Areas and Volumes for Earth works

1. 0 Determination of areas and volumes in earth works

In engineering construction volume may be required for:-

i. For parcel of land during planning

ii. Engineering plans for flooring
iii. Paving
iv. Cross sections for volume computation
1.1 Area computation methods

The area computation method will depend on whether the figure whose area
is being sought is bounded by regular lines or irregular lines.

1.1.1 Computation of area of figures bounded by irregular lines

Under this section areas can be computed by

i. Give and take lines

ii. Graphical methods
iii. Planimeter
iv. Mathematical methods

1.1.1.1 Give and take lines

In this method an irregular sided figure is divided into triangles,

triapezia, so that the irregular boundaries are replaced with straight
lines. The small areas excluded from the survey the lines are balanced
by other small areas outside the survey lines.

1.1.1.2 Graphical method

1
 In this a transpancy of a squared paper is overlaid over the drawing or
the plan. The number of squares which are enclosed by the area is
counted.

The area of each square is known. The total area of the plan is
computed by summing the squares

1.1.1.3 Measuring areas by Planimeter.

The instrument is used to measures areas with irregular boundaries on a

plan.

a. Parts of the planimeter. ( see figure 1)

i. The tracer arm. This is attached at one end of the

measuring unit, which may be fixed or on a movab1e
carriage, and at the other end supports the tracer point for
tracing circumference of the area to be measured.

2
Figure. The manual planimeter

3
 Figure 2 Digital planimeter

ii. The pole arm, which rotates about a needle pointed_

weight or pole block.

iii. The measuring unit, which consists of a hard steel

measuring wheel attached to a drum graduated into tenths
and hundredths and geared to a revolution counter. A
vernier index against the drum allows readings to be taken
directly to one-thousandth of a revolution of the measuring
wheel.

b. Methods of measuring using planimeter

The planimeter can be used in two ways but whichever way

that is used the pole block is placed on the paper such that the
tracer arm remains at 90◊ with the pole arm.

4
The two methods are
(i) Use of the block inside the area to be measured and
(ii) use of the pole block outside the area to be measured (
the usual way)
With pole block outside
Procedure
i. Place the tracing point at the starting mark and read the
vernier
ii. Trace the outline carefully with tracing point around the
figure back the starting point and read the vernier again.
iii. Get the difference between the final reading and the
starting reading.
iv. Repeat the readings at least three times and obtain the
mean of the difference

The difference between the two readings is proportion to the

area being measured

Multiply the mean difference by the scale factor to obtain

the area.

Example 1

The readings in table 1 were obtained using a planimeter

with the pole block outside.

Table 1

Initial reading Final reading Difference

0.160 2.173 2.013

2.173 4.188 2.015

5
4.190 6.204 2.014

Solution.

The mean reading is 2.014

Each revolutions = 100cm2

Therefore the area of the plot = 201.4 cm2 (100 X 2.014)

Scale 1: 500

i.e. 1 cm2 = 500X 500 = 250000cm2 = 25m2 on the ground

Therefore the area on the ground = 201.4 x 25 =5035m2

Using the pole block inside the figure whose area is

sought

If the pole block is inside the figure (usually when the

figure is large), an area is swept by the figure which is
not registered on the wheel. This is known as zero circle.
Instruments are supplied with constants that represent
the zero circles in terms of wheel revolutions. The
instruments are evaluated as to whether it reads forward
or back ward readings when being used.
If the instrument reads a forward reading the constant
should be added to the readingand if it reads a back ward
reading then the reading is subtracted from the constant.

Example 2

6
 In measuring an irregular area on plan at a scale 1:2500
the planimeter was such that one revolution was 5ha.
The constant of the instrument was 26.102. Determine
the area of the plot if a mean reading of 7.341 was
obtained and it was noticed that initial readings were
greater than the final readings.

Solution

Constant = 26.102
Less reading = 7.341 (since it was backward reading)
= 18.761
Therefore the area was 18.761 X 5 ha = 93.805 ha

1.1.1.4 Mathematical methods

The mathematical methods are:

i. Trapezoidal rule
ii. Simpsons rule
iii. Use of coordinates

a) Area computation by trapezoidal rule

7
 Figure3

The above diagram has been divided into strips of equal width (x) from
one to another. The strips have shapes of trapezia, so the formula of the
trapezium is used to compute area of each strip. Where o1…o2 are offsets

Derivation of the trapezium formula

Area of trapezoid o1 = ( )x

Area of trapezoid o2 = ( )x

Area of trapezoid o7= ( )x

Area of trapezoid on = ( )x

Area = (o1 + o2 + o2 + o3 + o3+ o3 + o4 + o4… + on-1 + on-1 + on)

It can be seen that, other than the first offset and the last offset
The other offsets appear in the equation twice, hence the formula can
be summarized as
Area = (first offset + last offset + 2 (sum of middle offsets)

Example1

8
 In chain survey the following offsets were taken to a fence from a
chain line see table 2. Calculate the area between the fence and the
chain line.
Table 2
0Chn
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
(m)

Offset
0 5.49 9.14 8.53 10.67 12.50 9.75 4.57 1.83 0
(m)

Solution
= (o + 0 + 2 (5.49+9.14+8.53+10.67+12.50+9.75+4.57+1.83)

b) Computation of area by Simpson rule

Derivation of the Simpsons rule

This method, which gives greater accuracy than other methods, assumes
that the irregular boundary is composed of a series of parabolic arcs. It is
essential that the figure under consideration be divided into an even number
of equal strips. Referring figure4.

9
Figure4

The required area is the portion between offsets o1 and offset o3 =

ABGCDA=trapezoid ABFCDA + area BGCFB

. 2X + (AREA MJHFIRCUMSCRIBING PARALLEGRAM) A =

. 2x + (O2- ) zx

3A = 3 ox1+ 3ox3 + .2x

= o1x+o3x +4o2x

A= (o1+4o2+o3)

For general case, the area is given as

Area = (first offset +last offset +4(sum of Even offset +2(sum of

remaining ODD offsets)

Note that in Simpsons rule, the number of strips must be even and
the number of the offsets must be ODD if not work out the first even
strips separately the work out the remaining strips and get the total
area for the whole figure

10
Example 2

Calculate the area of a plot with offsets shown in table 2 if the width is
10m

Table 2

Offset O1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
s

16.76 19.81 20.42 18.59 16.76 17.68 17.68 17.3 16 17.

7 .7 68
6

Area = (16.76+16.76+4(19.81+18.59+17.68+17.37)

+2(20.42+16.76+17.68) + (16.76+17.68)

c) Computation of area using coordinates

When straight boundary figure is represented by the traverse points

whose coordinates are known then the area may be determined
directly by coordinates.

11
Derivation of the area by coordinates

Area of triangle ABC = area of BCKL – area of BAML- area CKMA

Area (ABC) = BCKL – (BAML+ CKMA) = triangle ABC

Let A (N1, E1), B (N2, E2), C (N3, E3)

Area ABC = (E3- E2) (N2+N3)-

2∆ABC = E3N2 +E3N3 –E2N2-E2N3-E1N1+E2N1+E2N2-N3E3+N3E1-

N1E3+N1E1

Rearranging the terms remaining, then the equation becomes

2A = N1E2 +N2E3+N3E1 –N1E3 –N2E1 –N3E2

2A= N1 (E2-E3) +N2 (E3-E1) +N3 (E1-E2)

The equation is usually written as

N1 E1

N2 E2

N3 E3

Table

Point N E

1 1632.43 1482.68

2 1108.49 1829.68

3 835.22 1283.45

12
 Solution

Table 4

Point N E

1 5402.8 8244.7

2 5455.6 7 0 39.3

3 4011.4 6809.1

4 3143.1 8271.6

5 4080.8 8995.8

Area = 334.807ha

2.0 Computation of Cross sectional

areas

In this method, cross-sections are taken at right angles to some

convenient line which runs longitudinally through the, the earthworks.
It is mostly used on long narrow works such as roads, railways, canals
pipe excavations etc.

There are four types of cross sections to be dealt with in this section,
namely (i) Section level across the centre line ( ii ) section falling (

13
 transverse ) across the centre line (iii) Section part in cut and part
in fill ( iv ) section of various levels.

2.1 Section level across the centre line

These sections may be cuttings or embankments but in either case

the following terms are applied.

Formation width (b)

Formation height (h) measured on the centre line

Side width (W), the required gradient for fixing the side pegs
measured from the centre

Side slopes or batter ( )

The sloping side has to fall (or rise) a vertical height of h units from original
cdr4level to final formation level. Since this side slopes in such a way that m

14
units is the horizontal projection for every single unit vertical rise, then in h
units the side gives a horizontal projection of hm units.

W W

P Q

A C

Area of portion A =1/2 X base X height

Base = hm
Height = h
Area of A= 1/2XhX hm
Area portion C = ½ X hX hm
Area of portion B = bX h
Total area h (b+hm)

Example
An embankment formed on level ground has a centre height of 3.10m. If the
formation width is 12.50m and side slope of 2.5m find:
i. Side widths
ii. Cross sectional area
Solution
Side width = hm +b/2 = 6.25+3.1*2.5 =14.0m

15
 Area = h (b+hm) =3.10(12.5+3.1x2.5) = 67.78m

2.2 Section falling(transverse )about the centre line

Figure 5

In this case the existing ground has a cross-fall gradient relative to the
centre line, and the side widths are not equal since the section is not
symmetrical about the centre line.

a) Deriving the area formula

To find W1

Using the above figure 5

W1 = b/2 + mh1 ……. (i)

Also W1 = K (h1-h) ………. (ii)
Equating equation (i) to equation (ii)

16
W1 = b/2 + h1m = kh1-kh

h1 =

Substituting for” h1” in (i)

W1 = b/2 +n ( )

W1 =

To find W2
Similarly,

W2 =

Derive the area for the a section falling across the centre line
Area of the figure ABCFD = area of ∆ACG - ∆DEG
Area = ∆ACG = 1/2x Base x Height
Base = W1+W2
Height = h+EG

But = =

EG =

Therefore the area =

Example1

17
 Calculate the side widths and the cross sectional area of an
embankment to a road with formation width of 12.50m and side slope
1: 2 when the centre height is 3.1m and the existing ground has a
cross fall of 1.12 at right angles to the centre line of the embankment.
Solution
W1 = 14.94m
W2 = 10.67m
Area 60.18m2
Example2
Area of Section part in cut and part in fill

Figure 6

Derivation of formula

From the sketch above,

To find W2 in fill
W2=b/2+h2m… (i)
Also W2 = K (h2+h)… (ii)
Equating (i) to (ii)
B/2+h2m = kh2+kh

18
Kh2-h2m =kh-b/2

h2=

Substitute for h2 in (i)

W2 =

=K(

Similarly,

W1= K (

Area of the part in cut and part in fill

Area of Fill = ½ X DJ X h2
But DJ = b/2- kh

and h2 = =

Therefore area of fill = ½ X ( ) (b/2- kh)

Area of the part in cut and part in cut

Similarly

h1= =

Therefore area of cut = ½ X ( ) (b/2+ kh)

19
 =

Example 1
A road has a formation width of 9.5m and side slopes of 1:1 in cut and
1 a; 3 in fill. The original ground had a cross s fall of 1: 5. If the depth
of excavation at the centre line is ½, calculate the side width and area
of fill and cut.
Solution
W1=6.56
W2 = 8.125
Area of fill =1.27m2
Area of cut = 6.57m2
Example 2
100-m length of a road of earthwork has a cross section of cut and fill
, in which the cut area equals the fill area . the level formation is 30 m
wide , the existing ground has a slope of 1:5 and side slopes are 1: 2
in cut and 1:1 in fill compute the areas in fill and cut and the volume
in 100-m length

Rate of approach method (working from the first principles)

In the above approaches in solving areas of the cross sections the use
of formulae was used. This sometimes is difficult especially when the
shape of the figure dealt with is complex. E.g a figure with various
levels (slopes). In this case the best approach is to use rate of
approach method. (See figure 7)

20
 Figure 7

Derivation of rate of approach expression using figure 7

The Rate of Approach Method for Convergent lines

Let AC rise from A at 1 in K.
AD fall from A at 1 in M.
AB be the horizontal line through point A.

AF = 1 unit

Then GF =

and FE =

Comparing similar triangles ADC and AEG

= =

Therefore CD (vertical) = BA ( )

21
And BA (horizontal) =

Thus if 2 lines CA and DA are CD vertically the horizontal distance BA when

met
I.e. When 2 lines are such that one is rising and the other is falling then
horizontal distance BA

= =

Let AC fall from A at 1 in K

AD fall from A at 1 in M

As before - =

22
Therefore CD =BA ( )

When 2 line are all rising/falling then

Horizontal distance =

Example
Calculate the side widths and cross sectional area of an embankment
in the figure9 below having the following dimensions
Road width =20m
Existing ground slope =1: 10 (10%)
Side slopes = 1: 2
Centre height = 10

Solution

Y1= 27.5m
Y2= 15.0m

Area of triangle AEF = 151.25m2

Area of triangle BDC = 67.50 m2
Total area 418.75 m2
W1 = 37.5m
W2= 25.0m

23
Various slopes

EARTH WORK VOLUMES

In civil engineering. Volume calcutaion is required for
 Excavation
 Dumping
 Removal of earthworks
 Earth work measurement
 Water measurement
 Reservoir calculations
Computation of volumes
The computation of volume in earth works will depend on the
shape of the terminal cross sections involved.
The shapes will either be prisms, wedges, or pyramids

24
Calculation methods
Methods used to calculate the volumes are
i. Mean area method
ii. End area method
iii. Prismoidal method
iv.
Volume by mean area methods

In this method, the volume is computed by multiplying the

mean of the cross sectional areas by the distances
between the end sections’. g if the areas are A1, A2, A3,
..An and the distance between the two extreme sections is
“L” then
Volume = XL

Where “n “is the number of the sections

Example
An embankment is formed on ground which is level
transverse so that the three levels 20m apart have centre
lines heights 6.0, 7.60m, 9.20m respectively above the
original ground level.
If the side slopes of 1:1 are used determine the volume of
fill between the outer sections when the formation width is
6.0m using the mean area method
Area = h(b+hm)
A1= 72m2
A2=103.36m2
A3 = 139.84m2

Volume = X40 = 4202.67m3

25
 End area method
Volume by end area method
This is the method where the mean of the two sections is
multiplied by their distance apart. If areas are A1 and A2
and they are L distance apart

Volume = .L

The next sections areas are A2, A3

Volume = .L

Volume of the last two pairs of sections

Volumes =

This method is sometimes refereed to as trapezoidal

volume formula
Applying the formula to the previous problem
Volume =20/2 (720+139.84+2X103.36)
= 4185.6 m3

Volume by prismoidal formula

This rule is sometimes known as the Prismoidal Formula or the One-Four

One Rule. The plane boundaries or sections, at each end of the volume of

earth to be calculated, should be parallel and the volume of earth between

these sections is considered to be a prismoid. A prismoid is a prism-like

body with similar but unequal parallel ends which may be triangular,

26
quadrilateral or polygonal in shape. The other faces of the prismoid must be

formed by plane surfaces. Examples of prismoids are shown in figure 8.

Figure 8 Prismoid
Volume = L/3 (A1+4m+A2)
Applying to the last example
Volume = 20/3(72.0 +4X103.36 +139.84) = 4168.53m3

Volumes from contours

Volumes may be calculated from contours using either the end areas
or the prismoidal formulae. The areas of the sections are the areas
encompassed between the contour lines. The distances between the
sections are the contour interval. This method is commonly used in
for volumes of reservoirs, Lake or spoil heap.

27
Example

contour 190 188 186 184 182

Area 3150 2460 1630 840 210

Volume = 2/2 (3150+210 2(2460+1630+840)

Volume from spot heights

This method is useful in determining volumes of large open excavation
for tanks basements and borrows pits.
The grid is laid out and levels taken at grid intersection points. The
volumes within each triangle are considered as the product of the plan
area and the mean of the corner depths.
Example

28
29
30