of the axes. This is
possible using the X-POS and Y-POS controls. For example, with no signal applied, the normal
trace is a straight line across the centre of the screen. Adjusting Y-POS allows the zero level on
the Y-axis to be changed, moving the whole trace up or down on the screen to give an effective
display of signals like pulse waveforms which do not alternate between positive and negative
values.

Fig. 2: Front View of Oscilloscope

Screen: Usually displays a V/t graph, with voltage V on the vertical axis and time t on the
horizontal axis. The scales of both axes can be changed to display a huge variety of signals.

Fig. 3: Screen display of Oscilloscope

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On/Off Switch: Pushed in to switch the oscilloscope on. The green LED illuminates.
X-Y Control: Normally in the OUT position.
When the X-Y button is pressed IN, the oscilloscope does not display a V/t graph. Instead,
the vertical axis is controlled by the input signal to CH II. This allows the oscilloscope to be used
to display a V/V voltage/voltage graph.

The X-Y control is used when you want to display component characteristic curves, or
Lissajous figures. (Links to these topics will be added later.)

TV-Separation: Oscilloscopes are often used to investigate waveforms inside television

systems. This control allows the display to be synchronized with the television system so that the
signals from different points can be compared.

Time / Div: Allows the horizontal scale of the V/t graph to be changed.

Fig. 4: Time division, Intensity, focus, X-Y mode knobs

With more experience of using the oscilloscope, you will develop a clear understanding
of the functions of the important trigger controls and be able to use them effectively.

Intensity and Focus: Adjusting the INTENSITY control changes the brightness of the
oscilloscope display. The FOCUS should be set to produce a bright clear trace.

If required, TR can be adjusted using a small screwdriver so that the oscilloscope trace is
exactly horizontal when no signal is connected.
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X-POS: Allows the whole V/t graph to be moved from side to side on the oscilloscope screen.

This is useful when you want to use the grid in front of the screen to make measurements,
for example, to measure the period of a waveform.

Y-POS I and Y-POS II: These controls allow the corresponding trace to be moved up or
down, changing the position representing 0 V on the oscilloscope screen.

To investigate an alternating signal, you adjust Y-POS so that the 0 V level is close to the
centre of the screen. For a pulse waveform, it is more useful to have 0 V close to the bottom of
the screen. Y-POS I and Y-POS II allow the 0 V levels of the two traces to be adjusted
independently.

Invert: When the INVERT button is pressed IN, the corresponding signal is turned upside down,
or inverted, on the oscilloscope screen. This feature is sometimes useful when comparing signals.

CH I And CH II Inputs: Signals are connected to the BNC input sockets using BNC plugs.

Fig. 5: Voltage division, Channels, AC, DC and GND knobs

The smaller socket next to the BNC input socket provides an additional 0 V, GROUND
or EARTH connection.
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Volts / Div: Adjust the vertical scale of the V/t graph. The vertical scales for CH I and CH II
can be adjusted independently.

DC/AC/GND Slide Switches: In the DC position, the signal input is connected directly to
the Y-amplifier of the corresponding channel, CH I or CH II. In the AC position, a capacitor is
connected into the signal pathway so that DC voltages are blocked and only changing AC signals
are displayed.

In the GND position, the input of the Y-amplifier is connected to 0 V. This allows you to check
the position of 0 V on the oscilloscope screen. The DC position of these switches is correct for most
signals.

Trace Selection Switches: The settings of these switches control which traces appear on the
oscilloscope screen.

Measurement of Amplitude & Frequency:

Fig. 6: Measurement of Amplitude & Frequency

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Model waveforms:

Fig. 7: Sinusoidal waveform

A) Measurement of Amplitude:
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the diagram shown above.
2. Put the CRO on a single channel mode and bring the CRO into operation by adjusting
the trace of the beam to a normal brightness and into a thin line.
3. Now apply the sinusoidal wave of different amplitudes by using the LEVEL and
COARSE buttons of the function generator.
4. Note on the vertical scale the peak to peak amplitude (Vpp).

Observations:

S. No. No. of Vertical Voltage/ Division Vp-p=X*Y Vm=Vp-p/2

Divisions(X) (Y)
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B) Measurement of Frequency:
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the diagram shown above.
2. Put the CRO on a single channel mode and bring the CRO into operation by
adjusting the trace of the beam to a normal brightness and into a thin line.
3. Now apply the sinusoidal wave of different frequencies by using the LEVEL and
COARSE buttons of the function generator.
4. Note down the horizontal scale period (T) in second by observing difference
between the two successive peaks of the waveform.
Observations:

S. No. No. of Horizontal Time/Division T=X*Y f=1/T

(Y)
Divisions(X)
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C) Measurement of Unknown Frequency:

Fig. 8: Measurement of Unknown Frequency

Procedure:
1. Connect the unknown frequency to the vertical (Y) deflection plates (CH -1) and the
known frequency to the horizontal (X) deflection plates (Ch-2) from two function
generators as shown in the figure.
2. Press X- Y mode button on the CRO and obtain the LISSAJOUS PATTERN. The
lissajous pattern is obtained when two sinusoidal signals of different frequencies are
applied to the X and Y deflection plates of the CRO. If the two frequencies are equal, we
get a circle or ellipse.
3. Note down Nx (Number of touching points on X- axis), Ny ( Number of touching points
on Y – axis), Fx ( Frequency of known signal).
4. If the LISSAJOUS pattern obtained is not clear to note the readings, Vary the known
frequency such that a clear lissajous pattern is obtained.
5. The unknown frequency Fy is given by Fy = (Nx * Fx) / (Ny)
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Observations:

S. No. Known frequency Nx Ny Unknown frequency

(fx) fy=( Nx. fx)/ Ny

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D) Measurement of Phase Difference:

Fig. 9: Measurement of Phase Difference

Procedure:
1. Connect the RC phase shift network as shown above in the circuit diagram.
2. Obtain a sinusoidal signal of 5V (Pk- Pk) at 1 KHz from the function generator.
3. Connect the signal from the function generator to the input of the RC phase shift
network and the same signal to the CH-1 of the CRO.
4. Connect the output of the Phase shift network to the CH-2 of the CRO.
5. Press X- Y mode button.
6. The pattern obtained on the screen will be an ellipse.
-1
7. The phase difference between the two signals (θ) is given by θ = sin (B/A).
8. By varying the different values of the resistances from DRB, frequencies, note the
values of B and A and hence find θ.
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Observations:

S. No. f R C -1 B A -1
θ = tan (1/wRC) θ = sin (B/A)

Results:

1. Working of CRO is studied. Amplitude and Frequency a signal is found using CRO.
2. Unknown Frequency & Phase difference are measured using CRO.
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Experiment No: 2,a)

V - I Characteristics of Si & Ge Diodes

Aim:

1. To plot V-I Characteristics of Silicon and Germanium P-N Junction Diodes.

2. To find cut-in voltage for Silicon and Germanium P-N Junction diodes.
3. To find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse biased conditions.

Components:

Name Quantity
Diodes 1N4007(Si) 1
Diodes DR-25(Ge) 1
Resistor 1K 1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

Bread board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
Digital Ammeter 0-200µA/200mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Silicon Diode 1N 4007: Germanium Diode DR 25:

Max Forward Current = 1A Max Forward Current = 250mA

Max Reverse Current = 5.0µA Max Reverse Current = 200µA

Max Forward Voltage = 0.8V Max Forward Voltage = 1V

Max Reverse Voltage = 1000V Max Reverse Voltage = 25V

Max Power Dissipation = 30mW Max Power Dissipation = 250mW

Temperature = -65 to 200° C Temperature = -55 to 75° C

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Theory:

Donor impurities (pentavalent) are introduced into one-side and acceptor impurities into
the other side of a single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor to form a p-n diode with a junction
called depletion region (this region is depleted off the charge carriers). This region gives rise to a
potential barrier called Cut-in Voltage. This is the voltage across the diode at which it starts
conducting. The P-N junction can conduct beyond this potential.

The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply
is connected to anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected the cathode. Then
diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential barrier at the
junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the holes from p-
side and electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and constitute a forward current
from n-side (injected minority current – due to holes crossing the junction and entering P- side of
the diode). Assuming current flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be
approximated as short- circuited switch.

If –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve terminal of the
input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In this
condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier
at the junction. Both the holes on P-side and electrons on N-side tend to move away from the
junction there by increasing the depleted region. However the process cannot continue
indefinitely, thus a small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode.
This current is negligible hence the diode can be approximated as an open circuited switch.

The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by the following equations

VD
I = IO e η VT − 1

Where I = current flowing in the diode, I0 = reverse saturation current VD = Voltage applied to
the diode
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VT = volt- equivalent of temperature = k T/q = T/ 11,600 = 26mV (@ room temp)
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= 1(for Ge) and 2 (for Si)

It is observed that Ge diodes has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The
reverse saturation current in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon diode.

Theoretically the dynamic resistance of a diode is determined using the following

equation:

Dynamic Resistance:
𝜂 𝑉𝑇 I
𝑅𝐷 =

Circuit Diagrams:

Fig. 1: Forward Bias Condition

Fig. 2: Reverse Bias Condition

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Procedure:

Forward Bias Condition:

1. Connect the components as shown in the Fig.1.

2. Vary the supply voltage such that the voltage across the Silicon diode varies from 0 to
0.6 V in steps of 0.1 V and in steps of 0.02 V from 0.6 to 0.76 V. In each step record the
current flowing through the diode as I.
3. Repeat the above steps for Germanium diode too but with the exception that the voltage
across the diode should be varied in steps of 0.01 V from 0.1 to 0.3 V in step-2.

Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the diode in the reverse bias as shown in the Fig.2.

2. Vary the supply voltage such that the voltage across the diode varies from 0 to 10V in
steps of 1 V. Record the current flowing through the diode in each step.
3. Repeat the above steps for Germanium diode too and record the current in each step.
4. Now plot a graph between the voltage across the diode and the current flowing through
the diode in forward and reverse bias, for Silicon and Germanium diodes on separate graph
sheets. This graph is called the V-I characteristics of the diodes.
5. Calculate the static and dynamic resistance of each diode in forward and reverse bias
using the following formulae.

Static resistance, R = V/I

Dynamic resistance, r = ∆V/∆I

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Observations:

(a) Forward & Reverse bias characteristics of Silicon diode

Forward Bias Condition: Reverse Bias Condition:

S. No. Forward Forward S. No. Reverse Reverse

Voltage Current Voltage Current
across the through the across the through the
diode diode diode diode

Vd (Volt) Id (mA) VR (Volt) IR (µA)

(b) Forward & Reverse bias characteristics of Germanium diode

Forward Bias Condition: Reverse Bias Condition:

S. No. Forward Forward S. No. Reverse Reverse

Voltage Current Voltage Current
across the through the across the through the
diode diode diode diode

Vd (Volt) Id (mA) Vr (Volt) IR (µA)

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Graphs:

1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the graph
sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as Vf, -ve X-axis as VR, +ve Y-axis as If and –ve Y-axis as IR.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for Si forward biased condition in first Quadrant and Si
reverse biased condition in third Quadrant.
4. Repeat the same procedure for plotting the Germanium characteristics.

Calculations from Graph:

Static forward Resistance Static Reverse Resistance

Dynamic Forward Resistance Dynamic Reverse Resistance

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Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead to
damaging of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.

Results:

Cut in voltage = V

Static Forward Resistance = _

Dynamic Forward Resistance = _

Static Reverse Resistance = _

Dynamic Reverse Resistance = _

V-I Characteristics of Silicon & Germanium P-N Junction Diodes are studied.
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Viva Questions

1. What are trivalent and pentavalent impurities?

Ans: Doping is the process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic silicon or germanium to
improve the conductivity of the semiconductor.
Commonly Used Doping Elements
Trivalent Impurities to make p-Type: Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga), Boron(B) and Indium (In).
Pentavalent Impurities to make n-type: Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) and
Bismuth (Bi).

2. How PN junction diode does acts as a switch?

Ans: Apply voltage in one direction; it acts like an open circuit. Reverse the polarity of the
voltage and it acts like a short circuit.
3. Diode current equation?

Ans:

4. What is the value of Vt at room temperature?

Ans: 25mV

5. What is cut-in-voltage?

Ans: The forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly is
called as the cut-in voltage. It is generally 0.7V for a Silicon diode and 0.3V for a germanium
diode.

6. Dynamic resistance expression?

𝜂 𝑉𝑇
Ans: =
I
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Experiment No.:2,b)

Zener Diode Characteristics

Aim: To plot V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode.

Components:

Name Quantity
Zener Diodes 1N4735A/ FZ 5.1 1
Resistor 1K 1

Equipments:

Name Range Quantity

Bread board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
Digital Ammeter 200mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Breakdown Voltage = 5.1V

Power dissipation = 0.75W

Max Forward Current = 1A

Theory: Zener diode is a heavily doped Silicon diode. An ideal P-N junction diode does not
conduct in reverse biased condition. A Zener diode conducts excellently even in reverse biased
condition. These diodes operate at a precise value of voltage called break down voltage. A Zener
diode when forward biased behaves like an ordinary P-N junction diode. A Zener diode when
reverse biased can undergo avalanche break down or zener break down.

Avalanche Break down:

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion region at the junction
widens. Application of a very large electric field at the junction increases the kinetic energy of the
charge carriers which collides with the adjacent atoms and generates charge carriers by
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breaking the bond, they in-turn collides with other atoms by creating new charge carriers, this
process is cumulative which results in the generation of large current resulting in Avalanche
Breakdown.

Zener Break down:

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region at the junction
reduces, it leads to the development of strong electric field and application of even a small voltage
at the junction may rupture covalent bond and generate large number of charge carriers. Such
sudden increase in the number of charge carriers results in Zener break down.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Forward Bias Condition

Fig. 2: Reverse Bias Condition

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Procedure:

Forward Bias Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1.

2. Vary VF gradually from 0 to 0.6 V in steps of 0.1 V and in steps of 0.02 V from 0.6 to
0.76 V. In each step record the current flowing through the diode as IF.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.

Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the Zener diode in reverse bias as shown in the fig.2. Vary the voltage across the
diode in steps of 1V from 0 V to 6 V and in steps 0.1 V till its breakdown voltage is reached.
In each step note the current flowing through the diode
2. Plot a graph between V and I. This graph will be called the V-I characteristics of Zener
diode. From the graph find out the breakdown voltage for the diode.

Observations:

Forward Bias Condition: Reverse Bias Condition:

Forward Voltage Forward Current Reverse Voltage Reverse Current

S. No. across the diode through the S. No. across the diode through the diode
VF (volts) diode IF (mA) VR (volts) IR (mA)
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Graph:

1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the graph
sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as VF, -ve X-axis as VR, +ve Y-axis as IF and –ve Y-axis as IR.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for forward biased condition in first Quadrant and reverse
biased condition in third Quadrant.

Fig. 3: V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

Calculations from Graph:

Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead to
damaging of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.

Results:

1. The Zener Diode Characteristics have been studied.

2. The breakdown voltage of Zener diode in reverse bias was found to be = _
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Viva Questions

1. What is the difference between p-n Junction diode and zener diode?

Ans: A zener is designed to operate stably in reverse breakdown, which is designed to be at a low
voltage, between 3 volts and 200 volts. The breakdown voltage is specified as a voltage with a
tolerance, such as 10 volts ±5%, which means the breakdown voltage (or operating voltage) will
be between 9.5 volts and 10.5 volts. A signal diode or rectifier will have a high reverse breakdown,
from 50 to 2000 volts, and is NOT designed to operate in the breakdown region. So exceeding the
reverse voltage may result in the device being damaged. In addition, the breakdown voltage is
specified as a minimum only. Forward characteristics are similar to both, although the zener's
forward characteristics is usually not specified, as the zener will never be used in that region. A
signal diode or rectifier has the forward voltage specified as a max voltage at one or more current
levels.

2. What is break down voltage?

Ans: The breakdown voltage of a diode is the minimum reverse voltage to make the diode
conduct in reverse.

3. What are the applications of Zener diode?

Ans: Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to regulate the
voltage across small circuits.

4. What is cut-in-voltage ?

Ans: The forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly, is
called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage. It is generally 0.6v for a Silicon diode.

5. What is voltage regulator?

Ans: A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable dc voltage independent of
the load current, temperature and ac line voltage variations.
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Experiment No: 3

Characteristics of BJT in Common Emitter Configuration

Aim: To plot the Characteristics of a BJT in Common Emitter Configuration.

Components:

Name Quantity
Transistor BC 107 1
Resistor 1K 1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

Bread Board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 2
Digital Ammeter 0-200mA/0-200µA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 2
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

For Transistor BC 107:

• Max Collector Current= 0.1A

• Vceo max= 50V
• VEB0 = 6V
• VCB0 = 50V
• Collector power dissipation = 500mW
• Temperature Range = -65 to +150 0C
• hfe = 110 - 220

Theory:

A BJT is called as Bipolar Junction Transistor and it is a three terminal active device which
has emitter, base and collector as its terminals. It is called as a bipolar device because the flow of
current through it is due to two types of carriers i.e., majority and minority carriers
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In CE configuration base will be input node and collector will be the output node .Here
emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output and hence the name common emitter
configuration.

A transistor in CE configuration is used widely as an amplifier. While plotting the

characteristics of a transistor the input voltage and output current are expressed as a function of
input current and output voltage.

i. e, VBE = f ( IB, VCE ) and

IC = f ( IB, VCE )

Transistor characteristics are of two types.

Input characteristics:- Input characteristics are obtained between the input current and input
voltage at constant output voltage. It is plotted between VBE and IB at constant VCE in CE
configuration

Output characteristics:- Output characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and output
current at constant input current. It is plotted between VCE and IC at constant IB in CE configuration

The different regions of operation of the BJT are

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Emitter Junction Collector Junction Region Application

RB RB CUTT OFF OFF SWITCH

FB FB SATURATION ON SWITCH

FB RB ACTIVE AMPLIFIER

RB FB REVERSE ACTIVE ATTENUATOR

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Input Characteristics

Fig. 2: Output Characteristics

BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Pin assignment of Transistor:

Procedure:

Input Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in fig.(1). Adjust all the knobs of the power supply to their
minimum positions before switching the supply on.
2) Adjust the VCE to 0 V by adjusting the supply VCC.
3) Vary the supply voltage VBB so that VBE varies in steps of 0.1 V from 0 to 0.5 V and then in
steps of 0.02 V from 0.5 to 0.7 V. In each step note the value of base current IB.
4) Adjust VCE to 1, 2V and repeat step-3 for each value of VCE.
5) Plot a graph between VBE and IB for different values of VCE. These curves are called input
characteristic

Output Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. (2). All the knobs of the power supply must be at the
minimum position before the supply is switched on.
2) Adjust the base current IB to 20 µA by adjusting the supply VBB.
3) Vary the supply voltage VCC so that the voltage VCE varies in steps of 0.2 V from 0 to 2 V and then
in steps of 1 V from 2 to 10 V. In each step the base current should be adjusted to the present value
and the collector current IC should be recorded.
4) Adjust the base current at 40, 60 µA and repeat step-3 for each value of IB.
5) Plot a graph between the output voltage VCE and output current IC for different values of the input
current IB. These curves are called the output characteristics.
BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Observations:
Input Characteristics

VCE = 0V VCE = 2V

VBE(V) IB(µA) VBE(V) IB(µA)

Output Characteristics

IB = 20µA IB = 40µA IB = 60µA

VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)

Graph:

Fig. 3: Input Characteristics

BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Fig. 4: Output Characteristics

Precautions:

1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may
lead to damage the transistor.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.

Results:

Input and output Characteristics of a BJT in Common Emitter Configuration are studied.

Viva Questions

1. What is transistor?

Ans: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a
portmanteau of the term "transfer resistor".
BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

2. What is the range of α ?

Ans: The important parameter is the common-base current gain, . The common-base current gain
is approximately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the forward-active region. This
ratio usually has a value close to unity; between 0.98 and 0.998.
3. Why is α is less than unity?
Ans: It is less than unity due to recombination of charge carriers as they cross the base region.
4. Input and output impedance equations for CB configuration?
Ans: hib=VEB/IE,1/hob=VCB/IC
5. Can we replace transistor by two back to back connected diodes?
Ans: No, because the doping levels of emitter (heavily doped), base(lightly doped) and
collector(doping level greater than base and less than emitter) terminals are different from p and n
terminals in diode.

6. For amplification CE is preferred, why?

Ans: Because amplification factor beta is usually ranges from 20-500 hence this configuration
gives appreciable current gain as well as voltage gain at its output on the other hand in the Common
Collector configuration has very high input resistance(~750K ) & very low output resistance(~25
) so the voltage gain is always less than one & its most important application is for impedance
matching for driving from low impedance load to high impedance source
7. To operate a transistor as amplifier, emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is
reverse biased, why?
Ans: Voltage is directly proportional to Resistance. Forward bias resistance is very less compared
to reverse bias. In amplifier input forward biased and output reverse biased so voltage at output
increases with reverse bias resistance.
8. Which transistor configuration provides a phase reversal between the input and output signals?
Ans: Common emitter configuration (180 DEG)
9. What is the range if β?
Ans: β usually ranges from 20-500.
BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB
BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Experiment No: 4
COMMON BASE TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To plot the family of input and out put characteristics of a transistor connected in Common
Base Configuration.

APPARATUS:

1. Transistor SL 100 1No.

2. Resistor 1K  1No.
3. Ammeter 0-20mA 2No.
4. Multimeter 1No.
5. 0-30V, 1A Dual Channel powers supply 1No.
6. Bread Board 1No.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY :

In the common Base configuration input is applied between emitter and base , similarly
output is taken from collector and base. Here base of the transistor is common to both input
and output circuits and hence the name common base configuration.

Input characteristics are similar to forward bias characteristics of a P-N junction diode
.The curve shift left with increase in VCB value. Output characteristics can be obtained by
varying the out put voltage and noting the out put current. The characteristics have been
divided in to three regions namely active, saturation and cut off region. But BJT has low
input resistance and high output resistance in Common Base configuration.
PROCEDURE:
Input characteristics:
1.Connect the circuit as in the circuit Diagram.

2.Make VCB open and Vary the 5V Supply (Channel-1) and note the Values
Of IE and VBE by increasing the IE in steps of 0.5mA
3.Adjust VCB = 1V (Channel -2) Power supply.

4.Vary the 0-5V(Channel -1)power Supply and the Values of IE and VEB.
5.Repeat the steps 3 & 4 For VCB = 2V , 3V, 4V.
 CB CHARACTERISTICS

TABULAR FORM:-

S.No VCB Open VCB = 1V VCB = 2V VCB = 3V VCB = 4V

IE(mA ) VEB(V) IE(mA ) VEB(V) IE(mA ) VEB(V) IE(mA ) VEB(V) IE(mA ) VEB(V)
1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
3 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
4 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
5. 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
6 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
7. 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
8. 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:-
1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit Diagram.
2. Adjust the 0 – 5V (Channel – 1) power supply and fix the value I E =0.5mA
3. Vary the 0 – 20 V (Channel – 2) power supply and note the value of I c andVCB
4. Vary the VCB inspects of 1v
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 for IE = 1mA, 1.5mA, 2mA, 2.5mA

TABULAR FORM:-

IE=0.5mA IE=1mA IE=1.5mA IE=2mA IE=2.5mA

VcB(v) Ic(mA) VcB(v) Ic(mA) VcB(v) Ic(mA) VcB(v) Ic(mA) VcB(v) Ic(mA)
1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8 8
GRAPH:- INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS :

1. Plot the input characteristics by taking IE on y – axis and VEB on X – axis

2. Plot the output characteristics by taking Ic on y – axis and VcB on X – axis

RESULT: - Input and Output characteristics are plotted

QUESTIONS :

1. Define transistor and mention types of transistors . Drwa their symbolic diagram and
indicate terminals ?
2. What are the three configurations of Transistor ?
3. In which region transistor acts as an Amplifier ?
4. In which region transistor acts as an Switch ?
5. Why transistor is called current controlled device?
6. What is meant by Base width modulation?
7 What is the range of α for the transistor?
8 Draw the input and output characteristics of the transistor in CB configuration?
 Experiment No: 5

Characteristics of JFET in Common source Configuration

Aim:

1. To study Drain Characteristics and Transfer Characteristics of a Junction Field

Effect Transistor (JFET).
2. To measure drain resistance, trans-conductance and amplification factor.
Components:

Name Quantity
JFET BFW 11 1
Resistor 1M 1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

Bread Board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
Digital Ammeter 0-200mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 2
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

For FET BFW11:

Gate Source Voltage VGS = -30V

Forward Gain Current IGF = 10mA

Maximum Power Dissipation PD = 300mW

Pin assignment of FET:

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Characteristics of FET

Theory:

A JFET is called as Junction Field effect transistor. It is a unipolar device because the flow
of current through it is due to one type of carriers i.e., majority carriers where as a BJT is a Bi -
Polar device, It has 3 terminals Gate, Source and Drain. A JFET can be used in any of the three
configurations viz, Common Source, Common Gate and Common Drain. The input gate to source
junction should always be operated in reverse bias, hence input resistance R i = ∞, IG ≈ 0.

Pinch off voltage VP is defined as the gate to source reverse bias voltage at which the output
drain current becomes zero.

In CS configuration Gate is used as input node and Drain as the output node. A JFET in
CS configuration is used widely as an amplifier. A JFET amplifier is preferred over a BJT amplifier
when the demand is for smaller gain, high input resistance and low output resistance.
Procedure:

Transfer Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown. All the knobs of the power supply must be at the minimum
position before the supply is switched on.
2) Adjust the output voltage VDS to 4V by adjusting the supply VDD.
3) Vary the supply voltage VGG so that the voltage VGS varies in steps of -0.25 V from 0 V
onwards. In each step note the drain current ID. This should be continued till ID becomes
zero.
4) Repeat above step for VDS = 8 V.
5) Plot a graph between the input voltage VGS and output current ID for output voltage VDS
in the second quadrant. This curve is called the transfer characteristics.
Drain Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in figure. Adjust all the knobs of the power supply to their
minimum positions before switching the supply on.
2) Adjust the input voltage VGS to 0 V by adjusting the supply VGG.
3) Vary the supply voltage VDD so that VDS varies in steps of 0.5 V from 0 to 4 V and then
in steps of 1 V from 4 to 10 V. In each step note the value of drain current ID.
4) Adjust VGS to -1 and -2 V and repeat step-3 for each value of VGS.
5) Plot a graph between VDS and ID for different values of VGS. These curves are called drain
characteristics.
6) Mark the various regions in the drain characteristics graph and calculate the drain
resistance.
Observations:

Transfer Characteristics

VDS = 4V VDS = 6V
VGS(V) ID(mA) VGS(V) ID(mA)

Drain Characteristics

VGS = 0V VGS = -1V VGS = -2V

VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)
Graph:

Drain Characteristics
Transfer Characteristics

1. Plot the drain characteristics by taking VDS on X-axis and ID on Y-axis at a constant VGS.
2. Plot the transfer characteristics by taking VGS on X-axis and taking ID on Y-axis at
constant VDS.

Calculations from Graph:

1. Drain Resistance (rd): It is given by the relation of small change in drain to source voltage
( VDS) to the corresponding change in Drain Current ( I D) for a constant gate to source
voltage ( VGS), when the JFET is operating in pinch-off region.
2. Trans Conductance (gm): Ratio of small change in drain current ( ID) to the corresponding
change in gate to source voltage ( VGS) for a constant VDS.

gm at constant VDS (from transfer characteristics).

The value of gm is expressed in mho’s ( ) or Siemens (s).

3. Amplification factor (µ): It is given by the ratio of small change in drain to source voltage
 ( VDS) to the corresponding change in gate to source voltage ( VGS) for a constant drain
current (ID).

Precautions:

1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the FET. This may lead to
damage the FET.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the Source, Drain and Gate terminals of the transistor.

Results:

1. Drain Characteristics and Transfer Characteristics of a Field Effect (FET) Transistor are studied.
2. Drain resistance, trans-conductance and amplification factor are measured.

Viva Questions

1. Why FET is called a Unipolar device?

Ans: FETs are unipolar transistors as they involve single-carrier-type operation.

2. What is trans-conductance?

Ans: Trans-conductance is an expression of the performance of a bipolar transistor or field-effect

transistor (FET). In general, the larger the trans-conductance figure for a device, the greater the
gain (amplification) it is capable of delivering, when all other factors are held constant. The symbol
for trans-conductance is gm. The unit is Siemens, the same unit that is used for direct- current (DC)
conductance.

3. What are the disadvantages of FET?

Ans: It has a relatively low gain-bandwidth product compared to a BJT. The MOSFET has a dr

4. Relation between µ, gm and rd?

Ans: µ = gm * rd
 Experiment No: 6

Common Emitter BJT Amplifier

Aim:

1. To plot the frequency response of a Common Emitter BJT amplifier.

2. To find the cut off frequencies, Bandwidth and calculate its gain.

Components:

Name Quantity
Transistor BC547 1
Resistor 74K , 15K , 4.7K , 1K , 2.2K , 8.2K 1,1,1,1,1,1
Capacitor 10µF,100µF, 1 KPF 2, 1,1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

Bread Board 1
Dual DC power supply 0-30V 1
Function Generator (0-1)MHz 1
Digital Ammeter, Voltmeter [0-200µA/200mA], [0- 1
20V]
CRO (0-20)MHz 1
CRO probes, Connecting
Wires

Specifications:

For Transistor BC 547:

Max Collector Current= 0.1A

Vceo max= 50V
VEB0 = 6V
VCB0 = 50V
Collector power dissipation = 500mW
Temperature Range = -65 to +150 0C
hfe = 110 - 220
Theory:

An amplifier is an electronic circuit that can increase the strength of a weak input signal
without distorting its shape. The common emitter configuration is widely used as a basic amplifier
as it has both voltage and current amplification with 1800 phase shift.

The factor by which the input signal gets multiplied after passing through the amplifier
circuit is called the gain of the amplifier. It is given by the ratio of the output and input signals.
Gain = output signal / input signal

A self bias circuit is used in the amplifier circuit because it provides highest Q-point
stability among all the biasing circuits. Resistors R1 and R2 forms a voltage divider across the
base of the transistor. The function of this network is to provide necessary bias condition and
ensure that emitter-base junction is operating in the proper region.

In order to operate transistor as an amplifier, the biasing is done in such a way that the
operating point should be in the active region. For an amplifier the Q-point is placed so that the
load line is bisected. Therefore, in practical design it is always set to Vcc/2. This will confirm that
the Q-point always swings within the active region. Output is produced without any clipping or
distortion for the maximum input signal. If not reduce the input signal magnitude.

The Bypass Capacitor:

The emitter resistor is required to obtain the DC quiescent stability. However the inclusion
of it in the circuit causes a decrease in amplification. In order to avoid such a condition, it is
bypassed by capacitor so that it acts as a short circuit for AC and contributes stability for DC
quiescent condition. Hence capacitor is connected in parallel with emitter resistance which
increases the A.C gain.

The Coupling capacitor:

An amplifier amplifies the given AC signal. In order to have noiseless transmission of a

signal (without DC), it is necessary to block DC i.e. the direct current should not enter the
amplifier or load. This is usually accomplished by inserting a coupling capacitor between two
stages.

Frequency response :

The plot of gain versus frequency is called as frequency response. The coupling and bypass
capacitors causes the gain to fall at low frequency region and internal parasitic capacitance and
shunt capacitor causes the gain to fall at high frequency region. In the mid frequency range large
capacitors are effectively short circuits and the stray capacitors are open circuits, so that no
capacitance appear in the mid frequency range. Hence the mid band frequency gain is maximum.
Hence we get a Band Pass frequency response

Characteristics of CE Amplifier:

Large current gain.

Large voltage gain.
Large power gain.
• Current and voltage phase shift of 180°.
Moderate output resistance.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: CE BJT Amplifier

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1, Set source voltage as 50mV P-P at 1 KHz
frequency using the function generator.
2. Keeping the input voltage as constant, vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 1 MHz in
regular steps and note down the corresponding output P-P voltage.
3. Plot the graph for gain in (dB) verses Frequency on a semi log graph sheet.
4. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph.

Observations:

Frequency Vs (Volts) Vo(Volts) Gain = Vo/Vs Gain(dB) = 20 log(Vo/Vs)

Graph:

In the usual application, mid band frequency range is defined as those frequencies at which
the response has fallen to 3dB below the maximum gain (|A| max). These are shown as f L, fH and
are called as the 3dB frequencies or simply the lower and higher cut off frequencies respectively.
The difference between the higher cut off and lower cut off frequency is referred to as the
bandwidth (fH - fL).

Fig. 2: Frequency Response Curve of RC coupled BJT CE Amplifier

Calculations from Graph:

Precautions:

1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may
lead to damage the transistor.
2. Connect signal generator in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.

Results:

1. The BJT CE amplifier is studied

2. The frequency response curve of the BJT CE amplifier is plotted.
3. Lower cutoff frequency, fL = …………….
Higher cutoff frequency, fH = Bandwidth

Viva Question

1. What is cut off frequency?

Ans: In electronics, cutoff frequency or corner frequency is the frequency either above or below
which the power output of a circuit, such as a line, amplifier, or electronic filter has fallen to a
given proportion of the power in the pass band.
2. What are the applications of CE amplifier?
Ans: Low frequency voltage amplifier, radio frequency circuits and low-noise amplifiers
3. What is active region?
Ans: The active region of a transistor is when the transistor has sufficient base current to turn the
transistor on and for a larger current to flow from emitter to collector.
4. What is Bandwidth?
Ans: Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies in a continuous set of
frequencies. It is typically measured in hertz, and may sometimes refer to pass band bandwidth,
sometimes to baseband bandwidth, depending on context. Pass band bandwidth is the difference
between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of, for example, a band pass filter, a
communication channel, or a signal spectrum.
 Experiment No: 7

Hartley & Colpitts Oscillators

Aim: To study the operation of Hartley & Colpitts oscillator circuits and to determine their
frequency of oscillations.

Components and Equipments required: HI-Q electronics Hartley oscillator trainer, HI-Q
electronics Colpitts oscillator trainer, CRO, CRO probe & connecting patch cords.

Theory: An Oscillator is an electronic circuit that provides an AC output without using an AC

input. All sinusoidal oscillator circuits use the concept of positive feedback to produce oscillations.

An oscillator circuit must satisfy the Barkhausen’s criteria of unity loop gain to produce
oscillations. Oscillators are extensively used in radio & TV receivers to generate a high frequency
carrier signal in the tuning stages.

Frequency of oscillations is the frequency at which the phase of loop gain equals zero or
integral multiple of 2π. Oscillations are sustained when the magnitude of loop gain equals unity.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Hartley oscillator

 Fig. 2: Colpitts oscillator

Procedure:

Part-1: Hartley Oscillator

1) Complete the circuit as shown in Fig. 1, by connecting the capacitor C1 provided on

panel of the trainer.
2) Switch ON the power supply for trainer.
3) Connect the CRO to the output terminals & vary the Rc till the stable oscillations are
obtained on the CRO.
4) Now measure the frequency of oscillations practically.
5) Repeat the above steps for different values of capacitors C2, C3 & C4.
6) Draw the oscillations obtained on a graph sheet.
Part-2: Colpitts Oscillator

1) Complete the circuit as shown in Fig. 2, by connecting the capacitors C1 & C2 provided
on panel of the trainer.
2) Switch ON the power supply for trainer.

3) Connect the CRO to the output terminals & measure the frequency of oscillations
practically.
4) Repeat the above steps by selecting another pair of capacitors C1 & C2.
5) Draw the oscillations obtained on a graph sheet.
Observations:

Hartley Oscillator

S. No. C L1 L2 T f = 1/T

Colpitts Oscillator

S. No. C1 C2 L T f = 1/T

Results: The operation of Hartley & Colpitts oscillator circuits is studied, & their frequency of
oscillations is verified with the theoretical values.
 Experiment No: 8

Applications of Operational Amplifier

Aim: To study the Operational amplifier as Adder, Subtractor, Comparator, Integrator &
Differentiator.

Components and Equipments required: IC741, Regulated DC power supply (2), Resistors (10
k  (4), 1k  (2)), Capacitors (0.01 µF (2)), Multimeter, Signal generator, CRO, CRO probes,
Bread board and connecting wires.

Theory: The Operational amplifier (Op-amp) is a high gain, direct coupled, differential amplifier
with high input resistance & low output resistance. It is named so as it can be used to perform a
number of mathematical operations, like addition, subtraction, comparison, integration &
differentiation etc.

A circuit in which the output voltage is sum of the inputs is called an adder.
A circuit in which the output voltage is difference between the inputs is called a subtractor.
A circuit which compares an input with a reference voltage is called a comparator.
A circuit in which the output voltage is the integral of the input is called an integrator.
A circuit in which the output voltage is the derivative of the input is called a differentiator.
Part-1: Adder, Subtractor & Comparator
Procedure:

1. Connect the circuits as shown in Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3 & Fig. 4.

2. Apply the inputs from a regulated power supply.
3. Measure the output voltage using a multimeter.
4. Repeat the above steps for different values of inputs.
Observations:
 Part-2: Integrator & Differentiator

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuits as shown in Fig. 5 & Fig. 6.

2. Apply a square wave of 3 kHz frequency from Function generator, as input to the
Integrator. Observe the output waveform.
3. Apply a triangular wave of 3 kHz frequency from Function generator, as input to the
Differentiator. Observe the output waveform.
4. Draw the input & output waveforms for above circuits on a graph sheet.
Expected Waveforms:

Results: The Operational amplifier is studied as Adder, Subtractor, Comparator, Integrator &
Differentiator, and their outputs are verified.
 Experiment No: 9.a)

Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier without Filter

Aim: (i) To study the operation of Half wave and Full wave rectifier without filter

(ii) To find its:

1. Ripple Factor
2. Efficiency
3. Percentage Regulation

Components:

Name Quantity
Diodes 1N4007(Si) 2
Resistor 1K 1

Equipments:

Name Range Quantity

CRO (0-20)MHz 1
CRO probes 2
Digital Ammeter, Voltmeter [0-200µA/200mA], [0-20V] 1
Transformer 220V/9V, 50Hz 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Silicon Diode 1N4007:

Max. Forward Current = 1A

Max. Reverse Current = 5.0µA

Max. Forward Voltage = 0.8V

Max. Reverse Voltage = 1000V

Max. Power Dissipation = 30mW

Temperature = -65 to 200° C

Theory:

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a signal
that is a combination of AC and DC components.

A half wave rectifier makes use of single diode to carry out this conversion. It is named so
as the conversion occurs for half input signal cycle. During the positive half cycle, the diode is
forward biased and it conducts and hence a current flows through the load resistor. During the
negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it is equivalent to an open circuit, hence the
current through the load resistance is zero. Thus the diode conducts only for one half cycle and
results in a half wave rectified output.

A full wave rectifier makes use of a two diodes to carry out this conversion. It is named so
as the conversion occurs for complete input signal cycle. The full-wave rectifier consists of a
center-tap transformer, which results in equal voltages above and below the center-tap. During the
positive half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D1 while a negative voltage appears
at the anode of D2. Due to this diode D1 is forward biased it results in a current Id1 through the
load R. During the negative half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D2 and hence it
is forward biased. Resulting in a current Id2 through the load at the same instant a negative voltage
appears at the anode of D1 thus reverse biasing it and hence it doesn’t conduct.

Ripple Factor:

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to the
average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol ‘γ’.

𝑉𝐴𝐶 𝑉𝐴𝐶
𝛾 = = 1.21 𝛾 = = 0.48
𝐻𝑊𝑅 𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝐹𝑊𝑅 𝑉𝐷𝐶

Rectification Factor:

The ratio of output DC power to input AC power is defined as efficiency.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MJCET

Percentage of Regulation:

It is a measure of the variation of AC output voltage as a function of DC output voltage.

Percentage of regulation = %

VNL = Voltage across load resistance, when minimum current flows through it.

VFL = Voltage across load resistance, when maximum current flows through.

For an ideal rectifier, the percentage regulation is 0 percent. The percentage of regulation is very
small for a practical half wave and full wave rectifier.

Peak- Inverse – Voltage (PIV):

It is the maximum voltage that has to be with stood by a diode when it is reverse biased

PIVHWR = Vm PIVFWR = 2Vm

Comparison of Half-wave and Full-wave rectifier

S. No. Particulars Type of Rectifier

Half-Wave Full-Wave
1. No. of diodes 1 2
2. Maximum Rectification 40.6% 81.2%
Efficiency
3. Vd.c (no load)

4. Ripple Factor 1.21 0.48

5. Peak Inverse Voltage Vm 2Vm
6. Output Frequency f 2f
7. Transformer Utilization Factor 0.287 0.693

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MJCET

Circuit Diagram:

Half wave Rectifier (without filter):

Fig. 1: Circuit diagram of Half-wave rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier (without filter):

Fig. 2: Circuit diagram of Full wave rectifier

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MJCET

Procedure:

PART-I: Half wave rectifier without filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.1.

2. Connect the multimeter across the 1kΩ load.
3. Measure the AC and DC voltages by setting multimeter to ac and dc mode respectively.
4. Now calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.
VAC
Ripple factor (  ) =
VDC

5. Connect the CRO channel-1 across input and channel-2 across output i.e load and
Observe the input and output Waveforms.
6. Now calculate the peak voltage of input and output waveforms and also the frequency.

PART-II: Full wave rectifier without filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.2.

2. Repeat the above steps 2-6
3. Plot different graphs for wave forms and calculate ripple factor

Observations:

Half wave rectifier without Filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance
(RL) Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MJCET

 Full wave rectifier without Filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance
(RL) Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

Calculations:

𝑉𝐴𝐶
1. Ripple Factor = 𝛾𝐻𝑊𝑅 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶

−𝑉𝐹𝐿
2. Percentage Regulation = 𝑉𝑁𝐿 × 100
𝑉𝐹𝐿

Expected Waveforms:

Results:

1. Half Wave and Full Wave rectifier characteristics are studied.

2. Ripple factor of Half wave rectifier = -------------
3. Ripple factor of Full wave rectifier = -------------
4. Regulation of Half wave rectifier = -------------
5. Regulation of Full wave rectifier = -------------
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 Viva Questions

1. What is a rectifier?

Ans: A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is known
as rectification.

2. What is a ripple factor?

Ans: Ripple factor can be defined as the variation of the amplitude of DC (Direct current) due to
improper filtering of AC power supply. it can be measured by RF = vrms / vdc

3. What is efficiency?

Ans: Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power.

4. What is PIV?

Ans: The peak inverse voltage is either the specified maximum voltage that a diode rectifier can
block, or, alternatively, the maximum that a rectifier needs to block in a given application.

5. What are the applications of rectifier?

Ans: The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC supply. Virtually all
electronic devices require DC, so rectifiers are used inside the power supplies of virtually all
electronic equipment. Rectifiers are also used for detection of amplitude modulated radio signals.
rectifiers are used to supply polarized voltage for welding.

6. Give some rectifications technologies?

Ans: Synchronous rectifier, Vibrator, Motor-generator set, Electrolytic ,Mercury arc, and Argon
gas electron tube.

7. What is the efficiency of bridge rectifier?

Ans: 81 %

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 Experiment No: 9.b)

Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier with Filter

Aim: (i) To study the operation of a Half wave and Full wave rectifier with filters
(ii) To find its:

1. Ripple Factor
2. Percentage Regulation

Components:

Name Quantity
Diodes 1N4007(Si) 2
Resistor 1K 1
Capacitor 100µF 2
Inductor (35 mH), 1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

CRO (0-20)MHz 1
CRO probes 2
Digital Ammeter, Voltmeter [0-200µA/200mA], [0-20V] 1
Transformer 220V/9V, 50Hz 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Silicon Diode 1N4007:

Max Forward Current = 1A

Max Reverse Current = 5.0µA

Max Forward Voltage = 0.8V

Max Reverse Voltage = 1000V

Max Power Dissipation = 30mW

Temperature = -65 to 200° C

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Theory:

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a signal
that is a combination of AC and DC components. In DC supplies, a rectifier is often followed by
a filter circuit which converts the pulsating DC signal into pure DC signal by removing the AC
component. An L-section filter consists of an inductor and a capacitor connected in the form of an
inverted L. A 𝜋- section filter consists of two capacitors and one induction in the form symbol pi.

Ripple Factor:

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to the
average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol ‘γ’.

Half Wave Rectifier (with L-section filter):

Fig. 1: Half wave rectifier with L-section Filter

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Full Wave Rectifier (with π-section filter):

Fig. 2: Full wave rectifier with π-section filter

Procedure:

PART-I: Half wave rectifier with L-section filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.1.

2. Connect the multimeter across the 1kΩ load.
3. Measure the AC and DC voltages by setting multimeter to ac and dc mode respectively.
4. Now calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.
VAC
Ripple factor (  ) =
VDC

5. Connect the CRO channel-1 across input and channel-2 across output i.e load and Observe
the input and output Waveforms.
6. Now calculate the peak voltage of input and output waveforms and also the frequency.

PART-II: Full wave rectifier with 𝜋-section filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.2.

2. Repeat the above steps 2-6
3. Plot different graphs for wave forms and calculate ripple factor

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Observations:
Half wave rectifier with L-section filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance
(RL) Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

Full wave rectifier with pi-Section filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance
(RL) Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

Calculations:

1. Ripple factor :

2. Percentage Regulation

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Expected Waveforms:

Results:

Full Wave rectifier characteristics are studied.

1. Ripple factor of Half wave with L-section filter = -------------
2. Ripple factor of Full wave with π-section filter = -------------
3. Regulation of Half wave with L-section filter = -------------
4. Regulation of Half wave with π -section filter = -------------

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 Viva Questions

2. What is filter?

Ans: Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions,
specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal.

3. PIV center tapped FWR?

Ans: 2Vm.

4. In filters capacitor is always connected in parallel, why?

Ans: Capacitor allows AC and blocks DC signal, in rectifier for converting AC to DC, capacitor
placed in parallel with output, where output is capacitor blocked voltage. If capacitance value
increases its capacity also increases which increases efficiency of rectifier.

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