College of Education

SES 9: GENETICS

REPRODUCTION AND
CHROMOSOME
TRANSMISSION
Dr. Nancy Joy M. Mangansat
Chromosomes- contain the genetic
material, genes, a long segment of DNA
and proteins

Chromatin – complex between DNA and

proteins

Chromatid- one of the two identical

halves of a chromosome that has been
replicated in preparation for cell division.

Centromere- a constricted region of the

chromosome where the two “sister”
chromatids are joined
Genome- is the complete set of genetic information in an
organism, stored in long molecules of DNA called
chromosomes

Gene- A gene is a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA or

RNA that is located usually on a chromosome and is the
functional unit of inheritance controlling the transmission and
expression of one or more traits

Allele- An allele is one of two or more versions of a gene

Homologous Chromosome: Homologous chromosomes are

pairs of chromosomes in a diploid organism that have similar
genes, although not necessarily identical. One chromosome in
each pair comes from the organism’s mother, and the other
comes from the father.
Prokaryotes – bacteria
and archaea, prenucleus,
single chromosome, not Eukaryotes- true-
membrane bound nucleus nucleus,
compartamentalization
• Nucleoid – region in a
cytoplasm with the chromosome

Nucleus- two
membranes, localization
of chromosomes
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is the most common way
for eukaryotic organisms to produce offspring
• Parents make gametes with half the amount of genetic
material
• These gametes fuse with each other during fertilization
to begin the life of a new organism

Some simple eukaryotic species are

isogamous
• They produce gametes that are morphologically similar
• Example: Many species of fungi and algae
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Most eukaryotic species are heterogamous

• These produce gametes that are morphologically

different
• Sperm cells
• Relatively small and mobile
• Egg cell or ovum
• Usually large and nonmobile
• Stores a large amount of nutrients, in animal
species
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Gametes are typically haploid

• They contain a single set of chromosomes

Gametes are 1n, while diploid cells are 2n

• A diploid human cell contains 46 chromosomes

• A human gamete only contains 23 chromosomes

During meiosis, haploid cells are produced from diploid cells

• Thus, the chromosomes must be correctly sorted and distributed to reduce

the chromosome number to half its original value
• In humans, for example, a gamete must receive one chromosome from
each of the 23 pairs
 MEIOSIS

Like mitosis, meiosis begins after a cell has progressed through interphase of the cell cycle

Unlike mitosis, meiosis involves two successive divisions

• These are termed Meiosis I and II

• Each of these is subdivided into
• Prophase
• Prometaphase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
MEIOSIS
•division of sex cells
•type of cellular reproduction wherein the
chromosome number is reduced in half so that the
daughter cells are haploid (n)
•the production of haploid cell is important to keep the
number of chromosomes stable from generation to
generation (46 chromosomes in humans)
MEIOSIS
■ Prophase I is further subdivided into periods
known as
■ Leptotene
■ Zygotene
■ Pachytene
■ Diplotene
■ Diakinesis

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 A total of 4
chromatids

Bound to
chromosomal
DNA of
homologous
chromatids

A recognition Figure 3.11 Provides link between

process lateral elements
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 A tetrad

A physical exchange of
chromosome pieces
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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
•production of somatic or •production of sex cell or
body cells germ cell
•repairand replacement of •responsible for gamete
damaged and worn out cell formation in higher form of
•means of asexual
animals
reproduction for eukaryotic •means of sexual
organism reproduction for eukaryotic
organism
 MEIOSIS
MITOSIS •produce four daughter cell
•produce two genetically •produce haploid (n) 23 no of
identical cells chromosome
•produce diploid (2n) 46 no •undergo reductional and
of chromosome equational stage (mi and
•undergo m phase stage mii)
•undergo cell cycle •undergo cell cycle
Animations
■ Meiosis
■ Meiosis
■ Meiosis
■ Meiosis
Spermatogenesis
■ The production of sperm
■ In male animals, it occurs in the testes
■ A diploid spermatogonium cell divides
mitotically to produce two cells
■ One remains a spermatogonial cell
■ The other becomes a primary spermatocyte
■ The primary spermatocyte progresses
through meiosis I and II
■ Refer to Figure 3.14a
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 Each spermatid
matures into a
haploid sperm cell
Meiois I yields two Meiois II yields four
haploid secondary haploid spermatids
spermatocytes

Figure 3.14 (a)

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■ The structure of a sperm includes
■ A long flagellum
■ A head
■ The head contains a haploid nucleus
■ Capped by the acrosome

The acrosome contains

digestive enzymes
- Enable the sperm to penetrate
the protective layers of the egg

■ In human males, spermatogenesis is

a continuous process
■ A mature human male produces several
hundred million sperm per day
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Oogenesis
■ The production of egg cells

■ In female animals, it occurs in the ovaries

■ Early in development, diploid oogonia

produce diploid primary oocytes
■ In humans, for example, about 1 million primary
occytes per ovary are produced before birth

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■ The primary oocytes initiate meiosis I
■ However, they enter into a dormant phase
■ They are arrested in prophase I until the female
becomes sexually mature
■ At puberty, primary oocytes are periodically
activated to progress through meiosis I
■ In humans, one oocyte per month is activated
■ The division in meiosis I is asymmetric
producing two haploid cells of unequal size
■ A large secondary oocyte
■ A small polar body

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■ The secondary oocyte enters meiosis II but is
quickly arrested in it
■ It is released into the oviduct
■ An event called ovulation
■ If the secondary oocyte is fertilized
■ Meiosis II is completed
■ A haploid egg and a second polar body are produced
■ The haploid egg and sperm nuclei then fuse to
created the diploid nucleus of a new individual

■ Refer to Figure 3.14b

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 Unlike spermatogenesis,
the divisions in
oogenesis are
asymmetric

Figure 3.14 (b)

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