Dr.

Zainab Saleh MD, MPH

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 Definitions : Is the intellectual processes through
which information is obtained from the world,
transformed, stored, retrieved and otherwise used.

 The information obtained by senses, transformed

through interpretive process of perception and thinking
and stored and retrieved through memory.

 There are several aspects of cognition like thinking,

language and intelligence.
 Concepts are things, events and qualities that are
linked by common features or features in spite of their
differences (like different types of cars, flowers, tree,
red objects)
 They are the basic units of thinking. Understanding
concepts give insight into the contents of thinking.
 Simple and complex concepts
 Simple and complex concepts:
Generally, human usually categorize things in simple way then
move to complex concept
 Simple concepts: like concept blue (things have blue color
but are different in other ways)
 Complex concepts

1) Conjunctive concepts: it means simultaneous presence of

two or more common characteristics. (presence of A & B or A
& B& C&D….) For example the concept of aunt, uncle
2) Disjunctive concepts: it means presence of one of two
common characteristics or both. (presence of A or B or A & B)
for example diagnosis of bipolar disorder
 Natural concepts (Basic Concepts): is one that has
medium degree of inclusiveness. (inclusiveness related
to the number of members included in concepts).
There are three levels of inclusiveness:
1) Superordinate concepts: are very inclusive, that means
they have great many members; like Vehicle, flowers, tree
2) Basic concepts: are of medium degree of degree of
inclusiveness; like Cars
3) Subordinate concepts: are the least inclusive level of the
concepts; like Sport cars, GMC.
 Natural concepts (Basic Concepts):
are more natural and easier to learn and to use because
they have several characteristics.
1) Share many attribute for example all cars have four
wheels, floor, roof and outside shield.(Superordinate have
less common characteristics and subordinate have more
characteristics).
2) Basic concepts have similar shape. All cars are shaped
about the same. (Superordinate are not the same, and
subordinate are also similar but differentiate by one
difference) ).
3) Members of basic concepts often share motor movements
They have similar movement. So how about superordinate
and subordinate concepts?
4) Are easily named. Cars, screwdriver.
5) Natural concepts are good prototypes(good examples)
1)Convergent thinking: is the thinking that is logical, conventional
and that focuses on a problem.eg: we use it when solve algebra
problems.

2) Divergent thinking: is the thinking that is loosely organized, only

partially directed and unconventional. It is considered as break out of
mental sets that limit our thinking. It must be evaluated subjectively
whether they are sensible use or not.

 Both of them reflect the creativity which is the ability to make

human products and ideas (like solution to social problems) that are
novel and valued by others.
 Creative thinking is to some extent separated from general
intelligence. It is related to willing to work very hardly than highly
intelligent.
 Definition: is the cognitive process through which
information is used to reach a goal that is blocked by some
kind of obstacle.
Problem solving involve three steps that must be done in
sequences
1)Formulating the problem: it includes defining the problem
in clear and specific terms (it could be obvious or not clear
at all). I can not go to my work? How to be succeed in my
job? How I can be satisfy about what I am doing?
You have to know what is the problem is?
2)Understanding and organizing the element of the problem
o Make an inventory of the elements of the
problem(information and other resource available to use to
solve the problem)
o Flexibly interpret the meaning and utility of the elements
of the problem
Mental set (Mental ruts): is the habitual way of
approaching or perceiving a problem (means there is no
flexibility). It interfere with finding a solution.( Most people
are thought of the box in habitual way)
3)Generating and evaluating alternative solution
o Generating a list of possible solutions
o Evaluate the effects and the consequences it would
produce foe each solution in the list
o Choose the best solution
o Develop an effective way to implement it

 Thereare two types of cognitive strategies to solve

problems.
There are two types of cognitive strategies to solve
problems.
1) Algorithms strategy, its systemic strategies that guarantee
finding the correct solution to a problem. It used many
alternatives.
2) Heuristic strategy, based on increase the probability of
finding the solution but do not guarantee it. Usually. it lead
to poor solutions. We solve problems heuristically far more
than algorithmically. Representativeness heuristic, is
making judgements about the unknown on the assumption
that is similar to what we know.in other words, we play the
odds and make decisions based on what is typically true.
 Emotion not only cognition play an important role in our problem
solving

 Emotional and cognitive factors work together to determine our

perception of risk, and sometimes misjudge risks.

 For example: our emotion have role in determining if we would like

to travel by automobile or airplane (airplane are more safer than
travel by automobile, but many prefer to travel by automobile
because they misjudge travelling by airplane).

 Do you like to adopt a medical strategy that would save 200 out of
600 people or medical procedure that would result in 400 death out
of 600 individual
 Definition: is symbolic code used in communication
(meaningful ideas are sent from person to person via the
system of symbol).
 Without communication there will be no coordination
between people in division of labor, to regulate their
behavior, and there is no experiences passed from
previous generation.
 The function of language is to say something to some
one.
 Semantic content: is the meaning in the symbols

 Surface structure: is the superficial spoken or written

structure of a statement.

 Deep structure: is the underlying structure of a statement

that hold its meaning

 Phonemes: is the smallest units of sound in the language

(individual sound). different language have different
number of phonemes. In Arabic language about 112
phonemes
 Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning in a
language (individual building blocks of language)
 Morphemes are closely related to but are not the same as
words. Some of morphemes stand alone as word like
word, stand, and fast.
 Other morphemes need to be bound with other
morphemes like pushed, trucks
 Syntax: the grammatical rules of a language (it allow an
infinite number of understandable utterances to be
generated. There are rules for the way in which
phonemic sound can be combined in morphemes and
rules for how morphemes can be combined in utterances
For example: suffix ed for past tense, s for plural
 Every one who speaks a language in the way that can be
understood by others know the syntax of that language,
but not every one use proper grammar.
 The first 3 years of life, when the brain is developing
and maturing, is the most intensive period for acquiring
language skills.(If this critical period are allowed to pass
without exposure to language, it will be more difficult to
learn)

 This skills develop best in a environment that is rich

with sounds, sights, and consistent exposure to the
speech and language of others.
 The nativist theory, is due to innate lagunage acquisition
device (LAD), that help with vocabulary learning.

The empiricist theory, is due to information in the

linguistic input
 Language and thought are closely related to each other.

 Linguistic relativity hypothesis (Whorfian hypothesis):

the structure of language may influence the way
individuals think. e.g. Eskimo and snow.
 Eskimo have more words (not only one word) to describe
different types of snow. Those additional words help
them in their visual perception of snow and their notice
of small differences among different kind of snow
 The impact of different languages on the thinking of
people from different cultures.
 It is believed there is difference in language uses
between different languages