XII PHYSICS

Unit-1 Electrostatics
(Electric Charges and Fields, Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance)
1. Quantisation of electric charge,
2. Coulomb’s law

3. Superposition principle
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

√
4. Electric Field
⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗

5. Electric field of a point charge

6. Dipole moment
7. Electric field for a dipole at an axial point at distance form the centre of the dipole
⃗⃗ ̂
( )
⃗⃗
⃗⃗

8. Electric field for a dipole at an equatorial point at distance form the centre of the dipole
⃗
⃗⃗
( )
⃗⃗
⃗⃗

9. Torque on a dipole,
⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ̂ ⃗ ⃗⃗
10. Electric Flux through a plane surface area S,
⃗⃗ ⃗
11. According to Gauss’s law the total electric flux through a closed surface S is

∮ ⃗⃗ ⃗

12.
13. Electric field of a long straight wire at distance ,

14. Electric field of an infinite plane sheet of charge density σ,

001
15. Electric field of a thin spherical shell of charge density σ and radius R,
( )

( ) ( )

16. Electric field of a solid sphere of uniform density ρ and radius R

( )

( ) ( )

17. Electric potential due to a point charge at a distance from it,

18. Potential at a point due to N point charges,

19. Electric potential at a point due to a dipole,

⃗⃗ ⃗

20. Relation between electric field and electric potential,

21. Electric potential energy of a system of two point charges,

22. Electric potential energy of a system of N point charges,

23. Electric potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform electric field,

( )
If initially the dipole is perpendicular to the field E, ( ), then
⃗ ⃗⃗
24. Polarisation vector, where is electric susceptibility.
( )
25. ( ) ( )
26. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor,

27. Equivalent capacitance of a series combination,

002
28. Equivalent capacitance of a parallel combination,

29. Energy stored in a capacitor,

30. Energy stored per unit volume or the energy density of the electric field of a capacitor,

31. Electric field between capacitor plates,

32. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor filled with dielectric of dielectric constant κ,

33. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric slab of thickness t (<d) in between
its plates,

( )
34. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a conducting slab of thickness t (<d) in
between its plates,

35. Dielectric Constant,

003
 U-2 Current Electricity
1. Electric current

2. In case of an electron revolving in a circle of radius r with speed , period of revolution is

, frequency and current

3. Ohm’s law
4. Current in terms of drift velocity ( ),
5. Resistance

6. Resistivity or specific resistance,

7. Conductance
8. Conductivity

9. Current density,

10. Relation between current density and electric field,

11. Mobility,

12. Temperature coefficient of resistance,

( )
If

( )

13. Equivalent resistance in series,

If resistance, each of value is connected in series, than equivalent Resistance

14. Equivalent resistance in parallel,

If resistance, each of value is connected in parallel, than equivalent Resistance

004
15. For a cell of internal resistance , the emf is , ( )
16. Terminal potential difference of a cell,

17. Terminal potential difference when a current is being drawn from the cell,
18. Terminal potential difference when the cell is being charged,
19. Internal resistance of a cell,

[ ]
20. Fr cells in series,

21. For cells in parallel,

22. Heat produce by electric current,

23. Electric power,

24. Electric energy,

25. Kirchhoff’s laws of electrical networks
a. ∑ or total incoming current = total outgoing current (junction rule)
b. ∑ ∑ (loop rule)
26. Potential gradient of the potentiometer wire,
27. For comparing emf of two cells,

28. For measuring internal resistance of a cell,

29. For a balanced Wheatstone bridge,

IF X is unknown resistance

30. In slide wire or metre bridge, if the balance point is obtained at from the zero end,
then

( )

005
 B B ROY of Great Britain had Very Good Wife
or
Better Build Roof Over Your Garage Before Vehicle Gets Wet

006
 Unit-3 Magnetic effect of Current and Magnetism

(Moving charge and Magnetism, Magnetism and Matter)

1. Biot-Savart law,

2. Magnetic field due to an infinitely long conductor,

3. Magnetic field due to a straight conductor of finite length,

( )
4. Magnetic field at the centre of a circular loop,

5. Magnetic field at an axial point of a circular loop,

( )
6. Ampere’s circuital law,
∮ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
When B is directed along tangent to every point on closed curve L,
7. Magnetic field due to straight solenoid,
a. At a point well inside the solenoid,
b. At either end of the solenoid,
Here is the number of turns per unit length
8. Magnetic field inside a toroidal solenoid,
Magnetic field outside the toroid is zero.
9. Force on a charge moving with velocity in a magnetic field at an angle with it is ,

10. For a charged particle, accelerated by a cyclotron,

a. Velocity,

b. Period of revolution,

c. Cyclotron frequency,

d. Maximum kinetic energy,

007
11. Kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated through a potential difference V,

12. Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field, ⃗ (⃗ ⃗⃗ )

13. Force between two parallel current-carrying wires
a. Force per unit length,

b. Force on length of one of the wires,

14. Torque on a current loop in a magnetic field,

Where
In vector form, ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
15. In a moving coil galvanometer,
a. Current,

b. Deflection produced,

c. Figure of merit,

d. Current sensitivity,

e. Voltage sensitivity,

16. For conversion of galvanometer into an ammeter, the shunt resistance,

17. Resistance of an ammeter,

18. For conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter, the value of high resistance in series is,

19. Resistance of a voltmeter,

008
20. Magnetic dipole moment,
21. Coulomb’s law,

22. Magnetic flux through any closed surface , ∑

23. Magnetic field of a bar magnet of length and dipole moment at a distance from its
centre,
a. On the axial line,
( )
( )
b. On the equatorial line,
( )
( )
24. Work done in turning the dipole or P.E. of a dipole, ( )
If initially the dipole is perpendicular to the field, its P.E. is
a. When ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ , P.E. of the dipole is minimum. i.e. Stable
equilibrium.
b. When ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ , P.E. of the dipole is maximum. i.e. Unstable
equilibrium.
c. When ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
25. Magnetic moment of a current loop,
26. Orbital magnetic moment of an electron in orbit,

( )

27. Bohr magneton is the magnetic moment of an electron in first (n=1) orbit.

( )

28. Declination (D) = angle between geographic meridian and magnetic meridian.
29. Relations between elements of earth’s magnetic field are ( = angle of dip or inclination)

Where

30. Magnetisation of a sample, ( )

31. Intensity of magnetisation, ( )

32. Magnetic susceptibility,

33. Relative magnetic permeability of the substance,
34. Total magnetic field

009
 Unit-4 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current

(Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current)

1. Magnetic flux,
⃗⃗ ⃗
2. Induced emf,

3. Average induced emf,

4. Induced current,
| |

5. The emf induced in a conductor of length moving with velocity perpendicular to field ,

6. Induced emf developed between the two ends of a rod rotating at its one end in
perpendicular magnetic field,
7. Induced emf in a rotating coin,

8. Foe self induction,

9. Self induced emf,

10. For mutual inductance,

11. Mutual induced emf,

12. Self inductance of a long solenoid,

13. Mutual inductance of tow closely wounds solenoids,

14. Instantaneous value of ac,

15. Average or mean value of ac over half cycle,

16. rms value of ac,

√
17. For alternating voltages, we have
√

010
18. For an ac circuit containing inductor only
a. Inductive reactance,
b. Current amplitude,

c. Effective current (rms),

√
19. For an ac circuit containing capacitor only
a. Capacitive reactance,

b. Current amplitude,

c. Effective current (rms),

√
20. Impedance of a series LCR-circuit,

√ ( ) √ ( )

21. Phase angle ϕ between current and voltage is given by,

22. Resonant frequency of LCR circuit (when ),

√
23. Q-factor,
√

Where are the frequencies at which current falls to √ times its resonant
value.
24. Power factor,

√ ( )
25. Average power consumed per cycle in a pure resistive circuit,

26. Energy stored in an inductor,

27. Average power consumed per cycle in pure inductive or capacitive circuit = 0

011
28. Energy stored in a capacitor,

29. The voltages and currents in a transformer are related as

30. Power in primary coil of a transformer=power in secondary coil,

31. Efficiency of a transformer,

012
 Unit-5 Electromagnetic Waves
1. Displacement current,

Also,
( ) ( )
2. Modified Ampere’s circuital law,
∮ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( )
3. Wave velocity,
4. Energy of photon,
5. Speed of e.m. wave in vacuum,

√ √
6. For a wave of frequency ν, wavelength λ, propagating along x-direction, the equations for
electric and magnetic fields are
( ) [ ( )]

( ) [ ( )]
7. Amplitude ration of electric and magnetic fields,

√
8. Propagation constant,

9. Average energy density of E-field and B-field ,

10. Average energy density of e.m. wave,

11. Momentum delivered by an e.m wave,

12. Intensity of a wave,

013
 Unit-6 Optics

(Ray optics and Optical instruments, Wave optics)

1. Mirror formula,

2. Magnification produced by a spherical mirror,

3. Refractive index,

4. Snell’s law,

5. Relation between refractive index and critical angle,

6. For refraction through a spherical surface, from rarer to denser medium,

7. For refraction through a spherical surface, from denser to rarer medium,

8. Power of a surface,

9. Thin lens formula,

10. Magnification produced by a lens,

11. Power of a lens,

12. Lens Maker formula,

[ ]

13. For combination of lenses,

14. For lenses in contact, equivalent focal length F is given by,

014
15. The equivalent focal length F of two lenses separated by a distance d is given by,

16. For refraction through a prism,

17. In the condition of minimum deviation,

18. Deviation produced by a prism of small angle,

19. Angular dispersion,
20. Simple microscope
a. When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision, the magnifying
power is .

b. When the final image is formed at infinity, the magnifying power is,
21. Compound microscope
a. Magnifying power,
b. When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision,

( ) ( )

c. When the final image is formed at infinity,

22. Astronomical telescope

a. In normal adjustment, , distance between objective and eyepiece
b. When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision,

( )

23. Reflecting Telescope,

Where
24. Interference at Young’s double slit
a. Resultant amplitude, √
b. Resultant intensity, √
c. When
d. For bright fringe, path difference and for dark fringe, ( )
e. Distance of bright fringe from the center of the screen,

Where

015
 f. Distance of dark fringe from the center of the screen,

( )
g. Fringe width,

h. Ratio of slit widths,

i. Intensity at maxima, and intensity of minima,

25. For diffraction at a single Slit
a. Condition for minimum,
b. Condition for secondary maximum, ( )
c. Angular position or direction of minimum,
d. Distance of minimum from the centre of the screen,
e. Angular position or direction of secondary maximum, ( )
f. Distance of secondary maximum from the centre of the screen, ( )
g. Width of central maximum, D= distance between slit and screen
h. Angular spread of central maximum on either side,
i. Total angular spread of central maximum,
26. Fresnel distance,

27. Size of Fresnal zone, √

28. Resolving power of microscope and telescope
a. Limit of resolution of a telescope,

b. Resolving power of a telescope,

c. Limit of resolution of a microscope,

d. Resolving power of a microscope,

Where half angle of cone of light from the point object.

016
29. Polarisation of light waves
a. Law of Malus,
b. Brewster law,
c.
30. Doppler effect,

is the component of the source velocity along the line joining the observer to the
source relative to the observer; is considered positive when the source moves away
from the observer.

017
 Unit-7 Dual Nature of Matter

(Dual nature of radiation and matter)

1. Energy of a photon,

2. Number of photons emitted per second,

3. Momentum of photon,

4. Equivalent mass of a photon,

5. Kinetic energy of photo electrons,

[ ]

6. If is the stopping potential, the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photo electrons,

7. Kinetic energy,

√
8. De-Broglie wavelength,

√
9. De-Brogile wavelength of an electron beam accelerated through a potential difference of
volts is,

√ √
10. Bragg’s equation for crystal diffraction,

018
 Unit-8 Atoms and Nuclei

(Atoms, Nuclei)
1. K.E of α particle,

2. Distance of closest approach,

3. Impact parameter,

Where is the scattering angle.

For

4.
5. Relation between the orbit radius and the electron velocity for H-atom,

6. For total energy of the electron in a H-atom

7. Bohr radius,

8. Angular momentum,
9. Total energy of the electron in the stationary states of the H-atom,

10. Line spectra of H-atom

a. Frequency,

[ ]

[ ] [ ]

b. Wave number,

̅ [ ]

019
 c. Lyman series,

[ ]
d. Paschen series,

[ ]
e. Brackett series,

[ ]
f. Pfund series,

[ ]
11. Ionisation potential,

12. Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence,

13. Nuclear radius, where
14. Mass defect, [ ]
15. Binding energy,
16. Binding energy per nucleon,
17. Displacement laws for radioactive transformations
a. α-decay,

b. β-decay,
̅
c. -decay,

18. Radioactive decay law

a. –
b. where λ =decay constant
19. Half life,

20. Mean life,

⁄

21. Decay rate or activity of a substance, | |

22. Time required to reduce the radioactive substance,

23. Decay constant,

020
 Unit-9 Electronic Devices
1. For intrinsic semiconductor,
2. At equilibrium in any semiconductor,
3. Minimum energy required to create a hole-electron pair,

4. Mobility of a charge carries,

5. Electric current,
6. Electrical conductivity,

7. For any transistor,

8. For a common emitter transistor amplifier
a. dc current gain,

b. ac current gain,
c. Voltage gain,

d. Power gain,

9. Logic gates
a. OR gate: High output when either of the input is high, otherwise low output,

b. AND gate: High output when both the input ar high, otherwise low output,

c. NOT gate: High output when the input is low, and vice versa.
̅
d. NAND gate: Low output when both inputs are high, otherwise the output is high,
̅̅̅̅̅
e. NOR gate: High output when both the input are low, otherwise the output is low,
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

021
 Unit-1 Electrostatics

(Electric Charges and Fields, Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance)

1. Expression for electric field intensity at a point the axial line of a dipole.

As shown in the figure, consider an electric dipole of charges –q and +q, separated by distance
2a and placed in vacuum. Let P be point on the axial line at a distance r from the centre O of the
dipole on the side of the charge +q.

Electric field due to charge –q at a point P is

⃗ ̂
( )

Where ̂ is a unit vector along the dipole axis from –q to +q.

Electric field due to charge +q at a point P is

⃗ ̂
( )

Hence the resultant electric field at point P is

⃗ ⃗ ⃗

[ ] ̂ ̂
( ) ( ) ( )

⃗ ̂
( )

Here =dipole moment. For can be neglected compared to

⃗ ̂

Electric field at any point on the axis of the dipole acts along the dipole axis from negative to
positive charge, i.e. in the direction of dipole moment⃗⃗⃗ .

023
2. Expression for the electric field intensity at any point along the equatorial line of an
electric dipole.

As shown in the figure, consider an electric dipole of charges –

q and +q, separated by distance 2a and placed in vacuum. Let
P be point on the equatorial line of the dipole at distance r
from it. i.e. OP= r

Electric filed at point P due to +q charge is

⃗
( )

Electric filed at point P due to -q charge is

⃗
( )

Clearly, the magnitudes of ⃗ ⃗ are equal. So, the components of ⃗ ⃗ normal

to the dipole axis will cancel out. The components parallel to the dipole axis will add up. The
total electric field ⃗ is opposite to .

⃗ ( ) ̂

⃗ ⃗ ̂ ( )
⃗ ̂
( )

Now, from fig. √

⃗ ̂
( )√

⃗ ̂
( )

If the point P is located far away from the dipole, , then

⃗ ̂

The direction of electric field at any point on the equatorial line of the dipole will be antiparallel
to the dipole moment ̂ .

Important note: the electric field intensity due to a short dipole at a distance ‘r’ along its axis is
twice the intensity at the same distance along the equatorial axis.

024
3. Expression for the torque acting on an electric dipole, when held in a uniform electric
field. (net translational force is zero)

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges +q and –q and length 2a placed in a uniform
electric field ⃗ , making an angle θ with it. It has a dipole moment of magnitude,

Force exerted on charge +q by field ⃗ ⃗ along ⃗

Force exerted on charge -q by field ⃗ ⃗ opposite to ⃗

⃗ ⃗

Hence net translating force on dipole in a uniform electric field is zero. But the two equal and
opposite force act at different points on the dipole. So, they form a couple and exert torque.

Torque = either force x perpendicular distance between the two forces

( )

As the direction of torque is perpendicular to both ⃗ , we can write

As shown in the figure the direction of torque is that in which a right-handed screw would
advance when rotated from ⃗.

025
4. Deduce Coulomb’s law from Gauss’s theorem or Expression for the force between two
points using two point charges.
As shown in figure, consider an isolated positive point charge q. We select a spherical surface S
of radius r centered at charge q as the Gaussian surface.

By symmetry, ⃗ has same magnitude at all points on S. Also ⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ at any point on S are
directed radially outward. Hence flux through area ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Net flux through closed surface S is

∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∮ ∮

Using Gauss’s theorem, , we get

The force on the point charge if placed on surface S will be

026
5. Expression for the electric field intensity due to infinitely long, straight wire of linear
charge density . (CBSE 04, 05, 06C, 07)

Consider a thin infinitely long straight wire having a uniform linear

charge density . By symmetry, the field ⃗ of the line charge
is directed radially outwards and its magnitude is same at all points
equidistant from the line charge. Here we choose a cylindrical
Gaussian surface of radius r, length l and with its axis along the line
charge.

As shown in the figure the Gaussian surface has curved surfaces S1

and flat circular ends S2 and S3. Since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ only the curved surface contributes towards the total flux.

∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

∫ ∫ ∫

Charged enclosed by the Gaussian surface is

Using Gauss’s theorem, , we get

027
6. Expression for the electric field intensity at a point near a thin infinite plane sheet of
charge density . (CBSE 01, 01C, 07, 04, 05, 06C)

As shown in the figure consider a thin, infinite plane sheet of charge with uniform surface charge
density . We have to calculate its electric field at a point P at distance r from it. By symmetry,
electric field ⃗ points outwards normal to the sheet. Also, it must have some magnitude and
opposite direction at two points P and P` equidistant from the sheet and on opposite sides.

Here we consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of cross-sectional area A and length 2r with its
axis perpendicular to the sheet. As the lines of force are parallel to the curved surface of the
cylinder, the flux through the curved surface is zero. The flux through the plane end faces of the
cylinder is

Using Gauss’s theorem, , we get

028
7. Calculate the electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell at a point (i)
outside the shell, (ii) on the shell and (iii) inside the shell. (CBSE 02, 03C, 04, 06, 06C)

Consider a thin spherical shell of charge of radius R with uniform surface charge density . From
symmetry, we see that the electric field ⃗ at any point is radial and has same magnitude at points
equidistant from the centre. To determine electric field at any point at a distance r from O, we
choose a concentric sphere of radius r as the Gaussian surface.

(i) When point P lies outside the spherical shell: The total charge q inside the Gaussian surface
is the charge on the shell of radius R and area .

Flux through the Gaussian surface,

Using Gauss’s theorem, , we get

For points outside the shell, the field due to uniformly charged shell is as if the entire charge of
shell is concentrated at its centre.

(ii) When point P lies on the spherical shell: The Gaussian surface just encloses the charged
spherical shell. Applying Gauss’s theorem, for r=R

(iii) When point P lies inside the spherical shell: For r<R, the charge enclosed by Gaussian
surface is zero, i.e. q=0

Flux through the Gaussian surface,

Using Gauss’s theorem, , we get

Hence, electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell is zero at all points inside the
shell.

029
8. Expression for the electric potential at a distance r from a point charge Q.

Consider a positive point charge Q

placed at the origin O. We wish to
determine the potential at any point P
with position vector r from the origin.
By definition, it is the amount of work
done in bringing a unit positive test
charge from infinity to the point P.
Now, at some point P`, the electrostatic force on a unit positive charge is
Q 1 `
k `2 where k  and r is the unit vector along OP`.
r 4 o
Work done against this force from r` to r `r ` is
Q
W  k `2 r `, here W is positive but the negative sign indicates r ` <0
r
Now, the total work (W ) by external force can be obtained by intrgrating above equation from r`=  to r`=r.
r
Qr Q 1 1 
W    k `2 dr k `  kQ   
 r r  r 
kQ Q Q
i.e. W   or , V (r ) 
r 4 o r 4 o r

9. Electric potential due to an electric dipole

Consider an electric dipole consisting of two point charges –q and +q and seperated by distance
of 2a as shown in the figure. We wish to determine the electric potential at a point p at a distance
r from the centre O, the direction OP making an θ with the dipole moment p . Let AP= r1 and BP
= r2. Now, total potential at point P due to dipole is

030
 q q 
V  V q  V q  k          (1)
 r1 r2 
where r1 and r2 are the distances of the point P from q and - q respectively.
Now, from APO and BPO
r12  r 2  a 2  2ar cos  and r2 2  r 2  a 2  2ar cos 
now by condidering r  a and neglecting higher order in a / r ,
 a 2 2ar cos   2  2a cos  
r  r 1  2 
1
2 2
  r 1  
 r r2   r 
similarly,
1 1
 a 2 2ar cos   2  2a cos   1 1  2a cos   1 1  2a cos   2
r2 2  r 2 1  2    r 1    2  2 1   or  1  
 r r2   r  r1 r  r  r1 r  r 
similarly,
1
1 1  2a cos   2
 1  
r2 r  r 
Now using Binomial theorem and keeping only first order term in a / r , we get
1 1  a cos   1 1  a cos  
 1   and  1         (2)
r1 r  r  r2 r  r 
using eq (1) and (2), we get
1 1   1  a cos   1  a cos    kq 2a cos  k
V  kq     kq  1    1     2 (2q) a cos 
 r1 r2  r  r  r r  r r r
k p cos 
or , V p cos  ( p  2qa ) or , V
r2 4 o r 2

taking p cos   p.r , where is the unit vector along the position vector OP, the electric potential of a
1 p.r
dipole is then given by V  (r  a )
4 o r 2
Special cases:
1 p
(i) When the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole,  =0o or 180o , and V  
4 o r 2
i.e., the potentail has greatest positive value or the greatest negative value.
(ii) When the point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole,  =90o , and V=0,
i.e., the potential at any point on the equitorial line of the dipole is zero.

031
10. Derive an expression for the potential energy of a dipole in a uniform electric field.
Or
Derive an expression for the total work done in rotating the dipole through an angle
θ in uniform electric field.

Consider a dipole with charges –

placed in a uniform electric field E , as shown in Fig.
Electric potential energy of an dipole in an electrosstatic
field is the work done in rotating the dipole from zero energy
position (zero energyt is taken when dipole is held
perpendicular to the electric field) to the desired position in
the field.
When an electric dipole of dipole moment p is held at an
angle θ with the electric field E , a torque  acts on it i.e.
pxE

This torque will tend to rotate the dipole (unless p is parallel or antiparallel to E). Suppose an
external torque τext is applied in such a manner that it just neutralises this torque and rotates it in
the plane of paper from angle θ0 to angle θ1 at an infinitesimal angular speed and without angular
acceleration. The amount of work done by the external torque will be given by
 

W    ext  d   pE sin  d  pE  cos 
0
0 0
W  pE (cos0  cos )
If W is the work done in turning the dipole from 90° to θ, then
W  pE (cos 90o  cos )
W   pE cos
This work is stored as the potential energy ‘U’ of the system.
 U   pE cos or U  p . E
Special cases
(i) θ = 0°
U   pE cos 0o   pE. This is the minimum potential energy.
Stable equilibrium.
(ii) θ = 90°
U   pE cos90o  0. In this position potential energy will be zero.
(iii)θ = 180°
U   pE cos180o  pE. In this position dipole will have maximum potential energy.
Unstable equilibrium.

NOTE: The work done in rotating an electric dipole in a uniform electrical field through an
angle θ ( from 0°) is given by W  pE (1  cos  )

032
11. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor. (CBSE 03, 05C)

A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting

plates separated by a small distance ‘d’ which is small compared with the
linear dimensions of the plates.
To find the capacitance, we can first assume that there is vacuum betweem
the plates.
Since d is much smaller than the linear dimension of the plates, the result
on electric field by an infinite plane sheet of uniform surface charge density
can be applied in this case Plate 1 has surface charge density σ = Q/A and
plate 2 has a surface charge density –σ.
the net electric field outer region II (otside of plate 1 and 2) will be

while in the inner region between the plates 1 and 2, the electric fields due to the two charged
plates add up and gives

The direction of electric field is from the positive to the negative plate (shown in the figure).
Since the electric intensity is uniform between the plates therefore the potential difference
between the two plates is given by
V = Ed
Now, the capacitance of a parallel capacitor (with vacuum) will be

i.e. the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to the area of the plates
and inversly proportional to their seperation. It does not depend upon the charge of the capacitor.

033
12. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when a dielectric
is introduced between its plates.

The Electric field between the plates of capacitor when there is no dielectric between the plates is
given by

The direction of electric field is from the positive to the negative plate . Since the electric
intensity is uniform between the plates therefore the potential difference between the two plates
without dielectric, is given by

Now, the capacitance of a parallel capacitor (with vacuum) will be

Now, consider a dielectric inserted between the plates fully occupying the space between the
plates. The dielectric gets polarised due to the electric field with polarised charge densities .
So, the reduced electric field will be

And the potential difference across the plates will be

Now, dielectric constant

( )

034
13. Derive an expression for the energy stored in a capacitor with air as the medium
between its plates. How does the stored energy change if air is replaced by a medium of
dielectric constant κ. (CBSE, 05C, 06C)
Or
Derive an expression for the energy stored in a parallel plate capacitor. Hence show
that electric field E is a source of energy with energy density

The energy of a charged capacitor is measured by the total work done in charging the capacitor
to a given potential.
Let assume that initially both the plates are uncharged. Now, we have to repeatedly remove small
positive charges from one plate and transfer them to the other plate. At a certain stage during this
process, let q be the total quantity of charge transferred. Let v be the potential difference
between the plates.
q= Cv
Now, when additional small charge dq is tranferred from the negative plate to the positive plate,
the small amount of work done is given by

the total work done in transferring charge Q is given by

∫ ∫

[ ] [ ]

This work is stored as electrostatic potential energy U in the capacitor.

( )
The energy stored in the capacitor can be found by using graphical method also, i.e the area
under the graph of Q and V.
If the capacitors are connected in series or parallel, the total energy will be the addition of
energies of individual capacitors.
Now capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is given by

If σ is the surface charge density on the capacitor plates, then electric field,

Charge on either plate is

( )
( )

but Ad=volume of the capacitor between its two plates. Therefore, the energy stored per unit
volume or the energy density is given by

035
14. Two capacitors of capacitance are connected in series. Find their equivalent
capacitance.

Figure shows two capacitors connected in series. A potential

difference is applied across the combination. This sets up
charges on the two plates of each capacitor.

The potential difference across each capacitor is

For the series circuit the sum of these potential differences must be equal to the applied potential
difference.

If is the equivalent capacitance of the combination, then

15. Two capacitors of capacitance are connected parallel. Find their equivalent
capacitance.

Figure shows two capacitors connected in series. A potential

difference is applied across the combination. All the capacitors
will have constant potential difference but different charges given by

Total charge stored in the combination is

If is the equivalent capacitance of the combination, then

036
 U-2 Current Electricity
1. Express Ohm’s law in vector form.
Or
Deduce the relation connecting current density and conductivity of the conductor, when
electric field E, is applied to it.

If E is the magnitude of electric field in a conductor of length l, then the potential difference
across its end is

Also from Ohm’s law

Where , is the current density. As the direction of current density is same as that of
electric field ⃗ , we can write the above equation as

The above equation is the vector form of Ohm’s law.

037
2. Derive the expression for the resistivity of a conductor in terms of the number density
of free electrons and their relaxation time.

Consider a conductor of a length l and of uniform area of cross section A.

Volume of the conductor = Al
If n is the number density of electrons then the total number of free electrons in the conductor =
Aln. If e is the charge on each electron, the total charge on all the free electrons in the conductor,
q=Alne
Now, let a constant potential difference V be applied across the ends of the conductor. The
electric field setup across the conductor is then given by,

Due to this field the free electrons present in the conductor will begin to move with a drift
velocity vd and the time taken by the free electrons to cross the conductor will be,

Hence the current

Putting value of , in above eq, we get

Also current density

Comparing the above equation with ⃗ we get

038
3. Relation between current and mobility

Mobility: mobility μ is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field.
| |

SI unit of Mobility is
Relation between current and mobility

and

4. When a battery of emf and internal resistance is connected to a resistance R, a

current I flows through it. Derive the relation between

Consider a cell of emf and internal resistance r connected to an external resistance R. Suppose
a constant current I flows through the circuit. Then, by definition
( )

( )

Where, V is the potential drop across the terminals of a cell when current is being drawn from it.
( )

( ) ( )

039
5. Two cells of different emfs and internal resistances are connected in series. Find
expressions for the equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of the
combination.

Let V (A), V (B), V (C) be the potentials at points A, B and C shown in Fig. Then V (A) – V (B)
is the potential difference between the positive and negative terminals of the first cell.
VAB = V(A) –V(B) = ε – I r
Similarly, VBC = V (B) – V (C) = ε – I r
Hence, the potential difference between the terminals A and C of the combination is
( ) ( ) [ ( ) ( )] [ ( ) ( )]
( ) ( )

If we connect the two negatives of the cell, we get

εeq = ε1 – ε2 (ε1 > ε2)

Note: For n cells of EMF and internal resistance r

The total emf = n
The total resistance = nr + R and
Current
If out of n cells, m cells are grouped in reverse order then, net emf = n – (2m)

040
6. Two cells of different emfs and internal resistances are connected in parallel. Find
expressions for the equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of the
combination.

Consider a parallel combination of the cells. I1 and I2 are the currents leaving the positive
electrodes of the cells. At the point B1, I1 and I2 flow in whereas the current I flow out. Since as
much charge flows in as out, we have
I = I1 + I2
Let V (B1) and V (B2) be the potentials at B1 and B2, respectively. Then, considering the first
cell, the potential difference across its terminals is V (B1) – V (B2). Hence,

( ) ( )

For the second cell

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( )

Note: For m rows of cells of emf and internal resistance r.

The total resistance =

And current =

If r ≪R,

041
7. What is Wheatstone bridge? Deduce the condition for which the Wheatstone bridge is
balanced.

Wheatstone bridge: It is a measuring instrument used to determine the resistance of unknown

resistor by applying Kirchhoff’s rules. It is a network of four resistor
arranged in the form of a quadrilateral as shown in the figure. It is also
known as a bridge circuit. The bridge is said to be balanced when no
current pass through the galvanometer. Under this condition the ratios.

Proof: Considering the ckt and assuming that the cell has negligible
internal resistance we can adjust the bridge such that current through the
galvanometer is zero. In this case, the Kirchhoff’s junction rule applied
to junctions D and B gives

Now applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed loop ADBA gives

( )

( )

and from closed loop CBDC

( )

( )

From eq (1) and (2)

If

042
8. Draw a circuit diagram which can be used to determine the resistance of a given wire.
Explain principle, construction and working of the experiment. (CBSE 02, 03C, 04, 06)

Meter Bridge (Slide Wire Bridge):

Principle: Meter Bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone bridge. It uses the principle of
Wheatstone bridge to find the unknown resistance.
When the bridge is balanced

Construction and working: The Meter

bridge circuit is shown in the fig. It consists
of a wire (usually nichrome) of length 1m
and of uniform cross sectional area stretched
taut and clamped between two thick metallic
strips bent at right angles. The metallic strip
has two gaps across which resistors can be
connected. The end points where the wire is
clamped are connected to a cell through a
key. One end of a galvanometer is connected
to the metallic strip midway between the two gaps. The other end of the galvanometer is
connected to a ‘jockey’. The jockey is essentially a metallic rod whose one end has a knife-edge
which can slide over the wire to make electrical connection. The unknown resistance is
connected to one of the gap and Jockey is used to find Null point (where galvanometer shows
zero deflection).
The segment of length l1 and (100-l1) form two resistances of the Wheatstone bridge, with R
(unknown) S as other two.
If Rcm is the resistance per unit length then when bridge is balanced (at Null point) according to
Wheatstone principle

( ) ( )

( )

043
9. With the help of a circuit diagram, explain how a potentiometer can be used to compare
the emfs of two primary cells. (CBSE 03C, 05, 06C)

Potentiometer: It is a device used to compare EMF of two cells or to measure the internal resistance of a
cell.
Principle: If a constant current is passed through a wire of uniform area of cross section. The potential
drop across any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion.
i.e.
So if ρ and A is constant, then

Sensitivity of potentiometer can be increased by increasing the length of the potentiometer wire.

To compare EMF of two cells:

In order to compare EMF of two cells, the circuit is
arranged as shown in the figure. If 1 and 3 are connected
so that the galvanometer is connected to . The jockey is
moved along the wire till at a point N1, at a distance l1
from A, there is no deflection in the galvanometer. We
can apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the closed loop
AN1G31A and get,

Similarly, if another emf is balanced against l2 (AN2)

From last two equations, we get

Note: To measure EMF potentiometer is a better option than a voltmeter as in the balanced position it
does not draw any current from the cell and keeps the circuit open, so true value of emf is measured.

044
10. State the principle of a potentiometer. With the help of a circuit diagram, describe a
method to find the internal resistance of a primary cell. ( CBSE 03)

Potentiometer: It is a device used to compare EMF of two cells or to measure the internal resistance of a
cell.
Principle: If a constant current is passed through a wire of uniform area of cross section. The potential
drop across any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion.
i.e.
So if ρ and A is constant, then

Sensitivity of potentiometer can be increased by increasing the length of the potentiometer wire.

To find internal resistance: To find the internal

resistance of the cell, the cell (emf ϵ) whose internal
resistance (r) is to be determined is connected across
a resistance box through a key K2, as shown in the
figure. With key K2 open, balance is obtained at
length l1 (AN1). Then,

When key K2 is closed, the cell sends a current (I)

through the resistance box (RB). If V is the terminal
potential difference of the cell and balance is
obtained at length l2 (AN2), then

But, ( )

( )

045
 Unit-3 Magnetic effect of Current and Magnetism

(Moving charge and Magnetism, Magnetism and Matter)

1. Using Biot-Savart’s law, derive the expression for the magnetic field due to a current
carrying loop of radius ‘R’, at a point which is at a distance ‘x’ from its centre along the
axis of the loop.

Figure depicts a circular loop carrying a steady current I. The loop is

placed in the y-z plane with its centre at the origin O and has a radius R.
The x-axis is the axis of the loop. We wish to calculate the magnetic
field at the point P on this axis. Let x be the distance of P from the
centre O of the loop.
Consider a conducting element dl of the loop. This is shown in Fig. The
magnitude dB of the magnetic field due to dl is given by the Biot-Savart
law,
| |

Further, any element of the loop will be perpendicular to the displacement vector
from the element to the axial point.
Hence | | . Thus
The direction of ⃗ is shown in Fig. It is perpendicular to the plane formed by . It has an x-
component ⃗ and a component perpendicular to x-axis, ⃗ When the components perpendicular to
the x-axis are summed over, they cancel out and we obtain a null result. Thus, only the x-component
survives. The net contribution along x-direction can be obtained by integrating over
the loop.
Now from above fig, ( )
From above two equations

( ) ( )
The summation of elements dl over the loop yields 2πR, the circumference of the loop. Thus, the
magnetic field at P due to entire circular loop is

⃗ ̂ ̂
( ) ( )
Special cases
At the centre of the current loop,

At the axial points lying far away from the coil, ,

At an axial point at a distance equal to the radius of the coil i.e. we get

( ) ⁄ ⁄

046
2. Draw a neat and lablled diagram of a cyclotron. State the underlying principle and
explain how a positively charged particle gets accelerated in this machine. Show
mathematically that the cyclotron frequency does not depend upon the speed of the
particle. (CBSE 05, 06, 07)

Cyclotron: The cyclotron, devised by Lawrence and Livingston, is a device for accelerating ions
to high speed by the repeated application of accelerating potentials.
Construction: The cyclotrons consists of two flat semi-circular metal boxes called ‘dees’ and
are arranged with a small gap between them. A source of ions is located near the mid-point of the
gap between the dees. The dees are connected to the terminals of a radio frequency oscillator.
The whole apparatus is placed between the poles of a strong electromagnet which provides a
magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the dees.
Working: The positive ions produced from a source S at the centre are accelerated by a dee
which is at negative potential at that moment. Due to the presence of perpendicular magnetic
field the ion will move in a circular path inside the dees. The magnetic field and the frequency of
the applied voltages are so chosen that as the ion comes out of a dee, the dees change their
polarity (positive becoming negative and vice-versa) and the ion is further accelerated and moves
with higher velocity along a circular path of greater radius. The phenomenon is continued till the
ion reaches at the periphery of the dees where an auxiliary negative electrode (deflecting plate)
deflects the accelerated ion on the target to be bombarded.
The function of electric field is to accelerate the charged particle and so to impart energy to the
charged particle. The function of magnetic field is to provide circular path to charged particle
and so to provide the location where charged particle is capable of gaining energy from electric
field.

Expression for Period of Revolution and Frequency:

Suppose the positive ion with charge q moves in a dee with a velocity v, then,

Where m is the mass and r the radius of the path of ion in the dee and B is the strength of the
magnetic field.
The angular velocity ω of the ion is given by,

The time taken by the ion in describing a semi-circle, i.e., in turning through an angle π is,

Thus the time is independent of the speed of the ion i.e., although the speed of the ion goes on
increasing with increase in the radius when it moves from one dee to the other, yet it takes the
same time in each dee.

047
Now for the cyclotron to work, the applied alternating potential should also have the same
semi-periodic time (T /2) as that taken by the ion to cross either dee, i.e.,

This is the expression for period of revolution.

Obviously, period of revolution is independent of speed of charged particle and radius of circular
path.
Frequency of revolution of particles.

Hence, cyclotron frequency does not depend upon the speed of the particle.

Note: Maximum KE of the accelerated ions (if asked)

The ions will attain maximum velocity near the periphery of the dees. If is the maximum
velocity acquired by the ions and is the radius of the dees, then

The maximum K.E. of the ions will be

( )

048
3. Derive a mathematical expression for the force acting on a current carrying straight
conductor kept in a magnetic field. Under what condition is this force (i) zero and (ii)
maximum?

Consider a conductor PQ of length l, area of

cross section A, carrying current I, along +ve Y-
direction. The field ⃗ acts along +ve Z-direction.
The electrons drift towards left with velocity .
Each electron experiences a magnetic Lorentz
force along +ve X-axis, which is given by

( ⃗)

If n is the number of free electrons per unit volume, then total number of electrons in the
conductor is

The total force on the conductor is [ ( ⃗ )] [ ⃗]

If represents a current element vector in the direction of current, then vectors will
have opposite directions and we can take

⃗⃗⃗⃗

( ⃗)

( ⃗)

where θ is the angle between the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of flow of
current.

(i) If θ = 0° or 180°, then ( )

Thus, a current carrying conductor placed parallel to the direction of the magnetic field does not
experience any force.

(ii) If θ = 90°, then

Thus, a current carrying conductor placed perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field
does not experience a maximum force.

049
4. State Ampere’s circuital law. Derive an expression for the magnetic intensity at a point
due to a current carrying straight wire of infinite length.

Ampere’s law states that the line integral of the magnetic field
around any closed path in free space is equal to μo times the total
current passing through the surface. i.e.  B.dl   Io

Let a long straight conductor of infinite length carry current I.

Now, to find the magnetic intensity at a point ‘P’ due to this
current carrying straight wire let us consider a circular amperian
loop of radius ‘r’ through point ‘P’.
Applying Ampere’s circuital law for this closed circular surface we get
 B.dl   I
o

B  dl   I
o or B.2 r  o I
o I
 B
2 r
5. Derive an expression for the force acting per unit length between two long straight
parallel metallic conductors, carrying current in the same direction and kept near each
other. Hence define an ampere.

(a) Consider two long straight conductors P and Q, placed parallel to

each other, at a distance r apart. The currents through the two
conductors are respectively in the same direction.
The magnitude of the magnetic field due to current in P, at any
point of Q, is given by
( )
The direction of magnetic field is into the plane of the paper.
The current carrying conductor Q is placed in the magnetic field B.
Since Q is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field B, the force
acting per unit length l of Q is given by

directed towards P. Using eq (1), we get

When , we get

One ampere is that value of steady current, which on flowing in each of the two parallel infinitely
long conductors of negligible cross-section placed in vacuum at a distance of 1m from each other,
produces between them a force of of their length.

050
6. Derive an expression for the torque on a rectangular coil of area A, carrying a current
I and placed in a magnetic field B. The angle between the direction of B and vector
perpendicular to the plane of the coil is θ.

As shown in the figure, consider a rectangular coil PQRS suspended in a uniform magnetic field
⃗ , with its axis perpendicular to the field.

Let

current flowing through the coil, sides of the coil PQRS, =area of the coil and
θ =angle between the direction of ⃗ and normal to the plane of the coil.

According to the Fleming’s left hand rule, the magnetic forces on sides PS and QR are equal,
opposite and collinear (along the axis of the loop), so their resultant is zero.

The sides PQ experiences a normal inward force equal to IbB while the side RS experiences an
equal normal outward force. These two forces from a couple which exerts a torque given by

If the rectangular loop has N turns, the torque increases N times, i.e.

But , the magnetic moment of the loop, so

⃗⃗ ⃗

The direction of the torque is such that it rotates the loop clockwise about the axis of suspension.

Special cases:

When θ = 0°, τ =0, i.e. the torque is minimum when the plane of the loop is perpendicular
to the magnetic field.

When θ =90°, , i.e. the torque is maximum when the plane of the loop is parallel
to the magnetic field.

051
7. Show that a current carrying circular loop behaves as a magnetic dipole. Hence derive
an expression for the magnetic dipole moment of the loop.

The magnetic field due to a circular current loop of radius r at a distance x from its centre is given
by

( )

( )
is the area of the plane of the loop, say A.

( )
,

( )
Now, the electric field due to an electric dipole along the dipole axis, at a distance x from the
centre of the dipole is given by

Comparing the two equations, we conclude that a current loop behaves like a magnetic dipole
whose magnetic dipole moment is equal to the product of the current and the area of plane of coil.
It is denoted by M. Thus,

052
8. Describe the principle, construction and working of a moving coil galvanometer. Define
its figure of merit, current sensitivity and voltage sensitivity.

A galvanometer is a device to detect the presence of current

in a circuit.

Principle: A Weston type moving coil galvanometer is

based on the fact that when a current carrying loop or coil is
placed in the uniform magnetic field, it experiences a
torque.

Construction: A Weston type moving coil galvanometer is

shown in the figure. It consists of a coil wound on a
non0metallic frame. The coil is suspended between two
poles of a permanent cylindrical magnet. The motion of the
coil is controlled by a pair of hair springs (usually of
phosphor- bronze). The inner ends of the springs are
soldered to the ends of the coil and the outer ends are
connected to the binding screws. The spring provides the
restoring torque and also serves as current leads. A light
aluminum pointer attached to the coil measures its
deflection. There is a cylindrical soft iron core which not
only makes the field radial but also increases the strength of the magnetic field.
Working: Let

When current flows through the coil, it experiences a torque, which is given by
( )
This torque is called deflecting torque.
As the coil is deflected, the spring gets twisted and a restoring torque is developed, which is
given by
For equilibrium of the coil, Deflecting torque = Restoring torque

( )

Thus, deflection of the coil is directly proportional to the current flowing through it. Hence a
linear scale in the galvanometer can be used to detect the current in the circuit.

Figure of merit: It is defined as the current which produces a unit deflection in the
galvanometer. It is given by

This is equal to the galvanometer constant.

053
Current Sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer, when a unit
current flows through it. It is given by

Voltage sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer, when a unit
potential difference is applied across its ends. It is given by,

9. Explain how a galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter of given range.

An ammeter is an instrument used to measure electric current in an electric current. An ideal

ammeter should have zero resistance.

A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance called shunt
parallel to the galvanometer. The value of shunt resistance depends on the range of the current
required to be measured.

As

( )

An ammeter is a shunted or low resistance galvanometer. Its effective resistance is

054
10. Explain how a galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter of given range.

Voltmeter is a device for measuring potential difference across any two points in a circuit.

Ideal voltmeter should have infinite resistance.

A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series with
it.

Total resistance of the circuit

By ohm’s law

A voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer. Its effective resistance is

055
11. Derive an expression for the time period of oscillation of the magnetic needle in an
uniform magnetic field.

Consider a small compass needle of magnetic moment and moment of inertia placed in a
uniform magnetic field ⃗

The needle will be under a torque which makes it oscillate.

Torque on the needle is given by

But,

( )

Since θ is very small

Comparing it with the equation of simple harmonic motion,

056
12. Derive an expression for the potential energy of a magnetic dipole ( or bar magnet)
placed in a uniform magnetic field at an angle of a dipole placed in a uniform magnetic
field at an angle θ with it. When will be the magnetic dipole be in the position of stable
and unstable equilibrium.

If a magnetic dipole of magnetic moment is palced at an angle w.r.t. uniform magnetic field
, then the torque experienced by it is given by

If the dipole rotates through angle , then work done is given by

Total work done to rotate the dipole from position is given by

∫ ∫ [ ]

[ ]
By definition, potential energy [ ]

⃗⃗ ⃗

 When ⃗⃗ ⃗ are parallel to each other ( ), the diploe has minimum potential
energy and is in stable equilibrium. ⃗⃗ ⃗
 When ⃗⃗ ⃗ are anti - parallel to each other ( ), the diploe has maximum
potential energy and is in unstable equilibrium. ⃗⃗ ⃗

057
13. Relation between Magnetic permeability and magnetic susceptibility

Total magnetic field ( ) in a solenoid having a material core is the sum of the magnetic field in
free space (vacuum) ( ) and the magnetic field ( ) due to the material core.

( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( )

058
 Unit-4 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current

(Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current)

1. Deduce an expression for the motional emf by considering the Lorentz force acting on
the free charge carriers of a conductor moving in perpendicular magnetic field. Also
deduce expressions for the induced current, force necessary to pull the conductor,
power delivered by the external source, and power dissipated as Joule loss. Hence
discuss the energy conservation.

A conductor has large number of free electrons. When it moves through a magnetic field,
Lorentz force acting on the free electrons can set up a current. Fig shows a rectangular conductor
in which arm PQ is free to move. It is placed in a uniform magnetic field B, directed normally
into the plane of paper. As the arm PQ is moved towards left with speed v, the free electrons of
PQ also move with the same speed towards left. The electrons experience a magnetic Lorentz
force . According to Fleming’s left hand rule, this force acts in the direction QP and
hence the free electrons will move towards P. A negative charge accumulates at P and a positive
charge at Q. An electric field E is set up in the conductor from Q to P.

This field exerts a force, on the free electrons. The accumulation of charges continues at
the two ends till these two forces balance each other. i.e.,

The potential difference between the ends Q and P is

Clearly, it is the magnetic force on the moving free electrons that maintains the potential
difference and produces the motional emf,

059
Induced current: Let R be te resistance of the movable arm PQ. Now, if the total resistance of
the remaining arms is negligible compare to R, then

Force on the movable arm: The conductor PQ of length l carrying current I experiences a force
F in the perpendicular magnetic field. The force is given by

( )

This force (due to induced current) acts in the outward direction opposite to the velocity of the
arm in accordance to the Lenz’s law.

Power delivered by external force : The power supplied by the external force to maintain the
motion of the movable arm is

Power dissipated as Joule Loss: The power dissipated in the loop as Joule heating loss is

Clearly, . Thus, the mechanical energy expended to maintain the motion of the movable
arm is first converted into electrical energy (the induced emf) and then to thermal energy. This is
consistent with the law of conservation of energy.

060
2. Deduce an expression for the self- inductance of a long solenoid of N turns, having a
core of relative permeability . (CBSE 05, 06C)

Consider a long solenoid of length l and radius r with ≪ and having n turns per unit length. If
a current I flows through the coil, then the magnetic field inside the coil is almost constant and is
given by

Magnetic flux linked with each turn

Where = the area of cross section of the solenoid.

Magnetic flux linked with the entire solenoid is

But

Self- inductance of the long solenoid,

If N is the total number of turns in the solenoid, then and so

If the coil is wound over a material of high relative magnetic permeability (for e.g. soft iron),
then

061
3. Deduce an expression for mutual inductance of two long coaxial solenoids of same
length wound over the other.

Consider two long co-axial solenoids , with .

Let

First we pass a time varying current . The magnetic field set up inside due
to is , where

Total magnetic flux linked with the inner solenoid is

Mutual inductance of coil 1 w.r.t. coil 2 is

We now consider the flux linked with the outer solenoid due to the current in the inner
solenoid . The field due to

Total magnetic flux linked with the outer solenoid is

Mutual inductance of coil 1 w.r.t. coil 2 is

Clearly, ( )

If a medium of relative permeability is present within the solenoids, then

062
4. With the help of a labeled diagram, explain the principle, construction and working of
an a.c. generator. Derive the expression for induced emf. (CBSE 05)

AC generator: It is a device which converts mechanical

energy into alternating form of electrical energy.

Principle: The working of an a.c. generator is based on

the principle of electromagnetic induction. When a closed
coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field with its axis
perpendicular to the magnetic field, the magnetic flux
linked with thee coil changes and an induced emf and
hence a current is set up in it.

Construction: It consists of the following main parts:

Field Magnet: N-S is either a strong permanent magnet
or an electromagnet

Armature: PQRS is a rectangular armature coil. It consists of a large number of turns of

insulated copper wire wound on a soft iron cylindrical core. It can be rotated about an axis
perpendicular to the magnetic field of the field magnet.

Slip rings: These are two brass rings rigidly connected to the two ends of the
armature coil. As the armature coil rotates slip rings also rotates about the same axis of rotation.

Brushes: These are two graphite rods which remains fixed in their positions but
maintain sliding contacts with the slip rings. Through these brushes, the current induced in the
armature coil is feed to the external circuit.

Working: As the armature rotates, the magnetic flux linked with it changes and so an induced
current flows through it. Initially, suppose the coil is in the vertical position and is rotated
clockwise. Its side PQ moves downward and SR moves upward. By Fleming’s right hand rule,
the current flows from Q to P and from S to R. So during the first half rotation of the coil, the
current flows in the direction SRQP. During the second half rotation, the direction of current is
reversed, i.e., it flows along PQRS. The direction of current in the external circuit is reversed
after every half cycle. Hence alternating current is produced by the generator.

Then magnetic flux linked with the coil at any instant t will be

Induced emf will be

( )

Where

Clearly induced emf varies sinusoidally with time.

063
5. Prove that the voltage and current always vary in the same phase in an a.c. circuit
containing resistance only. Show this phase relationship graphically.

As shown in the fig, suppose a resistor R is connected to a source of alternating emf give by

If I be the current in the circuit at any instant ti, then the potential drop across R will be IR.
According to Kirchhoff’s loop rule,

Where

From the above equation, we note that both and I are functions of . Hence the emf and
current are in same phase in purely resistive circuit.

The fig above shows the phasor diagram for a resistive a.c. circuit. Both the phasors are
in the same direction, making same angle with x-axis. The phase angle between them is zero.

064
6. A pure inductor is connected across an a.c. source. Show mathematically that the
current in it lags behind the applied emf by a phase of π /2. What is the inductance
reactance? Draw a graph showing the variation of inductive reactance with the
frequency of the a.c .source.

The fig. below shows a pure inductor of inductance L

connected to a source of alternating emf given by

As the alternating current flows through the inductor, a back emf – is set up which opposes
the applied emf.

But this emf must be zero because there is no resistance in the circuit

Integrating

∫ ∫ ( )

( )

Where

The above equation shows that the current lags behind the applied emf by a phase of π /2.

Phase relationship between

065
Inductive Reactance: Comparing equation with the ohmic relation , we find that
ωL plays the same role here as the resistance R in resistive case. It is a measure of effective
resistance or opposition offered by the inductor to the flow of a.c. through it. Such a non-
resistive opposition to the flow of current is called reactance. In this case it is called inductive
reactance and is denoted by .

Where f is the frequency of a.c. supply.

For a.c

Thus an inductor allows d.c. flow through it easily but opposes the flow of a.c. through it.

Variation of inductive reactance with the frequency of the a.c .source:

066
7. An alternative emf is applied across a capacitor. Show mathematically that the current
in it leads the applied emf by a phase of π /2. What is the capacitive reactance? Draw a
graph showing the variation of capacitive reactance with the frequency of the a.c.
source. (CBSE 03)

As shown in the figure, consider a pure capacitor C

connected across a source of emf given by

Due to the continues charging and discharging of

the capacitor plates, a continues but alternating
current exists in the circuit.

At any instant potential difference across the plates = Applied emf

But

current at any instant is

( )

( )

Where

The above equation shows that the current leads the applied emf by a phase of π /2.

Phase relationship between

067
Capacitive Reactance: Comparing equation with the ohmic relation , we find
that 1/ωC is a measure of effective resistance or opposition offered by the capacitor to the flow
of a.c. through it. It is called capacitive reactance and is denoted by .

Where f is the frequency of a.c. supply.

For a.c

Thus a capacitor allows a.c. flow through it easily but offers infinite resistance to the flow of d.c.,
i.e. a capacitor blocks d.c.

Variation of capacitive reactance with the frequency of the a.c .source:

068
8. An inductor L, a capacitor C and a resistor R are connected in series in an a.c. circuit.
Deduce, with the help of suitable phasor diagrams, a mathematical expression for
impedance of this circuit. What is meant by resonance of this circuit? Prove that this
circuit exhibits resonance at a frequency given by .
√

From the circuit, we see that the resistor, inductor and capacitor are in series. Therefore, the ac
current in each element is the same at any time, having the same amplitude and phase. Let it be
( )
where is the phase difference between the voltage across the source and the current in the
circuit.
Let I be the phasor representing the current in the circuit as given by Further, let VL, VR, VC, and
V represent the voltage across the inductor, resistor, capacitor and the source, respectively. We
know that VR is parallel to I, VC is π/2 behind I and VL is π/2 ahead of I. VL, VR, VC and I are
shown in Fig. above with appropriate phase relations.
The length or amplitude of these phasors are

From the fig using Pythagoras theorem, we get

( )
( ) ( )
( ( )

√ ( )

√ ( )
Now,

069
Resonace condition of LCR circuit:

When

√ ( )

Clearly the impeadence is minimum. The circuit is puerly resistive. The current and voltage are
in same phase and the current in the circuit is maximum. This condiition of the LCR circuit is
called resonance condition. The frequency at which the current amplitude attains a peak value
is called natural or resonant frequency of the LCR circuit, given by

As

070
9. Prove that an ideal inductor does not dissipate power in a.c. circuit.

When a.c. is applied to an ideal inductor, current lags behined the voltage in phase by π /2 radian.
So we can write the instantneous values of voltage and current as follows:

( )

Work done in small time dt is

The average power dissipated per cycle in the inductor is

∫ ∫ [ ]

[ ] [ ] [ ]

Thus, an ideal inductor does not dissipate power in a.c. circuit.

10. Prove that an ideal capacitor connected to an a.c. does not dissipate any power.

When a.c. is applied to an ideal capicitor, the current leads the voltage in phase by π /2 radian. So
we can write the instantneous values of voltage and current as follows:

( )

Work done in small time dt is

The average power dissipated per cycle in the inductor is

∫ ∫ [ ]

[ ] [ ] [ ]

Thus, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate power in a.c. circuit.

071
11. Show that when a capacitor is discharged through an inductor of negligible resistance,
the discharge is oscillatory and simple harmonic. Calculate its frequency.

Suppose a capacitor of capacitance C, initially charged to be connected to an inductor of

inductance L. As the circuit is closed, the charge on the capacitor begins to decrease, giving rise
to a current, I

Induced emf across the inductor at any instant

Potential difference across the capacitor at that instant

So, according to Kirchhoff’s law

√
This is a differential equation of second order, with a solution

Thus the charge on the capacitor plates oscillates simple harmonically with time with angular
frequency.

√
Frequency of oscillation ,

072
12. Show that in the free ocsillations of an LC circuit, the sum of energies stored in
capacitor and inductor is constant in time.

At any instant, the electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor is,

And the magnetic energy in the inductor at any instant is

If there is no (resistive) loss of energy, then the total energy of the LC circuit will be

Now,

( )

( )

073
13. Explain with the help of a labelled diagram, the principle, construction and working of
a transformer.

Principle: It works on the principle of mutual induction, i.e., when a changing current is
passed through one of the two inductively coupled coils, an induced emf is set up in the other
coil.
Construction: A transformer essentially consists of two coils of insulated copper wire
having different number of turns and wound on the same soft iron core. The coil to which
electric energy is supplied is called Primary coil and the coil from which energy is drawn is
called Secondry coil. A laminated core is used to reduce eddy current loss.
Working: As a.c. flows through the primary, it generates an alternating magnetic flux in the
core which also passes through secondary. The changing flux is sets up an induced emf in the
secondary. The value of this emf depends on the number of turns in the secondary.
Considering negligible primary resistance, all the flux in the core links both in primary and
secondary windings.
Let be the flux in each turn in the core at time due to current in the primary when a
voltage is applied to it.
Then the induced emf or voltage , in the secondary with turns is

The alternating flux also induces an emf, called back emf in the primary. This is

Considering primary as negligible resistance

From above equations

If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses), the power input is
equal to the power output, and since ,

The ratio , i.e. of the number of turns in the secondary to that in the primary is called
the turns ratio or transformer ratio.
If , the transformer is called Step up transformer.

If , the transformer is called Step down transformer.

074
 Unit-5: Electromagnetic Induction
1. Dfine Displacement current. Derive an expression for displacement current.

Displacement current is that current which comes into exixtance whenever the electric field and
hence the electric flux changes with time. It is equal to times the rate of change of electric flux
through a given surface.

If A be the area of the capacitor plates and q be the charge on the plates at any instant t during
the charging process. Then the electric flux

Where,

( )

075
 Unit-6 Optics

(Ray optics and Optical instruments, Wave optics)

1. Derive mirror formula for a concave mirror when it forms a real image.
Consider an object AB placed on the principal axis beyond
the centre of curvature C of a concave mirror of small
aperture, as shown in fig. The ray will reflected as shown in
the ray diagram.

Using Cartesian sign convection, we find

Object distance,

Image distance,

Focal length,

Radius of curvature,

Now

( )

As

Consequently,

( )

( ) ( )

Dividing both sides by , we get

The above equation gives mirror formula for a concave mirror, when it forms a real image.

076
2. Derive mirror formula for a concave mirror when it forms a virtual image.
Consider an object AB placed on the
principal axis between the pole and the focus,
as shown in fig. The ray will be reflected as
shown in the ray diagram.

Using Cartesian sign convection, we find

Object distance,

Image distance,

Focal length,

Radius of curvature,

Now

( )

Consequently,

( )

( ) ( )

Dividing both sides by , we get

The above equation gives mirror formula for a concave mirror, when it forms a virtual image.

077
3. Derive mirror formula for a convex mirror.
Consider an object AB placed on the principal
axis of a convex mirror having small aperture, as
shown in fig. The ray will be reflected as shown
in the ray diagram.

Using Cartesian sign convection, we find

Object distance,

Image distance,

Focal length,

Radius of curvature,

Now

( )

As

Consequently,

( )

( ) ( )

Dividing both sides by , we get

The above equation gives mirror formula for a convex mirror.

078
4. Derive the relation between the distance of object, distance of image and radius of
curvature of a convex surface, when refraction takes place from optically rarer to
optically denser medium and the image formed is real. (CBSE 02, 03, 03C)
In fig below AMB is a convex refracting
surface which separates a rarer medium of
refracting index from a denser medium
of refracting index . Let P be the pole, C
be the centre of curvature R=PC be the
radius of curvature of this surface. Suppose a
point object O is placed on the principal axis
in the rarer medium. Rays from O after
refraction forms a real image I (as shown in
the ray diagram). NM in the ray diagram is
the perpendicular to the principal axis. Let
be the angles as shown in the ray diagram.

In , I is an exterior angle, therefore

Similarly, from , we have

Suppose all the rays are paraxial, then all the angles will be small.

From Snell's law of refraction

[ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]

079
Using New Cartesian sign convection, we find

Object distance,

Image distance,

Radius of curvature,

080
5. Show by a ray diagram the image formation of a point object by a thin double convex
lens having radii of curvature Hence derive Lens Maker’s Formula.
As shown in fig, consider a thin double convex lens of refractive index placed in a medium of
refractive index . Here . Let B and D be the poles, be the centres of
curvature and be the radii of the curvature of the teo lens surfaces ABC and ADC
respectively.
Suppose a ray OM from point object O is incident on the first surface ABC. It is refracted along
MN, bending towards the normal If the second surface ADC is absent the ray would have met
principal axis at . This can be considered as the real image formed by the first surface in the
medium of refractive index . So, we can write the relation between

But actually the ray MN sufferes another refraction from surface ADC and met the principal axis
at I. For refraction at second surface, acts as a virtual object placed in the medium of refractive
index and I is the real image formed in the medium of refractive index .
we can write the relation between the object distance , image distance v and radius of
curvature as

Adding above two equations

[ ]

[ ]
If the object is placed at infinity ( ), the image will be formed at the focus, i.e.

[ ]
This is Lens Maker’s formula

081
6. Derive the expression for the angle of deviation for a ray of light passing through an
equilateral prism of refracting angle ‘A’.
The fig shows the path PQRS of a ray of light suffering refraction through a triangular glass
prism. The angle between the direction of the incident ray PQ and the emergent ray RS is called
the angle of deviation, δ. Let i and r be the angles of incidence and refraction at the face AB, and
r’ and e be angles of incidence and emergence at the face AC. Let A be the angle of prism.

From the quadrilateral AQNR,

From the triangle QNR,

Now, from the triangle MQR, the deviation produced bt the prism is
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

082
7. Draw a graph to show the variation of the angle of deviation ‘δ’ with that of the angle of
incidence ‘i’ for a monochromatic ray of light passing through a glass prism of
refracting angle ‘A’ . Hence derive the expression for the refractive index of the
material of the prism in terms of the angle of the prism and angle of minimum
deviation. (CBSE 02C, 06C)

The graph above shows the variation of angle of deviation with angle of incidence. The
minimum value of the angle of deviation suffered by a ray on passing through a prism is called
the angle of minimum deviation and is denoted by .
When a prism is in the position of minimum deviation, a ray of light passes symmetrically
(parallel to the base) through the prism so that

Also

From Snell’s law, the refractive index of the material of the prism will be

Note: For small angled prism. i.e. a thin prism, is also very small. So above equation can be
written as

( )

( )

083
8. Draw a neat ray diagram of a simple microscope. Deduce the formula for its angular
magnification when the image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision.
When an object is placed between the focus F
and optical centre O of a convex lens; a virtual,
erect and magnified image is formed on the
same side of the lens as the object. The
position of the lens is so adjusted that the final
image is formed at the distance D from the
lens, as shown in the figure.
The linear magnification m, for the image
formed at the near point D, by a simple
microscope can be obtained by using the relation

( )

Now according to our sign convention, is negative, and is equal in magnitude to D. Thus, the
magnification is

9. Draw a neat ray diagram of a simple microscope. Deduce the formula for its angular
magnification when the image is formed at infinity.
A simple microscope is just a convex lens of short focal length. Here the object is placed at the
focus of the convex lens, so that parallel rays enter the eye, as shown in fig. The image is formed
at infinity, which is more suitable and comfortable for viewing by the relaxed eye.

Magnifying power: The magnifying power of a simple microscope is defined as the ratio of the
angle formed by the image (when situated at infinity) at the eye to the angle formed by the object
at the eye, when situated at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye.
Thus,

( )

084
 In case when the image formed is at infinity we will have to obtain the angular magnification.
Suppose, the object has a height . The maximum angle it can subtend, and be clearly visible
(without a lens), is when it is at the near point, i.e., a distance . The angle subtended is then
given by

The angle subtended by the image

( )

angle subtended by the object, when it is at –

Also from figure,

So, the angular magnification of simple microscope when the image is formed at infinity is given
by

085
10. With the help of diagram, explain the formation of the image in a compound
microscope. Derive an expression for its magnifying power. (CBSE 01,02,05)
Compound microscope: A compound microscope is an optical device used to see magnified
images of tiny objects.
Construction: It consists of two convex lenses of short focal length, arranged co-axially at the
ends of two sliding metal tubes.
Objective: Convex lens of short focal length and small aperture
Eyepiece or ocular: convex lens of comparatively large focal length and larger aperture than the
objective.
Working:
When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision:
The object AB to be viewed is placed at distance slightly larger than the focal length of the
objective O. The objective forms a real, inverted and magnified image A’B’ of the object on the
other side of the lens O. The separation between the objective O and the eyepiece E is so
adjusted that the image A’B’ lies within the focal length of the eyepiece. The image A’B’ acts
as an object for the eyepiece which essentially acts like a simple microscope. The eyepiece E
forms a virtual and magnified final image A”B” of the object AB. Clearly, the final image A”B”
is inverted with respect to the object AB.

Magnifying power: The magnifying power of a compound microscope is defined as the ratio of
the angle subtended at the eye by the final virtual image to the angle subtended at the eye by the
object, when both are at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye.
The ray diagram of Fig above shows that the (linear) magnification due to the objective, namely
h′/h, equals

Here h′ is the size of the first image, the object size being h and fo being the focal length of the
objective. The first image is formed near the focal point of the eyepiece. The distance L, i.e., the

086
distance between the second focal point of the objective and the first focal point of the eyepiece
(focal length fe) is the tube length of the compound microscope.
As the first inverted image is near the focal point of the eyepiece, using the result of simple
microscope
( )
Thus, the total magnification
( )

When the final image is formed at infinity:

When the final image is formed at infinity, the angular magnification due to the eyepiece

Thus, the total magnification when the image is formed at infinity,

The magnifying power of the compound microscope is large when both are
small.

087
11. State Huygens’ Principle. Using Huygens’ Principle show that, for a parallel beam
incident on a reflecting surface, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
(laws of reflection)

Huygens’ Principle : It is the basis of wave theory of light. According to Huygens’ principle,
each point on a wave front is a source of secondary waves, which add up to give a wave front at
any later time.
Consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i on a reflecting surface MN. If represents the
speed of the wave in the medium and if represents the time taken by the wavefront to advance
from the point B to C then the distance
In order the construct the reflected wavefront we draw a sphere of radius from the point A as
shown in figure below. Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn from the point C to this sphere.
Obviously

Consider the triangles

( )

This proves the first law of reflection.

088
12. State Huygens’ principle and use it to construct refracted wavefront for refraction of a
plane wavefront at a plane surface from rarer to denser medium. Hence derive Snell’s
law. (CBSE 02C, 06, sample paper)
Huygens’ Principle : It is the basis of wave theory of light. According to Huygens’ principle,
each point on a wave front is a source of secondary waves, which add up to give a wave front at
any later time.

Consider a plane wave front AB incident on a plane surface XY, separating two media 1 and 2, as
shown in the fig.. Let be the velocities of light in two media with .
The wave front first strikes at point A and then at the successive points towards C. According to
Huygens’ principle, from each point on AC, the secondary wavelets start growing in the second
medium with speed . Let the disturbance takes time t to travel from B to C, then .
During that time the secondary wavelet from point A covers in the second medium.
Let the angles of incidence and refraction be respectively.
From

From

The constant is called the refractive index of the second medium w.r.t. first medium.

089
13. Derive a mathematical expression for the width of interference fringes obtained in
Young’s double slit experiment with the help of a suitable diagram.
Let S1 and S2 be two coherent sources separated by a
distance d. Let the distance of the screen from the
coherent sources be D.
The spherical waves emanating from S1 and S2 will
produce interference fringes on the screen GG′, as
shown in Fig.

Now,

( ) ( ) [ ( ) ] [ ( ) ]

If, x, d ≪D then negligible error will be introduced if S2P + S1P (in the denominator) is replaced by 2D.
Thus if we replace S2P + S1P by 2 D, we have

Position of bright fringes (or maxima): For maximum intensity at P, the path difference must be an
integral multiple of  (wavelength)
i.e.

where,

Position of dark fringes (or minima):For minimum intensity at P, the path difference must be

( ) ( )

where,

Fringe Width: It is the separation between two successive bright or dark fringes

( )

090
14. Show that the central maximum in the single slit diffraction is twice as wide as the
secondary maximum and the pattern becomes narrower as the width of the slit is
increased.
Linear width of secondary maximum: In any diffraction pattern,
Direction of nth minimum,

Direction of ( ) minimum,

( )

( )

Hence the linear width of secondary maximum = Angular width x D

Thus the central maximum of a diffraction pattern is twice as wide as any secondary maximum
Clearly,

091
15. The polarisation of a beam of light by reflection, is best achieved when the reflected and
refracted rays are at right angles to each other. Show that the polarising angle of
incidence is then given by (CBSE sample paper)

The angle of incidence at which a beam of unpolarised light falling on a transparent

surface is reflected as a beam of completely plane polarized light is called polarizing or
Brewster angle.
The reflected ray is totally plane polarised, when reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular
to each other. i.e. BOC=90°.
If is angle of incidence, r’ is the angle of reflection and r the angle of refraction, than
according to the law of reflection
Also

From Snell’s law, refractive index ‘ ’ is

( )
Angle of incidence,

092
 Unit-7 Dual Nature of Matter

(Dual nature of radiation and matter)

1. Derive de-Broglie wave equation for a material particle
Considering photon as an e.m. wave of frequency , its energy from Planck’s quantum theory is
given by
( )
Where is Plank’s constant. Considering photon as a particle of mass , the energy associated
with it is given by Einstein’s mass-energy relationship as
( )

From equations (1) and (2), we get

Where is the wavelength of the radiation of frequency ν and , is the momentum of the
photon. The above equation has been derived for photon of radiation. According to de Broglie’s
hypothesis, it must be true for material particles like electrons, protons, neutrons etc. Hence a
particle of mass m moving with velocity must be associated with a matter wave of wavelength
given by

This is de Broglie’s wave equation for material particles. It explains the dual nature of matter as
it connects the wave characteristic with the particle characteristic ’

093
2. Show that the de Broglie wavelength of electrons of energy K is given by the relation.

√
Consider an electron of mass and charge . Let be the velocity attained by the electron
when it is accelerated from rest to attain kinetic energy K. Then

Hence the de Broglie wavelength of the electron is

√
√

3. Show that the de Broglie wavelength of electrons accelerated through a potential

difference of V volts can be expressed as

√ √
Consider an electron of mass and charge . Let be the velocity acquired by ir when it is
accelerated from rest through a potential difference of volts. Then

Hence de-broglie wavelength of electrons is

√
√

√ √ √

094
 Unit-8 Atoms and Nuclei

(Atoms, Nuclei)
1. Bohr’s Theory of hydrogen Atom
i. Radii of Bohr’s stationary orbits: The centripetal force required by the electron is
provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron

( )
Where is the mass of the electron, is the radius of the electronic orbit and is the
velocity of the electron. Since the nucleus is nearly 2000 times heavier than the electron
therefore it is reasonable to assume that the nucleus remains at rest
But according to Bohr’s postulate

From eq (1)

( )

in general

( )

For n=1, we get the smallest orbit. This represents normal state of the hydrogen atom

, we get

This is the radius of the lowest orbit and is known as Bohr Radius.

ii. Velocity of Electron

( )( ) ( )( )

Relation between speed of electron in hydrogen atom and speed of light in vacuum
Multiplying numerator and denominator of above equation by , we get

095
 ( )

The term gives a dimensional constant known as fine structure constant (α). Its
( )

value is . This gives

So, the speed of electron in the innermost orbit (n=1) is of the speed of light in
vacuum
The speed of the electron decreases as we move away from the nucleus.

iii. Frequency of revolution

Suppose an electron is rotating with angular velocity in an orbit of radius with speed
. Then,
( )

( )

iv. Energy of electron

An electron revolving around the nucleus possesses both the kinetic energy and
potential energy .

( )( )

( )

The negative sign indicates that the electron is bound to the nucleus and some work is
required to be done to separate it from the nucleus.
The energy corresponds to n=1 is called ground state. In general

Substituting the values of constants we get,

( )

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 v. Work done in raising an electron
If W is the work done in moving an electron from a lower energy level ( ) to higher energy
level ( ) then

[ ]

[ ]

2. State the law of radioactive decay. Derive an equation for the same and show that the
radioactive decay is exponential in nature.
Radioactive decay law: This law states that the number of nuclei disintegrating per second of a
radioactive sample at any instant is directly proportional to the number of undecayed nuclei present
in the sample at that instant.
Let the number of radioactive nuclei present initially at time t=0 in a sample of radioactive
substance.
the number of radioactive nuclei present in the sample at any instant t, and
the number of radioactive nuclei which disintegrate in the small time interval .

( )
Where is proportionality constant called the decay or disintegration constant. Here the negative
sign shows that the number of undecayed nuclei, N decreases with time.
The eq (1) can be written as

Integrating
∫ ∫
( )
Where C is the constant of integration.
At , therefore from above equation we get,
( )

The above equation represents the radioactive decay law and it shows that the radioactive decay is
exponential in nature.

097
3. Define the terms decay constant and half-life of a radioactive sample. Derive the
relation connecting the two. (CBSE 01, 04, 06)
Decay or disintegration constant: According to radioactive decay law

If then

The radioactive decay constant may be defined as the reciprocal of the time interval during
which the number of active nuclei in a given radioactive sample reduces to 36.8% (or 1/e times)
of its initial value. It gives the probability per unit for a nucleus of a radioactive substance to
decay. The value of  depends on the nature of the radioactive substance.
Half life: The time interval in which one-half of the radioactive nuclei originally present in a
radioactive sample disintegrate is called half-life of the radioactive substance. It is denoted by

Relation between half-life and decay constant

Let = the number of radioactive nuclei present initially at time t=0 in a sample of radioactive
substance.
the number of radioactive nuclei present in the sample at any instant t
At

Now

Taking natural logarithm, we get

Thus the half life of a radioactive substance is inversely proportional to its decay constant and is
independent of the number , the number of radioactive nuclei present initially in the sample.

098
 Unit-9 Electronic Devices

No derivations but almost all topics are important

Some important topics are discussed below

1. Discuss the process involved in p–n junction formation (CBSE2012)

We take a thin p-type silicon semiconductor wafer ad add to it a small quantity of pentavalent
impurity. The wafer now contains p and n region with metallurgical junction between them.
The two important process involved in the formation of p-n junction are
Diffusion
Drift
As soon as junction is formed, the majority charge carriers begin to diffuse from one region to
other. Thus electrons from n-region diffuse into p-region and where they combine with holes
and get neutralized. Similarly holes from p-region diffuse into n-region. This process of electron-
holes recombination is called diffusion.
Because of diffusion, the p-region near the junction is left with immobile negative ions and n-
region near the junction is left with positive ions. This small region which is depleted of free
charge and having only immobile ions is called depletion layer. This accumulation of positive
and negative charges setup ups a potential difference across the junction. This acts as a barrier
and is called barrier potential, which opposes the diffusion.
Due to this, an electron on p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a hole on n-side of the
junction moves to p-side. The motion of charge carriers due to the electric field is called drift.
Thus a drift current opposite to diffusion current starts.
Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion process continues,
the space-charge regions on either side of the junction extend, thus increasing the electric field
strength and hence drift current. This process continues until the diffusion current equals the
drift current. Thus a p-n junction is formed. In a p-n junction under equilibrium there is no net
current.

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2. Explain the action of a p-n junction diode in (i) forward bias arrangement and
(ii) reverse bias arrangement. (CBSE 05, 06C)
Forward Biasing: If positive terminal of a battery is
connected to the p-side and the negative terminal to the
n-side, then the junction is said to be forward biased.
As shown in figure, here the applied voltage V opposes
the barrier voltage . As a result of this
(i) The effective barrier potential decreases to
( ) and hence the energy barrier across the junction decreases,
(ii) The majority charge carriers i.e., holes from p-side and electrons from n-side begin
to flow towards the junction,
(iii) The diffusion of electrons and holes into the depletion layer decreases its width, and
(iv) The effective resistance across the p-n junction decreases.
When exceeds , the majority charge carriers start flowing easily across the junction and
set up a large current (in mA) in the circuit. The current increases with the increase in
applied voltage.
Reverse Biasing: If the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the n-side and negative terminal to the p-side,
then the p-n junction is said to be reverse biased.
As shown in figure, here the applied voltage V and the
barrier voltage are in the same direction. As a result of
this
(i) The barrier potential increases to ( ) and hence the energy barrier across the
junction increases,
(ii) The majority charge carriers move away from the junction, increasing the width of
the depletion layer,
(iii) The resistance of p-n junction becomes very large, and
(iv) No current flows across the junction due to majority charge carriers.
However, at room temperature there are always present some minority charge carriers like
holes in n-region and electrons in p-region. The reverse biasing pushes them towards
junction, setting a current called reverse or leakage current, in the external circuit in the
opposite direction. As the minority charge carriers are much less in number than the
majority charge carriers, hence the reverse current is very small (in μA).

100
3. Explain briefly with the help of a circuit diagram, how V-I characterstics of a
p-n junction diode are obtained in (i) forward bias, and (ii) reverse bias. Draw
the required V-I curves obtained. (CBSE 05)
Forward biased characteristics: As shown in the figure a battery is connected across the p-n
junction diode to a potential divider. For different values of voltages, the value of current is
noted. A graph is plotted between V and I. This V-I graph is called forward characteristic.

Features of the graph:

(i) The V-I graph is not a straight line i.e., a junction diode does not obey Ohm’s law.
(ii) Initially, the current increases very slowly, till the voltage across the diode crosses a
certain value, called threshold voltage or cut-in voltage. Before this voltage, the
depletion layer plays a dominant role in controlling the motion of charge carriers.
(iii) After the cut-in voltage, the diode current increases rapidly, even for a very small
increase in the diode bias voltage. The resistance across the junction becomes quite
low.
Reverse Bias characteristics: Figure sows the experimental arrangement for studying
characteristic curve of a p-n junction diode when it is reverse biased. Here a microammeter is
used to measure the small currents through the reverse biased diode. A V-I graph is drawn,
which is called reverse characteristic of junction diode.

101
Features of the graph:
(i) When the diode is reverse biased, a very small current (in μA) flows, which almost
remains constant with bias. The small current is called reverse saturation current. It
is due to the drift of the minority charge carries across the junction.
(ii) When the reverse voltage across the p-n junction reaches a sufficiently high value,
the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at which
breakdown of the junction diode occurs is called breakdown or peak-inverse voltage.
Figure below shows the complete V-I characteristic of a p-n junction. A junction diode offers
a very small resistance when forward biased and has a very large resistance when reverse
biased i.e., the diode can conduct current well in only one direction.

Dynamic resistance: The dynamic or ac-resistance of the diode defined as the ratio of the small
change in applied voltage ΔV to the corresponding change in current ΔI. It is given by

4. What is a rectifier? With the help of a circuit diagram, explain how a p-n
junction diode can be used as a half wave rectifier. Draw the wave forms of
input and output voltages. (CBSE 06)
Rectifier: The process of converting n alternating current into a direct current is called
rectification and the device used for rectification is called rectifier.
Junction diode as a half wave rectifier:
The primary coil of the transformer is
connected to the a.c mains and the
secondary coil is connected in series
with the junction diode and load
resistance .

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Working: a.c. is supplied to the primary, the secondary of the transformer
supplies desired alternating voltage across A and B. During the positive half cycle
of a.c., the end A is positive and the end B is negative. The diode D is forward
biased and current I flows through . As the input voltage increases or
decreases, the current I also increases or decreases and so does output voltage
across the load . Output voltage across is same waveform as the positive
half of the input. During the negative half cycle, the end A becomes negative and
B positive. The diode is reverse biased and no current flows. No voltage appears
across . So only the half wave is rectified, as shown in the figure below.

5. What is a rectifier? With the help of a circuit diagram, explain how a p-n
junction diode can be used as a full wave rectifier. Draw the wave forms of
input and output voltages. (CBSE 03, 05, 06C)
Rectifier: The process of converting n alternating current into a direct current is called
rectification and the device used for rectification is called rectifier.
Junction diode as a half wave rectifier:

The input a.c. signal is fed to the primary

coil of the transformer. The two ends A
and B of the secondary are connected to
p-ends of diodes . The
secondary is tapped at its central point T
which is connected to the n-ends of the
two diodes through the load resistance
, as shown in the figure.

Working: At any instant, the voltages at the end A and end B of the secondary w.r.t. the centre
tap will be out of phase with each other. Suppose during positive half cycle of a.c. input, the
end A is positive and the end B is negative w.r.t. the centre tap. Then the diode gets forward
biased and conducts current. The diode is reverse biased and does not conduct. During the

103
negative half cycle, the end A becomes
negative and the end B becomes positive
w.r.t. centre tap. The diode gets reverse
biased and does not conduct. The diode
conducts current. As during both half cycles
of input a.c. the current through the load
flows in the same direction, we get a
pulsating d.c. voltage across , as shown in
the figure. Since output voltage across the
load is obtained for both half cycles of input
a.c., this process is called full wave
rectification.

Need of filter circuit: The rectified voltage is in the form of pulses of the shape of half sinusoids.
Though it is unidirectional it does not have a steady value. To get steady dc output from the
pulsating voltage normally a capacitor is connected across the output terminals parallel to the
load . These additional circuits appear to filter out the ac ripple and give a pure dc voltage,
so they are called filters.

When the voltage across the capacitor is rising, it gets charged. If there is no external load, it
remains charged to the peak voltage of the rectified output. When there is a load, it gets
discharged through the load and the voltage across it begins to fall. In the next half-cycle of
rectified output it again gets charged to the peak value. The rate of fall of the voltage across the
capacitor depends upon the inverse product of capacitor C and the effective resistance used
in the circuit and is called the time constant. To make the time constant large value of C should
be large. So capacitor input filters use large capacitors. The output voltage obtained by using
capacitor input filter is nearer to the peak voltage of the rectified voltage.

104
6. Explain the use of a Zener diode as a voltage regulator. (CBSE 2012)
Zener diode: A junction diode specially designed to operate only in the reverse breakdown
region continuously (without getting damaged) is called a Zener diode.
Zener diode as a voltage regulator:
Principle: When a Zener diode is operated in the reverse breakdown region, the voltage across
it remains practically constant for a large change in the reverse current. The use of Zener diode
as d.c. voltage regulator is based on this fact.

Working: Figure shows the circuit for using Zener diode as a voltage regulator. Here the Zener
diode is connected to a source of fluctuating d.c. through a dropping resistor . Thus the
voltage gets divided between and Zener diode. The output is obtained across the load
resistance , connected parallel with Zener diode.
If the input voltage increases, the current through and Zener diode also increases. This
increases the voltage drop across without any change in the voltage across the Zener diode.
This is because in the breakdown region, Zener voltage remains constant even though the
current through the Zener diode changes. Similarly, if the input voltage decreases, the current
through and Zener diode also decreases. The voltage across decreases without any
change in the voltage across the Zener diode. Thus any increase/decrease of the input voltage
results in voltage drop across without any change in voltage across Zener diode.

7. Draw a circuit diagram to study the input and output characteristics of an

npn transistor in common emitter configuration. Show these characteristics
graphically. Explain how (i) input resistance (ii) output resistance and (iii)
current gain of the transistor are calculated by using these characteristics.
(CBSE 04, 06)
Common emitter characteristics: Figure shows the circuit diagram for studying
the common emitter characteristics of an npn transistor. The emitter-base
junction is forward biased by means of battery The emitter-collector circuit is
reverse biased by means of a battery . The common emitter terminal is kept
grounded.

105
Input characteristics:
A graph showing the variation of base current with base-emitter voltage at constant
collector-emitter voltage is called the input characteristics of the transistor.
Following facts can be known from the input graph:
1. As long as is less than the barrier voltage, the base current is small as in case of
forward biased diode.
2. When the base-emitter voltage exceeds the barrier voltage, the base current
increases sharply with a small increase in as in the case of a forward biased diode.
3. The value of is much smaller than in a normal mode, more than 95 % majority carriers
go to the collector to constitute the collector current .

Output characteristics:
A graph showing the variation of collector current with collector-emitter voltage at
constant base-current is called the output characteristic of the transistor.
Following facts can be known from the input graph:
1. Initially when the voltage increases, the collector current increases rapidly. The
value of upto which increases rapidly is called knee voltage.

106
 2. Once the voltage exceeds the voltage (so that the collector-base junction is
reversed biased), the output current varies very slowly but linearly with for a
given base current , i.e. beyond the knee voltage the output resistance of the
transistor is high.
3. Larger the value of larges is the value of for a given .

ac parameters of transistors:
1. Input resistance ( ): It is defined as the ratio of the small change in base-emitter
voltage to the corresponding small change in the base current, when the collector—
emitter voltage is kept constant.

[ ]

As input characteristic is non-linear, so varies. At any point of the curve, is equal to

the reciprocal of the slope of a tangent to the curve.
2. Output resistance ( ): It is defined as the ration of the small change in the collector-
emitter to the corresponding change in the collector current when the base current is
kept constant.

[ ]

3. ac current gain or current amplification factor ( ): It is defined as the ratio of the

change in collector current to the small change in base current when the transistor is in
active state.

[ ]

107
8. Explain the use of transistor as switch.
A device which turns ON or OFF electric current in an electric circuit is known as a switch. A
transistor acts as a switch when it is driven back and forth between saturation and cut off
regions. Circuit diagram showing transistor as a switch is shown below.

Form figure, applying Kirchhoff’s law for input and output circuit, we get

Now, is and ,

Taking an example of silicon npn transistor in CE mode,

For the transistor is in cut off region, i.e. it will not conduct and , so from
above equation,

For , the transistor is in active region. will be increasing linearly, so

will be decreasing due to increase in

For , the transistor will have maximum possible current i.e., will be maximum
and will be almost least, tending to zero, and practically same for all . It is the saturation
state of transistor.

108
Working of a transistor as a switch can be summed up as under:

When base input voltage is very low so that transistor is not forward biased, then no
current flows through i.e. . Hence, the output voltage = . The transistor is in the
cutoff mode i.e. the transistor is not conducting and it acts as if in open condition i.e., OFF
state.

When base input voltage is made sufficiently positive, the transistor is forward biased. Now
current flows through . In this situation, voltage drop across . Hence
and . The transistor comes in the saturation state and the transistor acts a
closed switch i.e. ON state.

9. With the help of a labeled circuit diagram, explain the use of npn transistor
as a common emitter amplifier. Discuss phase relationship between input
and output voltages. Write expressions for the various gains of a common
emitter amplifier.
Fig below shows npn transistor as a common emitter amplifier. The emitter is common to both
input and output circuits. The emitter is forward biased by battery and the collector is
reverse biased by battery This decreases the input resistance and increases the output
resistance. The low a.c. input signal is superimposed on the forward bias . A load
resistance is connected between the collector and d.c supply and the amplified output is
obtained between the collector and the ground.

Input signal when is superimposed on

( )
( )
When current flows in the output circuit, the potential drop across the load resistance is
. Hence the output voltage is

109
When the input signal is fed to the base-emitter circuit, the base-emitter voltage changes. This
changes the emitter current and hence the collector current The output voltage varies
in accordance with the above relation. This variation in the collector voltage appears as
amplified output.
Phase relationship between input and output signals: When an a.c. signal is fed to the input
circuit, its positive half cycle increases the forward bias of the circuit which, in turn, increases
the emitter current and hence the collector current. This increase in collector current makes
the output voltage less positive or more negative. So as the input signal goes through its
positive half cycle, the amplified output signal goes through a negative half cycle. Similarly, as
the input signal goes through its negative half cycle, the amplified output signal goes through its
positive half cycle. Hence in CE amplifier, the input –output voltages are 180° out of phase or in
opposite phase.
Current, voltage and power gains of CE amplifier:
1. a.c. current gain: It is defined as the ratio of the small change in the collector current to
the small change in base current, when collector-emitter voltage is kept constant.

[ ]

2. d.c. current gain: It is defined as the ratio of collector current to the base current, when
collector-emitter voltage is constant.

[ ]

3. a.c. voltage gain: It is defined as the ratio of small change in output voltage to the small
change in input voltage. It is given by

4. a.c. power gain: It is the ratio of small change in output power to the small change in
input power.
( )
( )
The transistor does not generate any power. The energy for the higher a.c. power at the
output is supplied by the d.c. battery.

110
10.What is an oscillator? Give its working principle. With the help of labeled
circuit diagram, explain how a transistor can be used to produce self-
sustained oscillations. (CBSE 05, 06C, 12)
Oscillator: An oscillator is an electronic device which produces electric oscillations of constant
frequency and amplitude, without requiring any external input signal. It converts dc energy
obtained form a battery into ac energy in some oscillatory circuit.
Principle of an oscillator: Fig below shows the block diagram of an oscillator. Obviously, an
oscillator may be regarded as the self sustained transistor amplifier with a positive feedback.
The oscillations of tank circuit (LC circuit) are fed to a transistor amplifier. The feedback circuit
returns a part of the output power to the tank circuit in phase with the input signal. This
process is called positive feedback and produces undamped oscillations.

Transistor as an Oscillator: Fig below shows the basic circuit using a common-emitter npn
transistor as an oscillator. A tank circuit consisting of an inductance L and a variable capacitor C
is connected to the collector-emitter circuit. A small coil called feedback or ticler coil is
connected in the emitter-base circuit. The coli is inductively coupled with of the inductor.

111
Working: When switch is put on to apply proper bias for the first time, a surge of collector
current flows through the coil . This current does not reach full amplitude instantaneously
but increases from X to Y, as shown in Fig. The inductive coupling between coil and coil
now causes a current to flow in the emitter circuit. As a result of this positive feedback, this
current also increases from X´ to Y´. The current in (collector current) connected in the
collector circuit acquires the value Y when the transistor becomes saturated. This means that
maximum collector current is flowing and can increase no further. Since there is no further
change in collector current, the magnetic field around ceases to grow. As soon as the field
becomes static, there will be no further feedback from . Without continued feedback,
the emitter current begins to fall. Consequently, collector current decreases from Y towards Z
However, a decrease of collector current causes the magnetic field to decay around the coil .
Thus, is now seeing a decaying field in . This causes a further decrease in the emitter
current till it reaches Z′ when the transistor is cut-off. This means that both and cease to
low. Therefore, the transistor has reverted back to its original state. The whole process now
repeats itself. That is, the transistor is driven to saturation, then to cut-off, and then back to
saturation. The time for change from saturation to cut-off and back is determined by the
constants of the tank circuit or tuned circuit (inductance L of coil and C (connected in parallel
to it). The resonance frequency (ν ) of this tuned circuit determines the frequency at which the
oscillator will oscillate.

√
(Note: Description can be reduced, if required)

11. Logic gates

A gate is a digital circuit that is designed for performing a particular logical operation. It is
called gate because it controls the flow of information.
Truth Table
It is a table that shows all possible input combinations and the corresponding outputs foe a
logic gates.
Boolean expression: Ii is a shorthand method to describe the functioning of a logic gate in
the form of an equation or an expression.

NOT gate: It gives a high output (1), if the input is low (0) and vice versa.
Logic Symbol Truth table

Input Output
̅
0 1
Boolean Expression 1 0
̅

112
OR gate: It gives high output (1) if either input A or B or both are high (1), otherwise the output
Y is low (0).

Logic Symbol Truth table

Input Output
A B Y = A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
Boolean Expression
1 1 1
AND gate: It gives a high output (1) if inputs A and B are both high (1), otherwise the output
Y is low (0).
Logic Symbol Truth table
Input Output
A B Y = A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
Boolean Expression 1 1 1

NOR gate: Combination of an OR and a NOT gate

Logic Symbol Truth table
Input Output
A B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
Boolean Expression
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 1 1 0
NOR gate: Combination of an AND and a NOT gate
Logic Symbol Truth table
Input Output
A B
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
Boolean Expression
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 1 1 0

113
Some other important figures:

I – V Characteristics of a Photodiode I – V Characteristics of a Solar cell

114