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Tensors for Data Processing

Theory, Methods, and Applications

FIRST EDITION

Yipeng Liu
School of Information and Communication Engineering, University of
Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC), Chengdu, China
Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

List of contributors

Preface

Chapter 1: Tensor decompositions: computations, applications, and

challenges

Abstract

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Tensor operations

1.3. Tensor decompositions

1.4. Tensor processing techniques

1.5. Challenges
 References

Chapter 2: Transform-based tensor singular value decomposition in

multidimensional image recovery

Abstract

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Recent advances of the tensor singular value

decomposition

2.3. Transform-based t-SVD

2.4. Numerical experiments

2.5. Conclusions and new guidelines

References

Chapter 3: Partensor

Abstract

Acknowledgement

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Tensor decomposition

3.3. Tensor decomposition with missing elements

3.4. Distributed memory implementations

3.5. Numerical experiments

3.6. Conclusion
 References

Chapter 4: A Riemannian approach to low-rank tensor learning

Abstract

4.1. Introduction

4.2. A brief introduction to Riemannian optimization

4.3. Riemannian Tucker manifold geometry

4.4. Algorithms for tensor learning problems

4.5. Experiments

4.6. Conclusion

References

Chapter 5: Generalized thresholding for low-rank tensor recovery:

approaches based on model and learning

Abstract

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Tensor singular value thresholding

5.3. Thresholding based low-rank tensor recovery

5.4. Generalized thresholding algorithms with learning

5.5. Numerical examples

5.6. Conclusion
 References

Chapter 6: Tensor principal component analysis

Abstract

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Notations and preliminaries

6.3. Tensor PCA for Gaussian-noisy data

6.4. Tensor PCA for sparsely corrupted data

6.5. Tensor PCA for outlier-corrupted data

6.6. Other tensor PCA methods

6.7. Future work

6.8. Summary

References

Chapter 7: Tensors for deep learning theory

Abstract

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Bounding a function's expressivity via tensorization

7.3. A case study: self-attention networks

7.4. Convolutional and recurrent networks

7.5. Conclusion
 References

Chapter 8: Tensor network algorithms for image classification

Abstract

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Background

8.3. Tensorial extensions of support vector machine

8.4. Tensorial extension of logistic regression

8.5. Conclusion

References

Chapter 9: High-performance tensor decompositions for

compressing and accelerating deep neural networks

Abstract

9.1. Introduction and motivation

9.2. Deep neural networks

9.3. Tensor networks and their decompositions

9.4. Compressing deep neural networks

9.5. Experiments and future directions

References

Chapter 10: Coupled tensor decompositions for data fusion

 Abstract

Acknowledgements

10.1. Introduction

10.2. What is data fusion?

10.3. Decompositions in data fusion

10.4. Applications of tensor-based data fusion

10.5. Fusion of EEG and fMRI: a case study

10.6. Data fusion demos

10.7. Conclusion and prospects

References

Chapter 11: Tensor methods for low-level vision

Abstract

Acknowledgements

11.1. Low-level vision and signal reconstruction

11.2. Methods using raw tensor structure

11.3. Methods using tensorization

11.4. Examples of low-level vision applications

11.5. Remarks

References
Chapter 12: Tensors for neuroimaging

Abstract

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Neuroimaging modalities

12.3. Multidimensionality of the brain

12.4. Tensor decomposition structures

12.5. Applications of tensors in neuroimaging

12.6. Future challenges

12.7. Conclusion

References

Chapter 13: Tensor representation for remote sensing images

Abstract

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Optical remote sensing: HSI and MSI fusion

13.3. Polarimetric synthetic aperture radar: feature extraction

References

Chapter 14: Structured tensor train decomposition for speeding up

kernel-based learning

Abstract
 14.1. Introduction

14.2. Notations and algebraic background

14.3. Standard tensor decompositions

14.4. Dimensionality reduction based on a train of low-order

tensors

14.5. Tensor train algorithm

14.6. Kernel-based classification of high-order tensors

14.7. Experiments

14.8. Conclusion

References

Index
Copyright
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Publisher: Mara Conner
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Typeset by VTeX
List of contributors
Kim Batselier Delft Center for Systems and Control, Delft
University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
Yingyue Bi School of Information and Communication
Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of
China (UESTC), Chengdu, China
Jérémie Boulanger CRIStAL, Université de Lille, Villeneuve
d'Ascq, France
Rémy Boyer CRIStAL, Université de Lille, Villeneuve d'Ascq,
France
Cesar F. Caiafa
Instituto Argentino de Radioastronomía – CCT La Plata, CONICET /
CIC-PBA / UNLP, Villa Elisa, Argentina
RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project, Tokyo, Japan
Jocelyn Chanussot LJK, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Inria, Université
Grenoble, Alpes, Grenoble, France
Christos Chatzichristos KU Leuven, Department of Electrical
Engineering (ESAT), STADIUS Center for Dynamical Systems, Signal
Processing and Data Analytics, Leuven, Belgium
Cong Chen Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
Nadav Cohen School of Computer Science, Hebrew University of
Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
Xudong Cui School of Mathematics, Tianjin University, Tianjin,
China
André L.F. de Almeida Department of Teleinformatics
Engineering, Federal University of Fortaleza, Fortaleza, Brazil
Aybüke Erol Circuits and Systems, Department of
Microelectronics, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The
Netherlands
Yiming Fang Department of Computer Science, Columbia
University, New York, NY, United States
Gérard Favier Laboratoire I3S, Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS,
Sophia Antipolis, France
Borbála Hunyadi Circuits and Systems, Department of
Microelectronics, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The
Netherlands
Pratik Jawanpuria Microsoft, Hyderabad, India
Tai-Xiang Jiang School of Economic Information Engineering,
Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, Chengdu,
Sichuan, China
Paris A. Karakasis School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Technical University of Crete, Chania, Greece
Ouafae Karmouda CRIStAL, Université de Lille, Villeneuve
d'Ascq, France
Hiroyuki Kasai Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
Eleftherios Kofidis Dept. of Statistics and Insurance Science,
University of Piraeus, Piraeus, Greece
Christos Kolomvakis School of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Chania, Greece
Yoav Levine School of Computer Science, Hebrew University of
Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
Zechu Li Department of Computer Science, Columbia University,
New York, NY, United States
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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 PLATE CCII.

SAMYDA SERRULATA.

Sawed-leaved Samyda.

CLASS X. ORDER I.
DECANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Ten Chives. One Pointal.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

Calyx. Perianthium monophyllum, interne coloratum; tubus

campanulatus, decemstriatus; limbus quinquefidus, laciniis ovatis planis,
patentissimis, obtusis, duabus acumine auctis.
Corolla nulla.
Nectarium monophyllum, conicum, truncatum, decemstriatum,
longitudine fere calycis, ejusque limbo ad bann insertum, ore obtuse 10 ad
18-dentato.
Stamina. Filamenta nulla. Antheræ decem ad octo-decem, oblongæ,
erectæ, parvæ, dentibus nectarii insidentes.
Pistillum. Germen ovatum. Stylus subulatus, erectus, longitudine
nectarii. Stigma capitatum, obtusum.
Pericarpium. Capsula subrotunda, quadrisulcata, coriacea, crassa,
unilocularis, quadrivalvis.
Semina plurima, subovata, obtusa, basi foraminulo notata, valvulis affixa,
obvoluta pellicula pulposa.
Empalement. Cup one leaf, coloured within; tube bell-shaped, ten-
striped; border five-cleft, segments egg-shaped, smooth, very much spread,
obtuse, two lengthened by a pointed end.
Blossom none.
Honey-cup, one leaf, conical, appearing cut off, ten-striped, nearly the
length of the cup and fixed to it at the base of the border, obtusely from 10 to
18-toothed at the mouth.
 Chives. Threads none. Tips from 10 to 18, oblong, upright, small, fixed to
the teeth of honey-cup.
Pointal. Seed-bud egg-shaped. Shaft awl-shaped, upright, the length of
the honey-cup. Summit headed, blunt.
Seed-vessel. Capsule roundish, four-furrowed, leathery, thick, one-
celled, four valves.
Seeds many, nearly egg-shaped, blunt, marked with a small hole at the
base, fixed to the valves, surrounded with a slight pulpy skin.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Samyda floribus roseis, dodecandris; foliis ovato-oblongis, serrulatis.

Samyda with rosy coloured flowers having twelve chives; leaves between
egg-shaped and oblong, slightly sawed.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Empalement, with its honey-cup, and the tips, cut and
spread open.
2. The Pointal and seed-bud natural size, the summit detached and
magnified.
3. The Seed-bud cut transversely and magnified, to shew the
number of valves and situation of the seeds.
The Sawed-leaved Samyda is an inhabitant of most of the West India
Islands, but was received in England, about the year 1795, from the Island of
St. Vincent; transmitted from thence, by Mr. Anderson, curator of the
Botanic garden, originally established there, under the sanction of our
government, by Dr. Young. It is a very tender plant, grows to about three feet
in height, making but few small branches, and rather weak in the stem. Our
drawing was taken in July this year at the garden of T. Evans, Esq. Stepney,
who we believe first had it to flower in this kingdom. It is propagated by
cuttings; must be kept in the bark-bed of the hot-house, and should be
planted in very rich mould.
 PLATE CCIII.

IXIA COLUMNARIS.

Columnar-chived Ixia.

CLASS III. ORDER I.

TRIANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Three Chives. One Pointal.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

Corolla 6-petala, patens, æqualis.

Stigmata tria, erectiusculo-patula.
Blossom 6 petals, spreading, equal.
Summits three, upright-spreading.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Ixia filamentis basi cohærentibus, floribus capitatis; corollis purpureis.

Ixia with threads united at the base; flowers grow in heads; blossoms
purple.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The two Valves of the empalement.

2. A Blossom cut open.
3. The Chives and Pointal, with the tube of the blossom, the border
cut off.
4. The Chives cut and spread open, with the tube of the blossom,
magnified.
5. The Pointal and Seed-bud, with one of the Summits detached
and magnified.
Here we have a plant which presents one of those obstacles, constantly
met, in all attempts to a systematic arrangement of the productions of nature.
Every feature of Ixia we find positively expressed, but in the unison of the
Threads; a circumstance, which Linnæus in his system, always deemed of
such singular moment, that a number of Genera have been formed, from this
natural order of plants, hinging on this only character.
But, as this plant has been named, and accurately described by Mr.
Salisbury, in the Prodromus to his garden 36. n. 18; and continued, from
him, by Professor Martyn, in his Edit. of Miller’s Dict. article Ixia, 50; in the
following therefore such superiour judgments to our own, we have thought it
proper, not to make any alteration; and in consequence, have retained his
Generic and Specific title. The extreme brilliance of the flowers of Ixia
Columnaris, pervading all the varieties, (of which we have drawings of 6,) is
not exceeded by any in the whole Genus; they generally, are not longer
expanded than for about four hours, and that only under a hot sun; from
about eight, till twelve o’clock; when they close for the day; but nevertheless
they have a permanence not usual in Ixias, as the same blossoms will open
diurnally for above a week. It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and
came first to England, by the way of Holland, about the year 1794. It flowers
in June and July, amongst the latest of the tribe, and increases by the root in
abundance. Our figure was taken at the Hammersmith Nursery.
 PLATE CCIV.

GERANIUM LACINIATUM. Var. flore purpureo.

Ragged-leaved Geranium. Purple flowered Variety.

CLASS XVI. ORDER IV.

MONADELPHIA DECANDRIA. Threads united. Ten Chives.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

Monogyna. Stigmata quinque.

Fructus rostratus, penta-coccus.
One Pointal. Five summits.
Fruit furnished with long awns; five dry berries.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Geranium foliis radicalibus, integris laciniatisque, petiolis filiformibus;

calycibus monophillis; staminibus quinque fertilibus; radice tuberosa;
floribus purpureis.
Geranium with leaves growing from the root, entire and jagged,
footstalks thread-shaped; cups one-leaved; five fertile chives; root tuberous;
flowers purple.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Empalement magnified.

2. The Chives spread open.
3. The Pointal and seed-bud magnified.
This very handsome variety, (for we cannot consider it as a species,) of the
Geranium laciniatum, was imported in 1800, from the Cape of Good Hope,
by G. Hibbert Esq.; in whose collection it flowered, last year, in the month
of June, when our drawing was taken; and we believe it is in no other at
present in this kingdom. Mr. Allen, under whose care that collection is
preserved in such high order and perfection, and to whose kind
communications, we are much indebted; informs us, that he has not, as yet,
been able to increase it; but, from every appearance, the plant, he has no
doubt, may, by the root, as are the other species which have the tuberous
character; and that he did not treat it differently from the rest of the
Geraniums which compose this branch of that interesting family.
 PLATE CCV.

PLATYLOBIUM LANCEOLATUM.

Lance-shaped-leaved Flat-pea.

CLASS XVII. ORDER IV.

DIADELPHIA DECANDRIA. Chives in two Sets. Ten Chives.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

Calyx campanulatus, quinquesidus; laciniis duabus supremis maximis,

obtusis. Stamina omnia coalita. Legumen pedicellatum, compressum, dorso
alatum; polyspermum.
Cup bell-shaped, five-cleft; the two upper segments very large and
obtuse. Chives all united. Pod on a footstalk, compressed, winged along the
back; many seeded.
See Plate CXCI. Vol. III. Platylobium scolopendrum.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Platylobium foliis glaberrimis, distichis, lineari-lanceolatis; floribus

solitariis, axillaribus; ramis junioribus sub-compressis.
Flat-Pea with very smooth leaves pointing opposite ways, linear-lance
shaped; flowers grow solitary from the lower part of the leaves close to the
branches; the younger branches are rather flatish.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Empalement of the flower.

2. The Standard, or upper petal of the blossom.
3. One of the Wings, or side petals of the blossom.
4. The two lower Petals, or keel of the blossom.
5. The Chives, natural size.
 6. The same, magnified.
7. The Seed-bud, natural size.
8. The same magnified, but rather more mature.
No Class, amongst the 24, is more distinct in its natural character than
Diadelphia; yet, since the discovery of New South Wales, no one has
presented more difficulty to the botanist. From the great number of plants of
that country, appertaining to this Class, and the strong differing characters
which most of them exhibit, such indeed, as might formerly have been
thought of sufficient moment to constitute new Genera; many must now
bend a little for the ease of science; or otherwise they will in a short time
become doubled in number; a matter of no small moment to weak although
willing memories. Our having placed the P. scolopendrum of this Volume,
Pl. CXCI., and our present plant to the Genus Platylobium, is the occasion of
the above prelude; as it may be thought by some who have not seen the seed
vessel and seeds, the principal parts upon which the Genus is founded, that
nature is a little outraged in so doing; but, without we had so joined them,
we must have given them a new title. This plant was introduced at the same
time as the P. scolopendrum, and the three other species now in Britain; not
one of them, but has baffled all our most experienced cultivators to increase
it, by any other mode than from the seed; some of which has been procured
from the P. formosum, only. They all require to be kept in the dryest part of
the green-house, as they are impatient of damp. Our drawing was made in
November 1801, at the Nursery of Messrs. Lee and Kennedy, Hammersmith,
by whom it was first raised in 1792. The general height of the Platylobiums,
is about three feet and a half, at most, in this country, and they do not form
bushy shrubs. They require a light, sandy peat soil, with rather less root
room, than is in general necessary for plants of equal size.
 PLATE CCVI.

DRACÆNA BOREALIS.

Oval leaved Dracæna.

CLASS VI. ORDER I.

HEXANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Six Chives. One Pointals.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

Calyx nullus.
Corolla. Petala sex, oblonga, erectiuscula, æqualia, unguibus
cohærentia.
Stamina. Filamenta sex, unguibus inserta, subulata, medio crassiora, basi
membranacea, longitudine vix corollæ. Antheræ oblongæ, incumbentes.
Pistillum. Germen ovatum, sexstriatum. Stylus filiformis, longitudine
staminium. Stigma trifidum, obtusum.
Pericarpium. Bacca ovata, sexsulcata, trilocularis.
Semina solitaria, ovato-oblonga, apice incurvata.
Obs. Character fere Asparagi, habitus diversus.
Empalement none.
Blossom. Petals six, oblong, rather upright, equal, cohering by the claws.
Chives. Threads six, inserted into the claws, awl-shaped, thicker about
the middle, skinny at the base, almost the length of the blossom. Tips
oblong, incumbent.
Pointal. Seed-bud egg-shaped, six-streaked. Shaft thread shaped, the
length of the chives. Summit three-cleft, obtuse.
Seed-vessel. Berry egg-shaped, six-furrowed, three-celled.
Seeds solitary, oblong-egg-shaped, turned inward at the end.
Obs. The Character is very near Asparagus, the habit different.
 SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Dracæna, herbacea, subcaulescens, foliis elipticis.

Dracæna, herbaceous, rather aspiring to a stem, leaves eliptic.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. A Petal with its chive.

2. A Chive, magnified.
3. The Pointal, magnified.
4. A ripe Berry.
5. The same, cut transversely.
About the year 1776, this plant was first received in England, by Messrs.
Lee and Kennedy from Montreal, Canada, N. America. It is a native of all
the northern parts of that country, as far as New England; propagates itself
by the root, and flowers in July. It will not thrive but on a shady border,
which should be made of light sandy peat.
Much we revere the name of Solander, and highly rate his merit as a
Botanist; yet we cannot forbear stating our dissent from the arrangement of
this plant, as a Dracæna, certainly nothing can be more dissimilar, in every
part; this may be easily traced by comparing our figure and dissections, as
connected with the Generic character. The whole natural habit of the plant,
points out Convallaria for its genus, to which it is much nearer allied than
Dracæna, even in the sexual characters. However, we only state our
opinions, without even thinking of change, as the plant is known as
Dracæna, having been figured and described in the First Vol. of the Kew
Catalogue, page 454, under the present title.
 PLATE CCVII.

MIMOSA LONGIFOLIA.

Long-leaved Mimosa.

CLASS XXIII. ORDER I.

POLYGAMIA MONOECIA. Various dispositions. Upon one Plant.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

Hermaphrod. Calyx 5-dentatus. Cor. 5-fida. Stam. 5 seu plura. Pist. 1.

Legumen.
Mascul. Calyx 5-dentatus. Cor. 5-fida. Stam. 5, 10, plura.
Hermaph. Cup five-toothed. Bloss. 5-cleft. Chives 5 or more. Pointal one.
A pod.
Male. Cup 5-toothed. Bloss. 5-cleft. Chives 5, 10, or more.
See Mimosa stricta. Pl. LIII. Vol. I.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Mimosa foliis integris longissimis, utrinque glabris, obtusis; capituli

geminati, racemosi, longissimi, oppositi, lutei, subcernui.
Mimosa with entire, very long leaves, smooth on both sides and blunt;
flower heads grow by pairs in very long bunches opposite to each other,
yellow and rather nodding.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. A flower, magnified, shewn sideways.

2. The Empalement, magnified.
3. The Blossom, magnified.
4. A Chive, magnified.
5. The Pointal, magnified.
 About the year 1792 J. Ord, Esq. of Pursers Cross, Fulham, received the
seeds of this Mimosa from New South Wales; the plants were raised, the
ensuing year, by Mr. White, who has managed, much to his credit, the select
collection of that Gentleman near 20 years, and who obligingly sent us a fine
specimen in March 1801, taken from a plant near 18 feet in height. Of the
Mimosas now in Britain, we think, this species is likely to exceed them all in
height; making a very handsome plant; and most beautiful at the season
when covered with its long pendulous bunches of flowers. It is increased by
cuttings, but with difficulty; and, as yet, seeds have not been perfected in this
country. A light sandy earth is what it thrives in most, but it will grow in
almost any soil.
 PLATE CCVIII.

LASIOPETALUM FERRUGINEUM.

Rusty Woolly-blossom.

CLASS V. ORDER I.
PENTANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Five Chives. One Pointal.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

Calyx. Perianthium triphyllum, foliolis subulatis, tomentosis,

persistentibus, ferruginosis.
Corolla monopetala, rotata, lanuginosa, quinquefida; laciniis ovatis,
apicibus acutis, incurvatis.
Stamina. Filamenta quinque, brevia, erecta, germinis basi affixa. Antheræ
erectæ, dorso bilobæ, apice poris duobus.
Pistillum. Germen ovatum, superum. Stylus minutus, filiformis, erectus.
Stigma obsoletum.
Pericarpium. Capsula subrotunda, supera, trisulcata, trilocularis,
trivalvis, dissepimentis e medio valvularum.
Semina numerosa, subrotunda.
Empalement. Cup three-leaved, leaflets awl-shaped, downy, permanent,
and of a rusty iron colour.
Blossom, one petal, wheel-shaped, woolly, and five-cleft; segments egg-
shaped, sharp pointed and incurved at the point.
Chives. Threads five, short, upright, fixed to the base of the seed-bud.
Tips upright, two-lobed at the back, and two pores at the point.
Pointal. Seed-bud egg-shaped, above. Shaft small, thread-shaped,
upright. Summit obsolete.
Seed-vessel. Capsule roundish, above, three-furrowed, three cells, three
valves, partitions from the middle of the valves.
Seeds numerous, roundish.
 SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Lasiopetalum foliis sublinearibus, obtusis, inequaliter sinuatis, supra

glabris subtus lanuginosis; floribus racemosis, axillaribus.
Woolly blossom with nearly linear leaves, blunt, unequally indented,
smooth above, woolly beneath; flowers grow in long bunches from the
insertion of the leaves into the stem.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Empalement.
2. The Blossom.
3. The Chives and Pointal.
4. A Chive, magnified.
5. The Pointal.
6. The same magnified.
The singularity of this plant recommends it to our notice, rather than its
beauty. It is a native of New South Wales, near Port Jackson, and is found in
marshy grounds; where its branches are seen to extend many yards,
embracing all the under shrubs they meet; they seldom exceed the size of
small twine, but are exceeding tough. The whole plant, when old, has a dirty
or rusty brown appearance, the leaves becoming very small and narrow;
although from culture in this country, we have seen the leaves, on some
plants, near an inch in breadth, and three in length. For the Generic and
Specific titles of this plant we are indebted to Dr. Smith, P. L. S. &c. and we
do not think more appropriate ones could have been invented. The giving
specific names and characters to plants, where only one has been discovered
of the Genus, although a little from Linnæan principles, we must confess
accords with our ideas; for, although, to compare is necessary to distinctive
difference; yet, if the most ostensible, and novel appearance of the parts, are
taken from the first discovered plant, for the specific character; there is no
more danger of confusion, from any addition to the Genus, than if no such
observations had been made; for, what must in future be taken as specific
distinction must arise from an opposition to the first plant on which the
Genus was founded: wherefore we have adopted this manner, from the
commencement of the work. This plant was first raised at the Hammersmith
Nursery, from seeds received from New South Wales in 1791. It is
propagated by cuttings taken from the young shoots, in April; should be
planted in very sandy peat earth, and kept very dry in winter. It is in flower
nearly the whole year.
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