?

Dogs walk with much quicker strides

than do humans. Is this primarily be-
cause, compared to human legs, dogs’ legs
(i) are shorter; (ii) are less massive; (iii) have
a higher ratio of muscle to fat; (iv) have
paws rather than toes; or (v) more than one
of these?

14 Periodic Motion
M
any kinds of motion repeat themselves over and over: the vibration of a quartz LEARNING OUTCOMES
crystal in a watch, the swinging pendulum of a grandfather clock, the sound vibra- In this chapter, you’ll learn...
tions produced by a clarinet or an organ pipe, and the back-and-forth motion of the 14.1 How to describe oscillations in terms
pistons in a car engine. This kind of motion, called periodic motion or oscillation, is the of amplitude, period, frequency, and
subject of this chapter. Understanding periodic motion will be essential for our later study ­
angular frequency.
of waves, sound, alternating electric currents, and light. 14.2 How to do calculations with simple
An object that undergoes periodic motion always has a stable equilibrium position. harmonic motion, an important type of
oscillation.
When it is moved away from this position and released, a force or torque comes into play 14.3 How to use energy concepts to analyze
to pull it back toward equilibrium. But by the time it gets there, it has picked up some ki- simple harmonic motion.
netic energy, so it overshoots, stopping somewhere on the other side, and is again pulled 14.4 How to apply the ideas of simple
back toward equilibrium. Picture a ball rolling back and forth in a round bowl or a pendu- ­harmonic motion to different physical
lum that swings back and forth past its straight-down position. situations.
14.5 How to analyze the motions of a simple
In this chapter we’ll concentrate on two simple examples of systems that can undergo pendulum.
periodic motions: spring-mass systems and pendulums. We’ll also study why oscillations 14.6 What a physical pendulum is, and how
often tend to die out with time and why some oscillations can build up to greater and to calculate the properties of its motion.
greater displacements from equilibrium when periodically varying forces act. 14.7 What determines how rapidly an
­oscillation dies out.
14.8 How a driving force applied to an oscilla-
tor at a particular frequency can cause a
14.1 DESCRIBING OSCILLATION very large response, or resonance.

Figure 14.1 (next page) shows one of the simplest systems that can have periodic mo- You’ll need to review...
tion. An object with mass m rests on a frictionless horizontal guide system, such as a   1.3 Time standards.
linear air track, so it can move along the x-axis only. The object is attached to a spring   3.4 Uniform circular motion.
  6.3 Hooke’s law.
of negligible mass that can be either stretched or compressed. The left end of the spring
  7.2, 7.4 Elastic potential energy; relating
is held fixed, and the right end is attached to the object. The spring force is the only force and potential energy.
horizontal force acting on the object; the vertical normal and gravitational forces al-   9.3 Relating angular motion and linear
ways add to zero. motion.
It’s simplest to define our coordinate system so that the origin O is at the equilibrium 10.2 Newton’s second law for rotational
position, where the spring is neither stretched nor compressed. Then x is the x-component motion.
of the displacement of the object from equilibrium and is also the change in the length
of the spring. The spring exerts a force on the object with x-component Fx , and the x-­
component of acceleration is ax = Fx >m.

429
430    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

Figure 14.1 A system that can have periodic motion.

y
Figure 14.2 Model for periodic motion. When Equilibrium position
the object is displaced from its equilibrium (spring relaxed)
Spring
position at x = 0, the spring exerts a restoring
force back toward the equilibrium position. O x

(a) m
x + 0: glider displaced Fx * 0, so ax * 0:
to the right from the stretched spring
equilibrium position. pulls glider toward Figure 14.2 shows the object for three different displacements of the spring. Whenever
equilibrium position.
the object is displaced from its equilibrium position, the spring force tends to restore it to
y y ax
the equilibrium position. We call a force with this character a restoring force. Oscillation
n can occur only when there is a restoring force tending to return the system to equilibrium.
Fx x Fx
x x Let’s analyze how oscillation occurs in this system. If we displace the object to the right
mg to x = A and then let go, the net force and the acceleration are to the left (Fig. 14.2a). The
speed increases as the object approaches the equilibrium position O. When the object is at O,
the net force acting on it is zero (Fig. 14.2b), but because of its motion it overshoots the
(b)
equilibrium position. On the other side of the equilibrium position the object is still mov-
x = 0: The relaxed spring exerts no force on the
glider, so the glider has zero acceleration. ing to the left, but the net force and the acceleration are to the right (Fig. 14.2c); hence the
y y speed decreases until the object comes to a stop. We’ll show later that with an ideal spring,
the stopping point is at x = -A. The object then accelerates to the right, overshoots equi-
n librium again, and stops at the starting point x = A, ready to repeat the whole process. The
O x x object is oscillating! If there is no friction or other force to remove mechanical energy from
mg the system, this motion repeats forever; the restoring force perpetually draws the object
back toward the equilibrium position, only to have the object overshoot time after time.
(c) In different situations the force may depend on the displacement x from equilibrium in
x * 0: glider displaced Fx + 0, so ax + 0: different ways. But oscillation always occurs if the force is a restoring force that tends to
to the left from the compressed spring return the system to equilibrium.
equilibrium position. pushes glider toward
equilibrium position.
y ax y
Amplitude, Period, Frequency, and Angular Frequency
Here are some terms that we’ll use in discussing periodic motions of all kinds:
x Fx n Fx
x x The amplitude of the motion, denoted by A, is the maximum magnitude of displace-
mg ment from equilibrium—that is, the maximum value of 0 x 0 . It is always positive. If the
spring in Fig. 14.2 is an ideal one, the total overall range of the motion is 2A. The SI unit
of A is the meter. A complete vibration, or cycle, is one complete round trip—say, from A
to -A and back to A, or from O to A, back through O to -A, and back to O. Note that mo-
BIO APPLICATION Wing tion from one side to the other (say, -A to A) is a half-cycle, not a whole cycle.
Frequencies The ruby-throated humming- The period, T, is the time to complete one cycle. It is always positive. The SI unit is the
bird (Archilochus colubris) normally flaps second, but it is sometimes expressed as “seconds per cycle.”
its wings at about 50 Hz, producing the
sound that gives hummingbirds their name.
The frequency, f, is the number of cycles in a unit of time. It is always positive. The SI unit
Insects can flap their wings at even faster of frequency is the hertz, named for the 19th-century German physicist Heinrich Hertz:
rates, from 330 Hz for a house fly and
600 Hz for a mosquito to an amazing
1 hertz = 1 Hz = 1 cycle>s = 1 s-1
1040 Hz for the tiny biting midge. The angular frequency, v, is 2p times the frequency:
v = 2pf
We’ll learn shortly why v is a useful quantity. It represents the rate of change of an an-
gular quantity (not necessarily related to a rotational motion) that is always measured in
radians, so its units are rad>s. Since f is in cycle>s, we may regard the number 2p as hav-
ing units rad>cycle.
By definition, period and frequency are reciprocals of each other:

Period
In periodic motion 1 1
frequency and period f = T = (14.1)
are reciprocals of each other. T f
Frequency
 14.2 Simple Harmonic Motion    431

Also, from the definition of v,

Angular frequency Frequency
related to frequency 2p
and period
v = 2pf = (14.2)
T Period

   CAUTION    One period spans a complete cycle Keep in mind that the period of an oscillation is
the time for a complete cycle—for example, the time to travel from x = -A to x = +A and back
again to x = - A. ❙

EXAMPLE 14.1 Period, frequency, and angular frequency

An ultrasonic transducer used for medical diagnosis oscillates at v = 2pf = 2p16.7 * 106 Hz2
6.7 MHz = 6.7 * 106 Hz. How long does each oscillation take, and
what is the angular frequency? = 12p rad>cycle216.7 * 106 cycle>s2 = 4.2 * 107 rad>s

IDENTIFY and SET UP The target variables are the period T and the EVALUATE This is a very rapid vibration, with large f and v and small T.
angular frequency v. We can find these from the given frequency f in A slow vibration has small f and v and large T.
Eqs. (14.1) and (14.2).
KEYCONCEPT The period of an oscillation is the reciprocal of the
EXECUTE From Eqs. (14.1) and (14.2), oscillation frequency. The angular frequency equals the frequency mul-
1 1 tiplied by 2p.
T = = = 1.5 * 10-7 s = 0.15 ms
f 6.7 * 106 Hz

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 14.1 An object like that shown in Fig. 14.2
oscillates back and forth. For each of the following values of the object’s x-velocity vx and
x-­acceleration ax , state whether its displacement x is positive, negative, or zero. (a) vx 7 0
and ax 7 0; (b) vx 7 0 and ax 6 0; (c) vx 6 0 and ax 7 0; (d) vx 6 0 and ax 6 0; (e) vx = 0 and
ax 6 0; (f) vx 7 0 and ax = 0.
must be relaxed; hence x = 0.
ANSWER
through (e). If the acceleration is zero as in (f), the net force must also be zero and so the spring

the left 1vx 6 02, or not at all 1vx = 02, since the force exerted by the spring depends on only
whether it is compressed or stretched and by what distance. This explains the answers to (a)

always have opposite signs. This is true whether the object is moving to the right 1vx 7 02, to
when x 7 0 (so the object is displaced to the right and the spring is stretched). Hence x and ax
object is displaced to the left and the spring is compressed), while both Fx and ax are negative
both the net x-component of force Fx and the x-acceleration ax are positive when x 6 0 (so the
❙ (a) x * 0, (b) x + 0, (c) x * 0, (d) x + 0, (e) x + 0, (f) x = 0 Figure 14.2 shows that

Figure 14.3 An idealized spring exerts

14.2 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION a restoring force that obeys Hooke’s law,
Fx = -kx. Oscillation with such a restoring
The simplest kind of oscillation occurs when the restoring force Fx is directly proportional force is called simple harmonic motion.
to the displacement from equilibrium x. This happens if the spring in Figs. 14.1 and 14.2
is an ideal one that obeys Hooke’s law (see Section 6.3). The constant of proportionality Restoring force Fx
between Fx and x is the force constant k. On either side of the equilibrium position, Fx and x 6 0
x always have opposite signs. In Section 6.3 we represented the force acting on a stretched Fx 7 0
ideal spring as Fx = kx. The x-component of force the spring exerts on the object is the
negative of this, so Displacement x
O
Restoring force x-component of force
x 7 0
exerted by an Fx = - kx Displacement (14.3) Fx 6 0
ideal spring Force constant of spring

This equation gives the correct magnitude and sign of the force, whether x is positive,
The restoring force exerted by an idealized
negative, or zero (Fig. 14.3). The force constant k is always positive and has units of N>m spring is directly proportional to the
(a useful alternative set of units is kg>s2). We are assuming that there is no friction, so displacement (Hooke’s law, Fx = -kx):
Eq. (14.3) gives the net force on the object. the graph of Fx versus x is a straight line.
432    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

When the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement from equilib-
rium, as given by Eq. (14.3), the oscillation is called simple harmonic motion (SHM).
The acceleration ax = d 2x>dt 2 = Fx>m of an object in SHM is

x-component of acceleration Force constant of

Equation for restoring force
simple harmonic d 2x k
ax = 2 = - x Displacement
(14.4)
motion dt m
Figure 14.4 In most real oscillations
Hooke’s law applies provided the object Second derivative of displacement Mass of object
doesn’t move too far from equilibrium. In
such a case small-amplitude oscillations
are approximately simple harmonic. The minus sign means that, in SHM, the acceleration and displacement always have op-
posite signs. This acceleration is not constant, so don’t even think of using the constant-
Ideal case: The restoring force obeys Hooke’s
law (Fx = -kx), so the graph of Fx versus x is a
acceleration equations from Chapter 2. We’ll see shortly how to solve this equation to
straight line. find the displacement x as a function of time. An object that undergoes simple harmonic
Restoring force Fx motion is called a harmonic oscillator.
Why is simple harmonic motion important? Not all periodic motions are simple
Typical real case: The harmonic; in periodic motion in general, the restoring force depends on displacement
restoring force deviates in a more complicated way than in Eq. (14.3). But in many systems the restoring force
from Hooke’s law ... is approximately proportional to displacement if the displacement is sufficiently small
(Fig. 14.4). That is, if the amplitude is small enough, the oscillations of such systems
O Displacement x are approximately simple harmonic and therefore approximately described by Eq. (14.4).
Thus we can use SHM as an approximate model for many different periodic motions, such
as the vibration of a tuning fork, the electric current in an alternating-current circuit, and
... but Fx = -kx can be a
good approximation to the force the oscillations of atoms in molecules and solids.
if the displacement x is sufficiently small.
Circular Motion and the Equations of SHM
To explore the properties of simple harmonic motion, we must express the displace-
ment x of the oscillating object as a function of time, x1t2. The second derivative of
this function, d 2x>dt 2, must be equal to 1-k>m2 times the function itself, as required by
Eq. (14.4). As we mentioned, the formulas for constant acceleration from Section 2.4
are no help because the acceleration changes constantly as the displacement x changes.
Instead, we’ll find x1t2 by noting that SHM is related to uniform circular motion,
which we studied in Section 3.4.
Figure 14.5a shows a top view of a horizontal disk of radius A with a ball attached to
its rim at point Q. The disk rotates with constant angular speed v (measured in rad>s), so
the ball moves in uniform circular motion. A horizontal light beam casts a shadow of the
ball on a screen. The shadow at point P oscillates back and forth as the ball moves in a cir-
cle. We then arrange an object attached to an ideal spring, like the combination shown in

Figure 14.5 (a) Relating uniform circular motion and simple harmonic motion. (b) The ball’s shadow
moves exactly like an object oscillating on an ideal spring.
(a) Top view of apparatus for creating the reference circle (b) An abstract representation of the motion in (a)

Illuminated Shadow of ball

-A P A on screen Ball moves in uniform
vertical screen O circular motion.
y
Ball’s shadow
Shadow moves
Ball on rotating Q back and forth on
While the ball Q Q turntable A x-axis in SHM.
on the turntable
moves in uniform A u P
circular motion, x
O
its shadow P moves
back and forth on x = A cos u
v
the screen in simple Illumination
harmonic motion.
Table

Light beam
 14.2 Simple Harmonic Motion    433

Figs. 14.1 and 14.2, so that the object oscillates parallel to the shadow. We’ll prove that the
motions of the object and of the ball’s shadow are identical if the amplitude of the object’s
oscillation is equal to the disk radius A, and if the angular frequency 2pf of the oscillating
object is equal to the angular speed v of the rotating disk. That is, simple harmonic mo-
tion is the projection of uniform circular motion onto a diameter.
We can verify this remarkable statement by finding the acceleration of the shadow at
P and comparing it to the acceleration of an object undergoing SHM, given by Eq. (14.4).
The circle in which the ball moves so that its projection matches the motion of the oscil-
lating object is called the reference circle; we’ll call the point Q the reference point.
We take the reference circle to lie in the xy-plane, with the origin O at the center of the
circle (Fig. 14.5b). At time t the vector OQ from the origin to reference point Q makes
an angle u with the positive x-axis. As point Q moves around the reference circle with
constant angular speed v, vector OQ rotates with the same angular speed. Such a rotating
vector is called a phasor. (This term was in use long before the invention of the Star Trek
stun gun with a similar name.) We’ll use phasors again when we study alternating-current
circuits in Chapter 31 and the interference of light in Chapters 35 and 36.
The x-component of the phasor at time t is just the x-coordinate of the point Q:
x = A cos u (14.5)

This is also the x-coordinate of the shadow P, which is the projection of Q onto the x- Figure 14.6 The (a) x-velocity and
axis. Hence the x-velocity of the shadow P along the x-axis is equal to the x-component (b) x-acceleration of the ball’s shadow P
of the velocity vector of point Q (Fig. 14.6a), and the x-acceleration of P is equal to the (see Fig. 14.5) are the x-­components of
the velocity and acceleration vectors,
x-component of the acceleration vector of Q (Fig. 14.6b). Since point Q is in uniform cir- respectively, of the ball Q.
S
cular motion, its acceleration vector aQ is always directed toward O. Furthermore, the
S (a) Using the reference circle to
magnitude of aQ is constant and given by the angular speed squared times the radius of determine the x-velocity of point P
the circle (see Section 9.3):
y
aQ = v2A (14.6) vQ
u
S
Figure 14.6b shows that the x-component of aQ is ax = -aQ cos u. Combining this with Q
Eqs. (14.5) and (14.6), we get that the acceleration of point P is
u P
ax = -aQ cos u = -v2A cos u or (14.7) x
O vx = -vQ sin u
  ax = -v2x (14.8)

The acceleration of point P is directly proportional to the displacement x and always has
the opposite sign. These are precisely the hallmarks of simple harmonic motion.
Equation (14.8) is exactly the same as Eq. (14.4) for the acceleration of a harmonic os-
(b) Using the reference circle to
cillator, provided that the angular speed v of the reference point Q is related to the force determine the x-acceleration of point P
constant k and mass m of the oscillating object by
y
2 k k
v = or v = (14.9) Q
m Am
u
We have been using the same symbol v for the angular speed of the reference point Q and aQ
the angular frequency of the oscillating point P. The reason is that these quantities are equal! u
P
x
If point Q makes one complete revolution in time T, then point P goes through one complete O
ax = -aQ cos u
cycle of oscillation in the same time; hence T is the period of the oscillation. During time T
the point Q moves through 2p radians, so its angular speed is v = 2p>T. But this is the same
as Eq. (14.2) for the angular frequency of the point P, which verifies our statement about
the two interpretations of v. This is why we introduced angular frequency in Section 14.1;
this quantity makes the connection between oscillation and circular motion. So we reinter-
pret Eq. (14.9) as an expression for the angular frequency of simple harmonic motion:

Angular frequency k Force constant of restoring force

for simple v = (14.10)
harmonic motion Am Mass of object
434    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

   CAUTION    Don’t confuse frequency and When you start an object oscillating in SHM, the value of v is not yours to choose; it is
angular frequency You can run into trou- predetermined by the values of k and m. The units of k are N>m or kg>s2, so k>m is in
ble if you don’t make the distinction be- 1kg>s22>kg = s-2. When we take the square root in Eq. (14.10), we get s-1, or more prop-
tween frequency f and angular frequency erly rad>s because this is an angular frequency (recall that a radian is not a true unit).
v = 2pf. Frequency tells you how many According to Eqs. (14.1) and (14.2), the frequency f and period T are
cycles of oscillation occur per second, while
angular frequency tells you how many ra-
Angular frequency
dians per second this corresponds to on the
Frequency for Force constant of
reference circle. In solving problems, pay simple harmonic
v 1 k restoring force
careful attention to whether the goal is to f = = (14.11)
motion 2p 2p A m Mass of object
find f or v. ❙

Period for 1 2p m Mass of object

simple harmonic T = = = 2p (14.12)
motion f v Ak Force constant of
Figure 14.7 The greater the mass m in a Frequency Angular frequency restoring force
tuning fork’s tines, the lower the f­ requency
of oscillation f = 11>2p22k>m and the
We see from Eq. (14.12) that a larger mass m will have less acceleration and take a longer
lower the pitch of the sound that the tun-
ing fork produces. time for a complete cycle (Fig. 14.7). A stiffer spring (one with a larger force constant k)
exerts a greater force at a given deformation x, causing greater acceleration and a shorter
Tines with large mass m:
low frequency f = 128 Hz time T per cycle.

Period and Amplitude in SHM

Equations (14.11) and (14.12) show that the period and frequency of simple harmonic mo-
tion are completely determined by the mass m and the force constant k. In simple har-
monic motion the period and frequency do not depend on the amplitude A. For given
values of m and k, the time of one complete oscillation is the same whether the amplitude
is large or small. Equation (14.3) shows why we should expect this. Larger A means that
the object reaches larger values of 0 x 0 and is subjected to larger restoring forces. This in-
creases the average speed of the object over a complete cycle; this exactly compensates for
having to travel a larger distance, so the same total time is involved.
The oscillations of a tuning fork are essentially simple harmonic motion, so it always
vibrates with the same frequency, independent of amplitude. This is why a tuning fork
can be used as a standard for musical pitch. If it were not for this characteristic of simple
Tines with small mass m: harmonic motion, it would be impossible to play most musical instruments in tune. If you
high frequency f = 4096 Hz encounter an oscillating object with a period that does depend on the amplitude, the oscil-
lation is not simple harmonic motion.

EXAMPLE 14.2 Angular frequency, frequency, and period in SHM WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

A spring is mounted horizontally, with its left end fixed. A spring bal- Figure 14.8 (a) The force exerted on the spring (shown by the vector F)
ance attached to the free end and pulled toward the right (Fig. 14.8a) has x-component Fx = + 6.0 N. The force exerted by the spring has
indicates that the stretching force is proportional to the displacement, x-component Fx = - 6.0 N. (b) A glider is attached to the same spring
and a force of 6.0 N causes a displacement of 0.030 m. We replace the and allowed to oscillate.
spring balance with a 0.50 kg glider, pull it 0.020 m to the right along F = 6.0 N
(a)
a frictionless air track, and release it from rest (Fig. 14.8b). (a) Find the
x
force constant k of the spring. (b) Find the angular frequency v, fre-
quency f, and period T of the resulting oscillation. m

IDENTIFY and SET UP Because the spring force (equal in magnitude to x = 0 x = 0.030 m
the stretching force) is proportional to the displacement, the motion is
simple harmonic. We find k from Hooke’s law, Eq. (14.3), and v, f, and (b) m = 0.50 kg
x
T from Eqs. (14.10), (14.11), and (14.12), respectively.
EXECUTE (a) When x = 0.030 m, the force the spring exerts on the
spring balance is Fx = - 6.0 N. From Eq. (14.3), x = 0 x = 0.020 m
Fx - 6.0 N
k = - = - = 200 N>m = 200 kg>s2
x 0.030 m
 14.2 Simple Harmonic Motion    435

(b) From Eqs. (14.10), (14.11), and (14.12), with m = 0.50 kg, EVALUATE The amplitude of the oscillation is 0.020 m, the distance that
we pulled the glider before releasing it. In SHM the angular frequency,
k 200 kg>s2 frequency, and period are all independent of the amplitude. Note that a
v = = = 20 rad>s
Am B 0.50 kg period is usually stated in “seconds” rather than “seconds per cycle.”

v 20 rad>s KEYCONCEPT The magnitude of the force exerted by an ideal

f = = = 3.2 cycle>s = 3.2 Hz
2p 2p rad>cycle spring equals the spring constant k times the distance the spring is
stretched or compressed. An object of mass m attached to an ideal
1 1 spring oscillates in simple harmonic motion, with its period, frequency,
T = = = 0.31 s
f 3.2 cycle>s and angular frequency determined by the values of k and m.

Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration in SHM

We still need to find the displacement x as a function of time for a harmonic oscillator.
Equation (14.4) for an object in SHM along the x-axis is identical to Eq. (14.8) for the
x-coordinate of the reference point in uniform circular motion with constant angular
speed v = 2k>m . Hence Eq. (14.5), x = A cos u, describes the x-coordinate for both
situations. If at t = 0 the phasor OQ makes an angle f (the Greek letter phi) with the
positive x-axis, then at any later time t this angle is u = vt + f. We substitute this into
Eq. (14.5) to obtain

Displacement in Amplitude Time Phase angle

simple harmonic
motion as a x = A cos 1vt + f2 (14.13)
function of time Angular frequency = 2k>m

Figure 14.9 shows a graph of Eq. (14.13) for the particular case f = 0. We could also Figure 14.9 Graph of x versus t [see
have written Eq. (14.13) in terms of a sine function rather than a cosine by using the iden- Eq. (14.13)] for simple harmonic motion.
tity cos a = sin1a + p>22. In simple harmonic motion the displacement is a periodic, The case shown has f = 0.
sinusoidal function of time. There are many other periodic functions, but none so simple The displacement x
as a sine or cosine function. varies between A and -A.
The value of the cosine function is always between -1 and 1, so in Eq. (14.13), x is x 1 1
2 T 2 T
­always between -A and A. This confirms that A is the amplitude of the motion. xmax = A
The cosine function in Eq. (14.13) repeats itself whenever time t increases by one O t
­period T, or when vt + f increases by 2p radians. Thus, if we start at time t = 0, the T 2T
time T to complete one cycle is -xmax = -A
The period T is the time
for one complete cycle of
k m oscillation.
vT = T = 2p or T = 2p
Am Ak
which is just Eq. (14.12). Changing either m or k changes the period T (Figs. 14.10a and
14.10b), but T does not depend on the amplitude A (Fig. 14.10c).

Figure 14.10 Variations of simple harmonic motion. All cases shown have f = 0 [see Eq. (14.13)].
(a) Increasing m; same A and k (b) Increasing k; same A and m (c) Increasing A; same k and m
Mass m increases from curve Force constant k increases from Amplitude A increases from curve
1 to 2 to 3. Increasing m alone curve 1 to 2 to 3. Increasing k alone 1 to 2 to 3. Changing A alone has
x increases the period. x decreases the period. x no effect on the period.
1 2 3 3 2 1

O t O t O t
1
2
3
436    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

Figure 14.11 Variations of simple ­harmonic motion:

same m, k, and A but different phase angles f.
These three curves show SHM with
the same period T and amplitude A
but with different phase angles f.
x
f = 0f = p
4
A p
f =
2
O t
-A

T T 3T T
4 2 4

The constant f in Eq. (14.13) is called the phase angle. It tells us at what point in
the cycle the motion was at t = 0 (equivalent to where around the circle the point Q
was at t = 0). We denote the displacement at t = 0 by x0 . Putting t = 0 and x = x0 in
Eq. (14.13), we get

x0 = A cos f (14.14)

If f = 0, then x0 = A cos 0 = A, and the object starts at its maximum positive displace-
ment. If f = p, then x0 = A cos p = -A, and the particle starts at its maximum negative
displacement. If f = p>2, then x0 = A cos1p>22 = 0, and the particle is initially at the
origin. Figure 14.11 shows the displacement x versus time for three different phase angles.
We find the velocity vx and acceleration ax as functions of time for a harmonic oscilla-
tor by taking derivatives of Eq. (14.13) with respect to time:

dx
vx = = -vA sin1vt + f2 (velocity in SHM) (14.15)
dt
Figure 14.12 Graphs of (a) x versus t, dvx d 2x
(b) vx versus t, and (c) ax versus t for an ax = = 2 = -v2A cos1vt + f2 (acceleration in SHM) (14.16)
object in SHM. For the motion depicted dt dt
in these graphs, f = p>3.
(a) Displacement x as a function of time t The velocity vx oscillates between
x
x = A cos 1vt + f2 vmax = +vA and -vmax = -vA,
xmax = A
O t
-xmax = -A T 2T
and the acceleration ax oscillates between
T
amax = +v2A and -amax = -v2A
(b) Velocity vx as a function of time t

vx vx = -vA sin 1vt + f2 (Fig. 14.12). Comparing Eq. (14.16) with Eq. (14.13) and recalling that v2 = k>m from
vmax = vA Eq. (14.9), we see that
O t
-vmax = -vA
T 2T k
ax = -v2x = - x
The vx-t graph is shifted by m
1
4
cycle from the x-t graph.
which is just Eq. (14.4) for simple harmonic motion. This confirms that Eq. (14.13) for x as
(c) Acceleration a x as a function of time t a function of time is correct.
ax We actually derived Eq. (14.16) earlier in a geometrical way by taking the x-­component
ax = -v2A cos 1vt + f2
of the acceleration vector of the reference point Q. This was done in Fig. 14.6b and
amax = v2A
O t Eq. (14.7) (recall that u = vt + f). In the same way, we could have derived Eq. (14.15) by
-amax = -v2A taking the x-component of the velocity vector of Q, as shown in Fig. 14.6b. We’ll leave the
T 2T details for you to work out.
The ax-t graph is shifted by 14 cycle from the Note that the sinusoidal graph of displacement versus time (Fig. 14.12a) is shifted by
vx-t graph and by 12 cycle from the x-t graph. one-quarter period from the graph of velocity versus time (Fig. 14.12b) and by one-half
 14.2 Simple Harmonic Motion    437

period from the graph of acceleration versus time (Fig. 14.12c). Figure 14.13 shows why Figure 14.13 How x-velocity vx and
this is so. When the object is passing through the equilibrium position so that x = 0, x-acceleration ax vary during one cycle
of SHM.
the velocity equals either vmax or -vmax (depending on which way the object is moving)
and the acceleration is zero. When the object is at either its most positive displacement, x
x = +A, or its most negative displacement, x = -A, the velocity is zero and the object
is instantaneously at rest. At these points, the restoring force Fx = -kx and the accel-
eration of the object have their maximum magnitudes. At x = +A the acceleration is x = -A x = 0 x = A
negative and equal to -amax . At x = -A the acceleration is positive: ax = +amax .
Here’s how we can determine the amplitude A and phase angle f for an oscillating -A -A>2 0 A>2 A
­object if we are given its initial displacement x0 and initial velocity v0x . The initial velocity ax = -amax
v0x is the velocity at time t = 0; putting vx = v0x and t = 0 in Eq. (14.15), we find x
vx = 0
ax
v0x = -vA sin f (14.17) vx x

To find f, we divide Eq. (14.17) by Eq. (14.14). This eliminates A and gives an equation ax = 0
x
vx = -vmax
that we can solve for f:
ax
vx x
v0x -vA sin f
= = -v tan f ax = amax
x0 A cos f vx = 0
x

ax
v0x vx x
f = arctana - b (phase angle in SHM) (14.18)
ax = 0
vx0 x
vx = vmax
It is also easy to find the amplitude A if we are given x0 and v0x . We’ll sketch the ax
x
vx
derivation, and you can fill in the details. Square Eq. (14.14); then divide Eq. (14.17) by v,
square it, and add to the square of Eq. (14.14). The right side will be A21sin2 f + cos2 f2, ax = -amax
x
vx = 0
which is equal to A2. The final result is

v0x2
A = x02 + (amplitude in SHM) (14.19)
B v2
Note that when the object has both an initial displacement x0 and a nonzero initial velocity
v0x , the amplitude A is not equal to the initial displacement. That’s reasonable; if you start
the object at a positive x0 but give it a positive velocity v0x , it will go farther than x0 before
it turns and comes back, and so A 7 x0.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 14.1 Simple Harmonic Motion I: Describing Motion

IDENTIFY the relevant concepts: An oscillating system undergoes EXECUTE the solution as follows:
simple harmonic motion (SHM) only if the restoring force is directly 1. Use the equations given in Sections 14.1 and 14.2 to solve for the
proportional to the displacement. target variables.
SET UP the problem using the following steps: 2. To find the values of x, vx, and ax at particular times, use Eqs.
1. Identify the known and unknown quantities, and determine (14.13), (14.15), and (14.16), respectively. If both the initial dis-
which are the target variables. placement x0 and initial velocity v0x are given, determine f and A
from Eqs. (14.18) and (14.19). If the object has an initial positive
2. Distinguish between two kinds of quantities. Properties of the displacement x0 but zero initial velocity 1v0x = 02, then the am-
system include the mass m, the force constant k, and quantities plitude is A = x0 and the phase angle is f = 0. If it has an initial
derived from m and k, such as the period T, frequency f, and an- positive velocity v0x but no initial displacement 1x0 = 02, the am-
gular frequency v. These are independent of properties of the plitude is A = v0x >v and the phase angle is f = - p>2. Express
motion, which describe how the system behaves when it is set all phase angles in radians.
into motion in a particular way; they include the amplitude A,
maximum velocity vmax, and phase angle f, and values of x, vx , EVALUATE your answer: Make sure that your results are consistent.
and ax at particular times. For example, suppose you used x0 and v0x to find general expressions
3. If necessary, define an x-axis as in Fig. 14.13, with the equilib- for x and vx at time t. If you substitute t = 0 into these expressions,
rium position at x = 0. you should get back the given values of x0 and v0x.
438    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

EXAMPLE 14.3 Describing SHM WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

We give the glider of Example 14.2 an initial displacement x0 = (b) The displacement, velocity, and acceleration at any time are
+ 0.015 m and an initial velocity v0x = + 0.40 m>s. (a) Find the period, given by Eqs. (14.13), (14.15), and (14.16), respectively. We substitute
amplitude, and phase angle of the resulting motion. (b) Write equations the values of A, v, and f into these equations:
for the displacement, velocity, and acceleration as functions of time.
x = 10.025 m2 cos 3120 rad>s2t - 0.93 rad4
IDENTIFY and SET UP As in Example 14.2, the oscillations are SHM.
We use equations from this section and the given values k = 200 N>m, vx = - 10.50 m>s2 sin3120 rad>s2t - 0.93 rad4
m = 0.50 kg, x0, and v0x to calculate the target variables A and f and to
ax = - 110 m>s22 cos 3120 rad>s2t - 0.93 rad4
obtain expressions for x, vx, and ax.
EXECUTE (a) In SHM the period and angular frequency are properties EVALUATE You can check the expressions for x and vx by confirm-
of the system that depend on only k and m, not on the amplitude, and so ing that if you substitute t = 0, they yield x = x0 = 0.015 m and
are the same as in Example 14.2 1T = 0.31 s and v = 20 rad>s2. From vx = v0x = 0.40 m>s.
Eq. (14.19), the amplitude is
KEYCONCEPT You can determine the amplitude and phase angle of
2 a simple harmonic oscillation from the initial position, initial velocity,
v0x2 10.40 m>s2
A = x02 + 2
= 10.015 m2 2 + = 0.025 m and angular frequency of the motion.
B v B 120 rad>s2 2

We use Eq. (14.18) to find the phase angle:

v0x
f = arctana - b
vx0
0.40 m>s
= arctana - b = - 53° = -0.93 rad
120 rad>s210.015 m2

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 14.2 A glider is attached to a spring as shown

in Fig. 14.13. If the glider is moved to x = 0.10 m and released from rest at time t = 0, it will
oscillate with amplitude A = 0.10 m and phase angle f = 0. (a) Suppose instead that at t = 0
the glider is at x = 0.10 m and is moving to the right in Fig. 14.13. In this situation is the ampli-
tude greater than, less than, or equal to 0.10 m? Is the phase angle greater than, less than, or equal
to zero? (b) Suppose instead that at t = 0 the glider is at x = 0.10 m and is moving to the left in
Fig. 14.13. In this situation is the amplitude greater than, less than, or equal to 0.10 m? Is the phase
angle greater than, less than, or equal to zero?
f 6 0. In part (b) x0 is positive and v0x is negative, so -v0x >vx0 7 0 and f 7 0.
and negative if - v0x >vx0 is negative. In part (a) both x0 and v0x are positive, so -v0x >vx0 6 0 and
ANSWER
which is positive if the quantity -v0x >vx0 (the argument of the arctangent function) is positive
the initial x-coordinate x0 = 0.10 m. From Eq. (14.18) the phase angle is f = arctan1- v0x >vx02,
x-­velocity v0x is nonzero, so from Eq. (14.19) the amplitude A = 1x02 + 1v0x2>v 22 is greater than
❙ (a) A + 0.10 m, F * 0; (b) A + 0.10 m, F + 0 In both situations the initial 1t = 02

14.3 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

We can learn even more about simple harmonic motion by using energy considerations. The only
horizontal force on the object in SHM in Figs. 14.2 and 14.13 is the conservative force exerted by
an ideal spring. The vertical forces do no work, so the total mechanical energy of the system is
conserved. We also assume that the mass of the spring itself is negligible.
The kinetic energy of the object is K = 12 mv2 and the potential energy of the spring is
U = 12 kx2, just as in Section 7.2. There are no nonconservative forces that do work, so the
total mechanical energy E = K + U is conserved:
E = 12 mvx2 + 12 kx2 = constant (14.20)

(Since the motion is one-dimensional, v2 = vx2.)

The total mechanical energy E is also directly related to the amplitude A of the motion.
When the object reaches the point x = A, its maximum displacement from equilibrium, it
momentarily stops as it turns back toward the equilibrium position. That is, when x = A (or
-A), vx = 0. At this point the energy is entirely potential, and E = 12 kA2. Because E is con-
stant, it is equal to 12 kA2 at any other point. Combining this expression with Eq. (14.20), we get
 14.3 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion     439

Mass Force constant of restoring force

Total mechanical
1 1 2
energy in simple E = 2 mvx
2 + 2 kx = 12 kA2 = constant (14.21)
harmonic motion
Velocity Displacement Amplitude

We can verify this equation by substituting x and vx from Eqs. (14.13) and (14.15) and
using v2 = k>m from Eq. (14.9):
E = 12 mvx2 + 12 kx2 = 12 m 3 -vA sin1vt + f24 2 + 12 k3A cos1vt + f24 2

= 12 kA2 sin21vt + f2 + 12 kA2 cos21vt + f2 = 12 kA2

(Recall that sin2 a + cos2 a = 1.) Hence our expressions for displacement and velocity in
SHM are consistent with energy conservation, as they must be.
We can use Eq. (14.21) to solve for the velocity vx of the object at a given displacement x:
k
vx = { 2A2 - x2 (14.22)
Am
The { sign means that at a given value of x the object can be moving in either direction.
For example, when x = {A>2,
k A 2 3 k
vx = { A2 - a { b = { A
Am B 2 A4 Am
Equation (14.22) also shows that the maximum speed vmax occurs at x = 0. Using
Eq. (14.10), v = 2k>m , we find that
k
vmax = A = vA (14.23)
Am
This agrees with Eq. (14.15): vx oscillates between -vA and +vA.

Interpreting E, K, and U in SHM

Figure 14.14 shows the energy quantities E, K, and U at x = 0, x = {A>2, and x = {A.
Figure 14.15 (next page) is a graphical display of Eq. (14.21); energy (kinetic, potential, and
total) is plotted vertically and the coordinate x is plotted horizontally. The parabolic curve in
Fig. 14.15a represents the potential energy U = 12 kx2. The horizontal line represents the total
mechanical energy E, which is constant and does not vary with x. At any value of x between
-A and A, the vertical distance from the x-axis to the parabola is U; since E = K + U, the
remaining vertical distance up to the horizontal line is K. Figure 14.15b shows both K and U as
functions of x. The horizontal line for E intersects the potential-energy curve at x = -A and
x = A, so at these points the energy is entirely potential, the kinetic energy is zero, and the
object comes momentarily to rest before reversing direction. As the object oscillates between
-A and A, the energy is continuously transformed from potential to kinetic and back again.

Figure 14.14 Graphs of E, K, and U versus displacement in SHM. The velocity of the object is not
constant, so these images of the object at equally spaced positions are not equally spaced in time.
ax = amax ax = 12 amax ax = 0 ax = - 12 amax ax = -amax

vx = 0 vx = {A 34 vmax vx = {vmax vx = {A 34 vmax vx = 0

x
-A - 12 A O 1
2A A
zero

zero

zero

E = K + U E = K + U E = K + U E = K + U E = K + U
E is all potential E is partly potential, E is all kinetic E is partly potential, E is all potential
energy. partly kinetic energy. partly kinetic energy.
energy. energy.
440    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

Figure 14.15 Kinetic energy K, potential energy (a) The potential energy U and total mechanical (b) The same graph as in (a), showing
U, and total mechanical energy E as functions of energy E for an object in SHM as a function of kinetic energy K as well
displacement for SHM. At each value of x the sum displacement x At x = {A the energy is all potential; K = 0.
of the values of K and U equals the constant value At x = 0 the energy is
of E. Can you show that the energy is half kinetic The total mechanical energy E is constant. all kinetic; U = 0.
and half potential at x = {212 A?
Energy Energy
E E = K + U
U = 12 kx2 U
K
K

U
x x
-A O x A -A O A
At these points the energy is half
kinetic and half potential.

Figure 14.15a shows the connection between the amplitude A and the corresponding
total mechanical energy E = 12 kA2. If we tried to make x greater than A (or less than -A),
U would be greater than E, and K would have to be negative. But K can never be negative,
so x can’t be greater than A or less than -A.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 14.2 Simple Harmonic Motion II: Energy

The SHM energy equation, Eq. (14.21), is a useful relationship among involves x2 and vx2, you must infer the signs of x and vx from the
velocity, displacement, and total mechanical energy. If a problem re- situation. For instance, if the object is moving from the equilibrium
quires you to relate displacement, velocity, and acceleration without position toward the point of greatest positive displacement, then x is
reference to time, consider using Eq. (14.4) (from Newton’s second positive and vx is positive.
law) or Eq. (14.21) (from energy conservation). Because Eq. (14.21)

EXAMPLE 14.4 Velocity, acceleration, and energy in SHM WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

(a) Find the maximum and minimum velocities attained by the oscillating The minimum (most negative) acceleration is amin = - 8.0 m>s2, which
glider of Example 14.2. (b) Find the maximum and minimum accelera- occurs at x = +A = +0.020 m.
tions. (c) Find the velocity vx and acceleration ax when the glider is halfway (c) The point halfway from x = x0 = A to x = 0 is x = A>2 =
from its initial position to the equilibrium position x = 0. (d) Find the total 0.010 m. From Eq. (14.22), at this point
mechanical energy, potential energy, and kinetic energy at this position.
200 N>m
IDENTIFY and SET UP The problem concerns properties of the motion at vx = - 210.020 m2 2 - 10.010 m2 2 = -0.35 m>s
B 0.50 kg
specified positions, not at specified times, so we can use the energy relation-
ships of this section. Figure 14.13 shows our choice of x-axis. The maximum We choose the negative square root because the glider is moving from
displacement from equilibrium is A = 0.020 m. We use Eqs. (14.22) and x = A toward x = 0. From Eq. (14.4),
(14.4) to find vx and ax for a given x. We then use Eq. (14.21) for given x and 200 N>m
vx to find the total, potential, and kinetic energies E, U, and K. ax = - 10.010 m2 = - 4.0 m>s2
0.50 kg
EXECUTE (a) From Eq. (14.22), the velocity vx at any displacement x is
Figure 14.14 shows the conditions at x = 0, {A>2, and {A.
k (d) The energies are
vx = { 2A2 - x2
Am E = 12 kA2 = 12 1200 N>m210.020 m2 2 = 0.040 J
The glider’s maximum speed occurs when it is moving through x = 0 :
U = 12 kx2 = 12 1200 N>m210.010 m2 2 = 0.010 J
k 200 N>m K = 12 mvx2 = 12 10.50 kg21-0.35 m>s2 2 = 0.030 J
vmax = A = 10.020 m2 = 0.40 m>s
Am B 0.50 kg
EVALUATE At x = A>2, the total mechanical energy is one-fourth potential
Its maximum and minimum (most negative) velocities are +0.40 m>s
and - 0.40 m>s, which occur when it is moving through x = 0 to the energy and three-fourths kinetic energy. You can confirm this by inspecting
right and left, respectively. Fig. 14.15b.
(b) From Eq. (14.4), ax = - 1k>m2 x. The glider’s maximum (most
KEYCONCEPT In simple harmonic motion, the sum of kinetic en-
positive) acceleration occurs at the most negative value of x, x = -A:
ergy and elastic potential energy is conserved. You can use this to find
k 200 N>m the velocity of an object in SHM as a function of its displacement.
amax = - 1- A2 = - 1- 0.020 m2 = 8.0 m>s2
m 0.50 kg
 14.3 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion     441

EXAMPLE 14.5 Energy and momentum in SHM

A block of mass M attached to a horizontal spring with force constant Figure 14.16 Our sketches for this problem.
k is moving in SHM with amplitude A1. As the block passes through
(a)
its equilibrium position, a lump of putty of mass m is dropped from a
small height and sticks to it. (a) Find the new amplitude and period of
the motion. (b) Repeat part (a) if the putty is dropped onto the block
when it is at one end of its path.
IDENTIFY and SET UP The problem involves the motion at a given po-
sition, not a given time, so we can use energy methods. Figure 14.16
shows our sketches. Before the putty falls, the total mechanical energy
of the block–spring system is constant. In part (a), the putty–block col-
lision is completely inelastic: The horizontal component of momentum (b)
is conserved, kinetic energy decreases, and the amount of mass that’s
oscillating increases. After the collision, the total mechanical energy
remains constant at its new value. In part (b) the oscillating mass also
increases, but the block isn’t moving when the putty is added; there is
effectively no collision at all, and no mechanical energy is lost. We find
the amplitude A2 after each collision from the final energy of the sys-
tem by using Eq. (14.21) and conservation of momentum. The period T2
after the collision is the same in both parts (a) and (b) because the final
mass is the same; we find it by using Eq. (14.12).
EXECUTE (a) Before the collision the total mechanical energy of the Since E2 = 12 kA22, where A2 is the amplitude after the collision,
1 2
block and spring is E1 = The block is at x = 0, so U = 0 and
2 kA1 .
1 2 M
the energy is purely kinetic (Fig. 14.16a). If we let v1 be the speed of 2 kA2 = a b 1 kA 2
the block at this point, then E1 = 12 kA12 = 12 Mv12 and M + m 2 1

k M
v1 = A A2 = A1
AM 1 AM + m
From Eq. (14.12), the period of oscillation after the collision is
During the collision the x-component of momentum of the block–putty
system is conserved. (Why?) Just before the collision this component M + m
is the sum of Mv1 (for the block) and zero (for the putty). Just after the T2 = 2p
A k
collision the block and putty move together with speed v2, so their com-
bined x-component of momentum is 1M + m2v2. From conservation of (b) When the putty falls, the block is instantaneously at rest
momentum, (Fig. 14.16b). The x-component of momentum is zero both before and
after the collision. The block and putty have zero kinetic energy just be-
M fore and just after the collision. The energy is all potential energy stored
Mv1 + 0 = 1M + m2v2 so v2 = v
M + m 1 in the spring, so adding the putty has no effect on the total mechani-
cal energy. That is, E2 = E1 = 12 kA12, and the amplitude is unchanged:
The collision lasts a very short time, so the block and putty are still A2 = A1. The period is again T2 = 2p 21M + m2>k.
at the equilibrium position just after the collision. The energy is still
purely kinetic but is less than before the collision: EVALUATE Energy is lost in part (a) because the putty slides against the
­ oving block during the collision, and energy is dissipated by kinetic friction.
m
M2 No energy is lost in part (b) because there is no sliding during the collision.
E2 = 12 1M + m2v22 = 1
2 v12
M + m
KEYCONCEPT You can use conservation of total mechanical energy
M M in simple harmonic motion to help solve problems that involve motion
= 1 1 Mv12 2 = a bE at a given position, not at a given time.
M + m 2 M + m 1

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 14.3 (a) To double the total energy for a
­mass-spring system oscillating in SHM, by what factor must the amplitude increase? (i) 4; (ii) 2;
4
(iii) 12 = 1.414; (iv) 2 2 = 1.189. (b) By what factor will the frequency change due to this
4
­amplitude increase? (i) 4; (ii) 2; (iii) 12 = 1.414; (iv) 2 2 = 1.189; (v) it does not change.

­increase by a factor of 12 . Because the motion is SHM, changing the amplitude has no effect on
ANSWER
the frequency.

❙ (a) (iii), (b) (v) To increase the total energy E = 2 kA2 by a factor of 2, the amplitude A must
1
442    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

Figure 14.17 An object attached to a hanging spring.

(a) (b) An object is suspended from the (c) If the object is displaced from
spring. It is in equilibrium when the equilibrium, the net force on the object
upward force exerted by the stretched is proportional to its displacement.
spring equals the object’s weight. The oscillations are SHM.

l l l

A hanging spring ∆l - x F = k(∆l - x)

that obeys ∆l
F = k ∆l x
Hooke’s law
x = 0
mg

mg

14.4 APPLICATIONS OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

So far, we’ve looked at a grand total of one situation in which simple harmonic motion
(SHM) occurs: an object attached to an ideal horizontal spring. But SHM can occur in
any system in which there is a restoring force that is directly proportional to the displace-
ment from equilibrium, as given by Eq. (14.3), Fx = -kx. The restoring force originates
in different ways in different situations, so we must find the force constant k for each case
by examining the net force on the system. Once this is done, it’s straightforward to find
the angular frequency v, frequency f, and period T; we just substitute the value of k into
Eqs. (14.10), (14.11), and (14.12), respectively. Let’s use these ideas to examine several
­examples of simple harmonic motion.

Vertical SHM
Suppose we hang a spring with force constant k (Fig. 14.17a) and suspend from it an
object with mass m. Oscillations will now be vertical; will they still be SHM? In
­
Fig. 14.17b the object hangs at rest, in equilibrium. In this position the spring is stretched
an amount ∆l just great enough that the spring’s upward vertical force k ∆l on the object
balances its weight mg:

k ∆l = mg

Take x = 0 to be this equilibrium position and take the positive x-direction to be up-
Figure 14.18 If the weight mg compresses ward. When the object is a distance x above its equilibrium position (Fig. 14.17c), the ex-
the spring a distance ∆l, the force constant tension of the spring is ∆l - x. The upward force it exerts on the object is then k1∆l - x2,
is k = mg>∆l and the angular frequency and the net x-component of force on the object is
for vertical SHM is v = 1k>m—the same
as if the object were suspended from the Fnet = k1∆l - x2 + 1-mg2 = -kx
spring (see Fig. 14.17).
An object is placed atop the spring. It is in that is, a net downward force of magnitude kx. Similarly, when the object is below the
equilibrium when the upward force exerted by equilibrium position, there is a net upward force with magnitude kx. In either case
the compressed spring equals the object’s weight.
there is a restoring force with magnitude kx. If the object is set in vertical motion,
F = k ∆l it oscillates in SHM with the same angular frequency as though it were horizontal,
A spring ∆l v = 2k>m . So vertical SHM doesn’t differ in any essential way from horizontal
that obeys SHM. The only real change is that the equilibrium position x = 0 no longer cor-
mg
Hooke’s responds to the point at which the spring is unstretched. The same ideas hold if an
law ­object with weight mg is placed atop a compressible spring (Fig. 14.18) and com-
presses it a distance ∆l.
 14.4 Applications of Simple Harmonic Motion     443

EXAMPLE 14.6 Vertical SHM in an old car

The shock absorbers in an old car with mass 1000 kg are completely The person’s mass is w>g = 1980 N2>19.8 m>s22 = 100 kg. The total
worn out. When a 980 N person climbs slowly into the car at its center oscillating mass is m = 1000 kg + 100 kg = 1100 kg. The period T is
of gravity, the car sinks 2.8 cm. The car (with the person aboard) hits
a bump, and the car starts oscillating up and down in SHM. Model the m 1100 kg
T = 2p = 2p = 1.11 s
car and person as a single object on a single spring, and find the period Ak B 3.5 * 104 kg>s2
and frequency of the oscillation.
The frequency is f = 1>T = 1>11.11 s2 = 0.90 Hz.
IDENTIFY and SET UP The situation is like that shown in Fig. 14.18.
The compression of the spring when the person’s weight is added tells EVALUATE A persistent oscillation with a period of about 1 second
us the force constant, which we can use to find the period and frequency makes for a very unpleasant ride. The purpose of shock absorbers is to
(the target variables). make such oscillations die out (see Section 14.7).

EXECUTE When the force increases by 980 N, the spring compresses KEYCONCEPT The same equations apply to both horizontal and
an additional 0.028 m, and the x-coordinate of the car changes by vertical simple harmonic motion. The only effect of gravity on vertical
- 0.028 m. Hence the effective force constant (including the effect of SHM is to change the equilibrium position of the oscillating object.   
the entire suspension) is
Fx 980 N
k = - = - = 3.5 * 104 kg>s2
x - 0.028 m

Angular SHM
A mechanical watch keeps time based on the oscillations of a balance wheel (Fig. 14.19). Figure 14.19 The balance wheel of a
The wheel has a moment of inertia I about its axis. A coil spring exerts a restoring torque tz mechanical watch. The spring exerts a
restoring torque that is proportional to the
that is proportional to the angular displacement u from the equilibrium position. We write
angular displacement u, so the motion is

the rotational analog of Newton’s second law for a rigid body, g tz = Iaz = I d 2u>dt 2,
tz = -ku, where k (the Greek letter kappa) is a constant called the torsion constant. Using angular SHM.
Balance wheel Spring
Eq. (10.7), we find
d 2u k
-ku = Ia or 2
= - u
dt I

This equation is exactly the same as Eq. (14.4) for simple harmonic motion, with x re-
placed by u and k>m replaced by k>I. So we are dealing with a form of angular simple tz u
harmonic motion. The angular frequency v and frequency f are given by Eqs. (14.10) and
(14.11), respectively, with the same replacement: The spring torque tz opposes
the angular displacement u.

Angular frequency Frequency

Angular simple k 1 k
harmonic motion
v = and f = (14.24)
AI 2p A I
Torsion constant divided by moment of inertia

The angular displacement u as a function of time is given by

u = ϴ cos1vt + f2

where ϴ (the capital Greek letter theta) plays the role of an angular amplitude.
It’s a good thing that the motion of a balance wheel is simple harmonic. If it weren’t,
the frequency might depend on the amplitude, and the watch would run too fast or too
slow as the spring ran down.

Vibrations of Molecules
The following discussion of the vibrations of molecules uses the binomial theorem. If you
aren’t familiar with this theorem, you should read about it in the appropriate section of a
math textbook.
444    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

Figure 14.20 (a) Two atoms with centers separated by r. (b) Potential energy U and (c) force Fr in the van der Waals interaction.
(a) Two-atom system (b) Potential energy U of the two-atom system as a (c) The force Fr on the right-hand atom as a function of r
function of r
Distance between U Fr
atom centers 2U0 10U0 >R0 Fr(r )
U(r ) Parabola
Near equilibrium, U can Near equilibrium, Fr can be
r
U0 be approximated by a 5U0 >R0 approximated by a straight line.
parabola.
O r O r
R0 2R0 R0 1.5R0 2R0
Atoms 1.5R0
-U0 -5U0 >R0
Fr = the force exerted
by the left-hand atom The equilibrium point is at r = R0 The equilibrium point is at r = R0
on the right-hand atom -2U0 (where U is minimum). -10U0 >R0 (where Fr is zero).

When two atoms are separated by a few atomic diameters, they can exert attractive
forces on each other. But if the atoms are so close that their electron shells overlap, the
atoms repel each other. Between these limits, there can be an equilibrium separation dis-
tance at which two atoms form a molecule. If these atoms are displaced slightly from
equilibrium, they will oscillate.
Let’s consider one type of interaction between atoms called the van der Waals interac-
tion. Our immediate task here is to study oscillations, so we won’t go into the details of
how this interaction arises. Let the center of one atom be at the origin and let the center
of the other atom be a distance r away (Fig. 14.20a); the equilibrium distance between
centers is r = R0 . Experiment shows that the van der Waals interaction can be described
by the potential-energy function
R0 12 R0 6
U = U0 c a b - 2a b d (14.25)
r r
where U0 is a positive constant with units of joules. When the two atoms are very far
apart, U = 0; when they are separated by the equilibrium distance r = R0 , U = -U0 .
From Section 7.4, the force on the second atom is the negative derivative of Eq. (14.25):

dU 12R012 6R06 U0 R0 13 R0 7
Fr = - = U0 c 13 - 2 7 d = 12 c a b - a b d (14.26)
dr r r R0 r r

Figures 14.20b and 14.20c plot the potential energy and force, respectively. The force is
positive for r 6 R0 and negative for r 7 R0 , so it is a restoring force.
Let’s examine the restoring force Fr in Eq. (14.26). We let x represent the displacement
from equilibrium:
x = r - R0 so r = R0 + x
In terms of x, the force Fr in Eq. (14.26) becomes

U0 R0 13 R0 7
Fr = 12 ca b - a b d
R0 R0 + x R0 + x
(14.27)
U0 1 1
= 12 c - d
R0 11 + x>R02 13
11 + x>R02 7

This looks nothing like Hooke’s law, Fx = -kx, so we might be tempted to conclude that
molecular oscillations cannot be SHM. But let us restrict ourselves to small-amplitude os-
cillations so that the absolute value of the displacement x is small in comparison to R0 and
the absolute value of the ratio x>R0 is much less than 1. We can then simplify Eq. (14.27)
by using the binomial theorem:
n1n - 12 2 n1n - 121n - 22 3
11 + u2 n = 1 + nu + u + u + g (14.28)
2! 3!
 14.4 Applications of Simple Harmonic Motion     445

If 0 u 0 is much less than 1, each successive term in Eq. (14.28) is much smaller than the
one it follows, and we can safely approximate 11 + u2 n by just the first two terms. In
Eq. (14.27), u is replaced by x>R0 and n equals -13 or -7, so
1 x
13
= 11 + x>R02 -13 ≈ 1 + 1-132
11 + x>R02 R0

1 x
= 11 + x>R02 -7 ≈ 1 + 1-72
11 + x>R02 7 R0

U0 x x 72U0
Fr ≈ 12 c a 1 + 1-132 b - a 1 + 1-72 b d = - a 2 b x (14.29)
R0 R0 R0 R0

This is just Hooke’s law, with force constant k = 72U0>R02. (Note that k has the correct
units, J>m2 or N>m.) So oscillations of molecules bound by the van der Waals interaction
can be simple harmonic motion, provided that the amplitude is small in comparison to R0
so that the approximation 0 x>R0 0 V 1 used in the derivation of Eq. (14.29) is valid.
You can also use the binomial theorem to show that the potential energy U in
Eq. (14.25) can be written as U ≈ 12 kx2 + C, where C = -U0 and k is again equal to
72U0>R0 2 . Adding a constant to the potential-energy function has no effect on the physics,
so the system of two atoms is fundamentally no different from a mass attached to a hori-
zontal spring for which U = 12 kx2.

EXAMPLE 14.7 Molecular vibration

Two argon atoms form the molecule Ar2 as a result of a van der Waals EVALUATE Our answer for f isn’t quite right. If no net external
interaction with U0 = 1.68 * 10-21 J and R0 = 3.82 * 10-10 m. Find force acts on the molecule, its center of mass (halfway between the
the frequency of small oscillations of one Ar atom about its equilib- atoms) doesn’t accelerate, so both atoms must oscillate with the
rium position. same amplitude in opposite directions. It turns out that we can ac-
count for this by replacing m with m>2 in our expression for f .
IDENTIFY and SET UP This is the situation shown in Fig. 14.20.
This makes f larger by a factor of 12, so the correct frequency is
Because the oscillations are small, we can use Eq. (14.29) to find the
f = 1215.63 * 1011 Hz2 = 7.96 * 1011 Hz. What’s more, on the
force constant k and Eq. (14.11) to find the frequency f of SHM.
atomic scale we must use quantum mechanics rather than Newtonian
EXECUTE From Eq. (14.29), mechanics to describe motion; happily, quantum mechanics also yields
f = 7.96 * 1011 Hz.
72U0 7211.68 * 10-21 J2
k = = = 0.829 J>m2 = 0.829 N>m KEYCONCEPT Molecular vibrations, as well as the vibrations of
R02 13.82 * 10-10 m2 2
many other systems, are approximately simple harmonic if the oscilla-
(This force constant is comparable to that of a loose toy spring like tion amplitude is sufficiently small.   
a Slinky™.) From Appendix D, the average atomic mass of argon is
139.948 u211.66 * 10-27 kg>1 u2 = 6.63 * 10-26 kg.
From Eq. (14.11), if one atom is fixed and the other oscillates,

1 k 1 0.829 N>m
f = = = 5.63 * 1011 Hz
2p A m 2p B 6.63 * 10-26 kg

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 14.4 A block attached to a hanging ideal

spring oscillates up and down with a period of 10 s on earth. If you take the block and spring to
Mars, where the acceleration due to gravity is only about 40% as large as on earth, what will be the
new period of oscillation? (i) 10 s; (ii) more than 10 s; (iii) less than 10 s.

ANSWER
to the weaker gravity.
difference is that in equilibrium, the spring will stretch a shorter distance on Mars than on earth due

is given by T = 2p 1m>k , the same expression as for an object attached to a horizontal spring.
Neither m nor k changes when the apparatus is taken to Mars, so the period is unchanged. The only

❙ (i) The oscillation period of an object of mass m attached to a hanging spring of force constant k
446    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

Figure 14.21 The dynamics of a simple 14.5 THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

pendulum.
(a) A real pendulum A simple pendulum is an idealized model consisting of a point mass suspended by a
massless, unstretchable string. When the point mass is pulled to one side of its straight-
down equilibrium position and released, it oscillates about the equilibrium position.
Familiar situations such as a wrecking ball on a crane’s cable or a person on a swing
(Fig. 14.21a) can be modeled as simple pendulums.
The path of the point mass (sometimes called a pendulum bob) is not a straight line but
the arc of a circle with radius L equal to the length of the string (Fig. 14.21b). We use as
our coordinate the distance x measured along the arc. If the motion is simple harmonic,
the restoring force must be directly proportional to x or (because x = Lu) to u. Is it?
Figure 14.21b shows the radial and tangential components of the forces on the mass.
The restoring force Fu is the tangential component of the net force:
(b) An idealized simple pendulum
Fu = -mg sin u (14.30)

We assume Gravity provides the restoring force Fu; the tension T merely acts to make the point mass
the string is
massless and move in an arc. Since Fu is proportional to sin u, not to u, the motion is not simple har-
u unstretchable. monic. However, if angle u is small, sin u is very nearly equal to u in radians (Fig. 14.22).
T
We model the bob
(When u = 0.1 rad, about 6°, sin u = 0.0998. That’s only 0.2% different.) With this
as a point mass. ­approximation, Eq. (14.30) becomes
L
x mg
Fu = -mgu = -mg = - x (14.31)
L L
x m
The restoring force is then proportional to the coordinate for small displacements, and the
mg sin u force constant is k = mg>L. From Eq. (14.10) the angular frequency v of a simple pendu-
The restoring force on the
u
mg cos u lum with small amplitude is
bob is proportional to sin u,
not to u. However, for small Acceleration
u, sin u ≈ u, so the motion is Angular frequency k mg>L g due to gravity
approximately simple harmonic. of simple pendulum, v = = = (14.32)
mg small amplitude Am A m AL Pendulum
Pendulum mass (cancels) length

The corresponding frequency and period relationships are

Figure 14.22 For small angular
displacements u, the restoring force Angular frequency Acceleration
Fu = -mg sin u on a simple pendulum is Frequency of due to gravity
simple pendulum, v 1 g
approximately equal to - mgu; that is, it f = = Pendulum (14.33)
is approximately proportional to the dis-
small amplitude 2p 2p A L length
placement u. Hence for small angles the
oscillations are simple harmonic.
Fu Period of Pendulum
Fu = -mg sin u 2p 1 L length
2mg simple pendulum, T = = = 2p (14.34)
(actual) small amplitude v f Ag Acceleration
mg Fu = -mgu Angular frequency Frequency due to gravity
(approximate)
u (rad)

tional restoring force is proportional to m, so the mass appears on both sides of g F = maS
-p>2 -p>4 O p>4 p>2 These expressions don’t involve the mass of the particle. That’s because the gravita-
S
-mg

-2mg
and cancels out. (The same physics explains why objects of different masses fall with the
same acceleration in a vacuum.) For small oscillations, the period of a pendulum for a
given value of g is determined entirely by its length.
Equations (14.32) through (14.34) tell us that a long pendulum (large L) has a longer pe-
riod than a shorter one. Increasing g increases the restoring force, causing the frequency
to increase and the period to decrease.
The motion of a pendulum is only approximately simple harmonic. When the maxi-
mum angular displacement ϴ (amplitude) is not small, the departures from simple har-
monic motion can be substantial. In general, the period T is given by

L 12 ϴ 12 # 32 ϴ
T = 2p a 1 + 2 sin2 + 2 2 sin4 + g b
Ag 2 2 2 4 # 2
(14.35)
 14.6 The Physical Pendulum    447

We can compute T to any desired degree of precision by taking enough terms in the series.
You can confirm that when ϴ = 15°, the true period is longer than that given by the ap-
proximate Eq. (14.34) by less than 0.5%.
A pendulum is a useful timekeeper because the period is very nearly independent of am-
plitude, provided that the amplitude is small. Thus, as a pendulum clock runs down and the
amplitude of the swings decreases a little, the clock still keeps very nearly correct time.

EXAMPLE 14.8 A simple pendulum WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

Find the period and frequency of a simple pendulum 1.000 m long at a EVALUATE The period is almost exactly 2 s. When the metric system
location where g = 9.800 m>s2. was established, the second was defined as half the period of a 1 m sim-
ple pendulum. This was a poor standard, however, because the value of
IDENTIFY and SET UP This is a simple pendulum, so we can use
g varies from place to place. We discussed more modern time standards
Eq. (14.34) to determine the pendulum’s period T from its length and
in Section 1.3.
Eq. (14.1) to find the frequency f from T.
KEYCONCEPT The period of a simple pendulum depends only on
EXECUTE From Eqs. (14.34) and (14.1),
the length of the pendulum and the value of g, not on the mass of the
L 1.000 m pendulum bob.   
T = 2p = 2p = 2.007 s
Ag A 9.800 m>s2
and
1 1
f = = = 0.4982 Hz
T 2.007 s

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 14.5 When an object oscillating on a horizon-

tal spring passes through its equilibrium position, its acceleration is zero (see Fig. 14.2b). When the
bob of an oscillating simple pendulum passes from left to right through its equilibrium position, is
its acceleration (i) zero; (ii) to the left; (iii) to the right; (iv) upward; or (v) downward?

ANSWER
center of the circular path.
weight of the bob. This causes a net upward force on the bob and an upward acceleration toward the
tion when the string is vertical, the upward tension force at this position must be greater than the
toward the center of the circle (see Section 3.4). To cause this acceleration at the equilibrium posi-
circular path. Hence the bob must have a component of acceleration perpendicular to the path and
at this time is zero). But the direction of motion is changing because the pendulum bob follows a
Figure 14.23 Dynamics of a physical
dulum bob is instantaneously not changing (this is where the speed is maximum, so its derivative
❙ (iv) Just as for an object oscillating on a spring, at the equilibrium position the speed of a pen- pendulum.
The object is free to rotate
Pivot around the z-axis (perpendicular
to the plane of the figure).
14.6 THE PHYSICAL PENDULUM Irregularly
shaped
object O The gravitational force
A physical pendulum is any real pendulum that uses an extended object, in contrast to
acts on the object at
the idealized simple pendulum with all of its mass concentrated at a point. Figure 14.23 its center of
shows an object of irregular shape pivoted so that it can turn without friction about an axis u gravity (cg).
through point O. In equilibrium the center of gravity (cg) is directly below the pivot; in the d
position shown, the object is displaced from equilibrium by an angle u, which we use as a d sin u
coordinate for the system. The distance from O to the center of gravity is d, the moment cg
of inertia of the object about the axis of rotation through O is I, and the total mass is m. mg sin u
When the object is displaced as shown, the weight mg causes a restoring torque
tz = -1mg21d sin u2 (14.36)

The negative sign shows that the restoring torque is clockwise when the displacement is mg cos u
counterclockwise, and vice versa. The restoring
torque on the object
When the object is released, it oscillates about its equilibrium position. The motion is proportional to mg
is not simple harmonic because the torque tz is proportional to sin u rather than to u it- sin u, not to u. However, for small u, sin u ≈ u,
self. However, if u is small, we can approximate sin u by u in radians, just as we did in so the motion is approximately simple harmonic.
448    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

analyzing the simple pendulum. Then the motion is approximately simple harmonic. With
this approximation,
tz = -1mgd2u

From Section 10.2, the equation of motion is g tz = Iaz , so

d 2u
-1mgd2u = Iaz = I
dt 2
d 2u mgd
2
= - u (14.37)
dt I

Comparing this with Eq. (14.4), we see that the role of 1k>m2 for the spring-mass system is
played here by the quantity 1mgd>I2. Thus the angular frequency is

Mass Acceleration due to gravity

Angular frequency of
physical pendulum,
mgd Distance from rotation axis
v = to center of gravity (14.38)
small amplitude A I
Moment of inertia

The frequency f is 1>2p times this, and the period T is 1>f :

Moment of inertia
Period of I
T = 2p Distance from rotation axis (14.39)
physical pendulum,
small amplitude A mgd to center of gravity
Mass Acceleration due to gravity

Equation (14.39) is the basis of a common method for experimentally determining the
moment of inertia of an object with a complicated shape. First locate the center of grav-
ity by balancing the object. Then suspend the object so that it is free to oscillate about an
axis, and measure the period T of small-amplitude oscillations. Finally, use Eq. (14.39) to
calculate the moment of inertia I of the object about this axis from T, the object’s mass m,
and the distance d from the axis to the center of gravity. Biomechanics researchers use
this method to find the moments of inertia of an animal’s limbs. This information is im-
portant for analyzing how an animal walks, as we’ll see in the second of the two following
examples.

EXAMPLE 14.9 Physical pendulum versus simple pendulum WITH ARIATION PROBLEMS

If the object in Fig. 14.23 is a uniform rod with length L, pivoted at one The period is smaller by a factor of 223 = 0.816 than that of a
end, what is the period of its motion as a pendulum? simple pendulum of the same length (see Example 14.8). The rod’s
moment of inertia around one end, I = 13 ML2, is one-third that of
IDENTIFY and SET UP Our target variable is the oscillation period T of
the simple pendulum, and the rod’s cg is half as far from the pivot
a rod that acts as a physical pendulum. We find the rod’s moment of in-
as that of the simple pendulum. You can show that, taken together
ertia in Table 9.2, and then determine T from Eq. (14.39).
in Eq. (14.39), these two differences account for the factor 223 by

?
EXECUTE The moment of inertia of a uniform rod about an axis which the periods differ.
through one end is I = 13 ML2. The distance from the pivot to the
KEYCONCEPT The period of a physical pendulum depends on
rod’s center of gravity is d = L>2. Then from Eq. (14.39),
the value of g, the distance from the pivot to the physical pendulum’s
1 2 center of gravity, and how the mass is distributed within the physical
I 3 ML 2L pendulum.   
T = 2p = 2p = 2p
A mgd B MgL>2 A 3g

EVALUATE If the rod is a meter stick 1L = 1.00 m2 and g = 9.80 m>s2,

then
211.00 m2
T = 2p = 1.64 s
B 319.80 m>s22
 14.7 Damped Oscillations    449

EXAMPLE 14.10 Tyrannosaurus rex and the physical pendulum

All walking animals, including humans, have a natural walking Figure 14.24 The walking speed of Tyrannosaurus rex can be
pace—a number of steps per minute that is more comfortable than a ­estimated from leg length L and stride length S.
faster or slower pace. Suppose that this pace corresponds to the oscilla-
tion of the leg as a physical pendulum. (a) How does this pace depend
on the length L of the leg from hip to foot? Treat the leg as a uniform
rod pivoted at the hip joint. (b) Fossil evidence shows that T. rex, a
two-legged dinosaur that lived about 65 million years ago, had a leg
length L = 3.1 m and a stride length S = 4.0 m (the distance from one
footprint to the next print of the same foot; see Fig. 14.24). Estimate
the walking speed of T. rex.
IDENTIFY and SET UP Our target variables are (a) the relationship be-
tween walking pace and leg length L and (b) the walking speed of T. rex. Leg
Stride length S
We treat the leg as a physical pendulum, with a period of oscillation as length
L
found in Example 14.9. We can find the walking speed from the period
and the stride length.
EXECUTE (a) From Example 14.9 the period of oscillation of the leg
is T = 2p 12L>3g, which is proportional to 1L. Each step takes half of
EVALUATE A uniform rod isn’t a very good model for a leg. The legs of
one period, so the walking pace (in steps per second) equals twice the
many animals, including both T. rex and humans, are tapered; there is
oscillation frequency f = 1>T and is proportional to 1>1L. The longer
more mass between hip and knee than between knee and foot. The cen-
the leg, the slower the pace.
ter of mass is therefore less than L>2 from the hip; a reasonable guess
(b) In our model, T. rex traveled one stride length S in a time
would be about L>4. The moment of inertia is therefore considerably
2 13.1 m2 less than ML2>3—say, ML2>15. Use the analysis of Example 14.9 with
2L
T = 2p = 2p = 2.9 s these corrections; you’ll get a shorter oscillation period and an even
A 3g B 319.8 m>s22 greater walking speed for T. rex.
so its walking speed was
KEYCONCEPT You can apply the idea of a physical pendulum to
S 4.0 m many oscillating systems, including the swinging limbs of humans and
v = = = 1.4 m>s = 5.0 km>h = 3.1 mi>h animals.   
T 2.9 s
This is roughly the walking speed of an adult human.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 14.6 The center of gravity of a simple pen-
dulum of mass m and length L is located at the pendulum bob, a distance L from the pivot point.
The center of gravity of a uniform rod of the same mass m and length 2L pivoted at one end is also
a distance L from the pivot point. Compared to the period of the simple pendulum, is the period of
this uniform rod (i) longer; (ii) shorter; or (iii) the same?

ANSWER
pivot). Hence the rod has a longer period.
Irod = 31 m12L2 2 = 34 mL2 and Isimple = mL2 (all the mass of the pendulum is a distance L from the
on both the rod and the simple pendulum. However, the rod has a greater moment of inertia:
pendulum, as is the mass m. Thus for any displacement angle u the same restoring torque acts Figure 14.25 A swinging bell left to ­itself
tance d = L from the pivot to the center of gravity is the same for both the rod and the simple will eventually stop oscillating due to
❙ (i) The period of a physical pendulum is given by Eq. (14.39), T = 2p1I>mgd . The dis- damping forces (air resistance and friction
at the point of suspension).

14.7 DAMPED OSCILLATIONS

The idealized oscillating systems we have discussed so far are frictionless. There are no
nonconservative forces, the total mechanical energy is constant, and a system set into mo-
tion continues oscillating forever with no decrease in amplitude.
Real-world systems always have some dissipative forces, however, and oscillations die
out with time unless we replace the dissipated mechanical energy (Fig. 14.25). A mechani-
cal pendulum clock continues to run because potential energy stored in the spring or a hang-
ing weight system replaces the mechanical energy lost due to friction in the pivot and the
gears. But eventually the spring runs down or the weights reach the bottom of their travel.
Then no more energy is available, and the pendulum swings decrease in amplitude and stop.
450    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

The decrease in amplitude caused by dissipative forces is called damping (not “dampen-
ing”), and the corresponding motion is called damped oscillation. The simplest case is a
simple harmonic oscillator with a frictional damping force that is directly proportional to
the velocity of the oscillating object. This behavior occurs in friction involving viscous fluid
flow, such as in shock absorbers or sliding between oil-lubricated surfaces. We then have an
additional force on the object due to friction, Fx = -bvx , where vx = dx>dt is the velocity
and b is a constant that describes the strength of the damping force. The negative sign shows
that the force is always opposite in direction to the velocity. The net force on the object is then
g Fx = -kx - bvx (14.40)

and Newton’s second law for the system is

dx d 2x
-kx - bvx = max or -kx - b = m 2 (14.41)
dt dt
Equation (14.41) is a differential equation for x; it’s the same as Eq. (14.4), the equation
for the acceleration in SHM, but with the added term -bdx>dt. We won’t go into how to
solve this equation; we’ll just present the solution. If the damping force is relatively small,
the motion is described by

Initial Damping
Mass
Displacement amplitude constant Time
of oscillator,
little damping x = Ae-1b>2m2t cos1v′t + f2 (14.42)
Angular frequency of damped oscillations Phase angle

The angular frequency of these damped oscillations is given by

Force constant of restoring force

Angular frequency
of oscillator, k b2 Damping constant
v′ = - (14.43)
little damping Bm 4m2
Mass
Figure 14.26 Graph of displacement
v­ ersus time for an oscillator with little
damping [see Eq. (14.42)] and with phase You can verify that Eq. (14.42) is a solution of Eq. (14.41) by calculating the first and sec-
angle f = 0. The curves are for two
ond derivatives of x, substituting them into Eq. (14.41), and checking whether the left and
­values of the damping constant b.
right sides are equal.
b = 0.11km (weak damping force) The motion described by Eq. (14.42) differs from the undamped case in two ways.
b = 0.41km (stronger damping force)
x First, the amplitude Ae-1b>2m2t is not constant but decreases with time because of the ex-
A Ae-(b>2m)t ponential factor e-1b>2m2t. Figure 14.26 is a graph of Eq. (14.42) for f = 0; the larger the
value of b, the more quickly the amplitude decreases.
Second, the angular frequency v′, given by Eq. (14.43), is no longer equal to v = 1k>m
O t
but is somewhat smaller. It becomes zero when b becomes so large that
T0 2T0 3T0 4T0 5T0
k b2
- = 0 or b = 21km (14.44)
m 4m2
With stronger damping (larger b):
-A • The amplitude (shown by the dashed When Eq. (14.44) is satisfied, the condition is called critical damping. The system no
curves) decreases more rapidly. longer oscillates but returns to its equilibrium position without oscillation when it is dis-
• The period T increases
(T0 = period with zero damping). placed and released.
If b is greater than 21km , the condition is called overdamping. Again there is no
oscillation, but the system returns to equilibrium more slowly than with critical damping.
   CAUTION    When frequencies are imagi-
For the overdamped case the solutions of Eq. (14.41) have the form
nary Note that when there is overdamping
and b is greater than 21km , the argument x = C1e-a1t + C2e-a2 t
of the square root in Eq. (14.43) is negative
and the angular frequency of oscillation v where C1 and C2 are constants that depend on the initial conditions and a1 and a2 are con-
is an imaginary number. This is a math- stants determined by m, k, and b.
ematical clue that there is no oscillation in When b is less than the critical value, as in Eq. (14.42), the condition is called
this case. ❙ ­underdamping. The system oscillates with steadily decreasing amplitude.
 14.8 Forced Oscillations and Resonance    451

In a vibrating tuning fork or guitar string, it is usually desirable to have as little damping Figure 14.27 An automobile shock
as possible. By contrast, damping plays a beneficial role in the oscillations of an automobile’s a­ bsorber. The viscous fluid causes a
damping force that depends on the relative
suspension system. The shock absorbers provide a velocity-dependent damping force so that
velocity of the two ends of the unit.
when the car goes over a bump, it doesn’t continue bouncing forever (Fig. 14.27). For opti-
mal passenger comfort, the system should be critically damped or slightly underdamped. Too Upper cylinder
much damping would be counterproductive; if the suspension is overdamped and the car hits attached to car’s
a second bump just after the first one, the springs in the suspension will still be compressed frame; moves little.
somewhat from the first bump and will not be able to fully absorb the impact.

Energy in Damped Oscillations

In damped oscillations the damping force is nonconservative; the total mechanical energy
of the system is not constant but decreases continuously, approaching zero after a long
time. To derive an expression for the rate of change of energy, we first write an expression
for the total mechanical energy E at any instant:
E = 12 mvx2 + 12 kx2 Piston

To find the rate of change of this quantity, we take its time derivative: Viscous
fluid
dE dvx dx
= mvx + kx
dt dt dt Lower cylinder
attached to
But dvx>dt = ax and dx>dt = vx , so axle; moves up Pushed up
and down.
dE
= vx 1max + kx2 Pushed down
dt

From Eq. (14.41), max + kx = -b dx>dt = -bvx , so

dE
= vx 1-bvx2 = -bvx2 (damped oscillations) (14.45)
dt

The right side of Eq. (14.45) is negative whenever the oscillating object is in motion, whether
the x-velocity vx is positive or negative. This shows that as the object moves, the energy de-
creases, though not at a uniform rate. The term -bvx2 = 1-bvx2vx (force times velocity) is
the rate at which the damping force does (negative) work on the system (that is, the damping
power). This equals the rate of change of the total mechanical energy of the system.
Similar behavior occurs in electric circuits containing inductance, capacitance, and
­resistance. There is a natural frequency of oscillation, and the resistance plays the role of
the damping constant b. We’ll study these circuits in detail in Chapters 30 and 31.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 14.7 An airplane is flying in a straight line at

a constant altitude. If a wind gust strikes and raises the nose of the airplane, the nose will bob up
and down until the airplane eventually returns to its original attitude. Are these oscillations (i) un-
damped; (ii) underdamped; (iii) critically damped; or (iv) overdamped?

ANSWER
overshooting.
would not bob up and down but would return smoothly to the original equilibrium attitude without
indefinitely with the same amplitude. If they were critically damped or overdamped, the nose
tion, like those graphed in Fig. 14.26. If the oscillations were undamped, they would continue
❙ (ii) The oscillations are underdamped with a decreasing amplitude on each cycle of oscilla-

14.8 FORCED OSCILLATIONS AND RESONANCE

A damped oscillator left to itself will eventually stop moving. But we can maintain a
constant-amplitude oscillation by applying a force that varies with time in a periodic way.
As an example, consider your cousin Throckmorton on a playground swing. You can keep
him swinging with constant amplitude by giving him a push once each cycle. We call this
additional force a driving force.
452    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

Damped Oscillation with a Periodic Driving Force

BIO APPLICATION Forced
Oscillations This lady beetle (or “ladybug,” If we apply a periodic driving force with angular frequency vd to a damped harmonic
family Coccinellidae) flies by means of a oscillator, the motion that results is called a forced oscillation or a driven oscillation. It
forced oscillation. Unlike the wings of birds, is different from the motion that occurs when the system is simply displaced from equi-
this insect’s wings are extensions of its
librium and then left alone, in which case the system oscillates with a natural angular
exoskeleton. Muscles attached to the inside
of the exoskeleton apply a periodic driving frequency v′ determined by m, k, and b, as in Eq. (14.43). In a forced oscillation, how-
force that deforms the exoskeleton rhythmi- ever, the angular frequency with which the mass oscillates is equal to the driving angular
cally, causing the attached wings to beat up frequency vd. This does not have to be equal to the natural angular frequency v′. If you
and down. The oscillation frequency of the grab the ropes of Throckmorton’s swing, you can force the swing to oscillate with any
wings and exoskeleton is the same as the
frequency you like.
frequency of the driving force.
Suppose we force the oscillator to vibrate with an angular frequency vd that is nearly
equal to the angular frequency v′ it would have with no driving force. What happens?
The oscillator is naturally disposed to oscillate at v = v′, so we expect the amplitude
of the resulting oscillation to be larger than when the two frequencies are very different.
Detailed analysis and experiment show that this is just what happens. The easiest case
to analyze is a sinusoidally varying force—say, F1t2 = Fmax cos vd t. If we vary the fre-
quency vd of the driving force, the amplitude of the resulting forced oscillation varies in
an interesting way (Fig. 14.28). When there is very little damping (small b), the amplitude
goes through a sharp peak as the driving angular frequency vd nears the natural oscilla-
tion angular frequency v′. When the damping is increased (larger b), the peak becomes
broader and smaller in height and shifts toward lower frequencies.
Using more differential equations than we’re ready for, we could find an expression for
the amplitude A of the forced oscillation as a function of the driving angular frequency.
Here is the result:

Maximum value of driving force

Amplitude of a Fmax Damping
forced oscillator A = constant
(14.46)
21k - mvd222 + b2vd2
Force constant
of restoring force Mass Driving angular frequency

When k - mvd2 = 0, the first term under the radical is zero, so A has a maximum near
vd = 1k>m . The height of the curve at this point is proportional to 1>b; the less damp-
ing, the higher the peak. At the low-frequency extreme, when vd = 0, we get A = Fmax>k.
This corresponds to a constant force Fmax and a constant displacement A = Fmax>k from
equilibrium, as we might expect.

Figure 14.28 Graph of the amplitude A Each curve shows the amplitude A for an oscillator subjected to a driving force
of forced oscillation as a function of the at various angular frequencies vd. Successive curves from blue (top) to gold (bottom)
angular frequency vd of the driving force. A represent successively greater damping.
The horizontal axis shows the ratio of vd
to the angular frequency v = 1k>m of an 5Fmax >k b = 0.21km
undamped oscillator. Each curve has a dif-
ferent value of the damping constant b. A lightly damped oscillator exhibits a sharp
4Fmax >k resonance peak when vd is close to v (the
natural angular frequency of an undamped
oscillator).
3Fmax >k
b = 0.41km
Stronger damping reduces and broadens the
2Fmax >k peak and shifts it to lower frequencies.
b = 0.71km
b = 1.01km
Fmax >k If b Ú 12km, the peak disappears completely.
b = 2.01km
vd >v
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Driving frequency vd equals natural angular frequency v of an undamped oscillator.

 Summary    453

Resonance and Its Consequences

The peaking of the amplitude at driving frequencies close to the natural frequency of the
system is called resonance. Physics is full of examples of resonance; building up the os- BIO APPLICATION Canine
Resonance Unlike humans, dogs have no
cillations of a child on a swing by pushing with a frequency equal to the swing’s natural sweat glands and so must pant in order to
frequency is one. A vibrating rattle in a car that occurs only at a certain engine speed is cool down. The frequency at which a dog
another example. Inexpensive loudspeakers often have an annoying boom or buzz when pants is very close to the resonant frequency
a musical note coincides with the natural frequency of the speaker cone or housing. In of its respiratory system. This causes the
Chapter 16 we’ll study examples of resonance that involve sound. Resonance also occurs maximum amount of air inflow and outflow
and so minimizes the effort that the dog
in electric circuits, as we’ll see in Chapter 31; a tuned circuit in a radio receiver responds must exert to cool itself.
strongly to waves with frequencies near its natural frequency. This phenomenon lets us
select one radio station and reject other stations.
Resonance in mechanical systems can be destructive. A company of soldiers once de-
stroyed a bridge by marching across it in step; the frequency of their steps was close to a
natural frequency of the bridge, and the resulting oscillation had large enough amplitude
to tear the bridge apart. Ever since, marching soldiers have been ordered to break step
before crossing a bridge. Some years ago, vibrations of the engines of a particular type of
airplane had just the right frequency to resonate with the natural frequencies of its wings.
Large oscillations built up, and occasionally the wings fell off.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF SECTION 14.8 When driven at a frequency near its
natural frequency, an oscillator with very little damping has a much greater response than the same
oscillator with more damping. When driven at a frequency that is much higher or lower than the
natural frequency, which oscillator will have the greater response: (i) the one with very little damp-
ing or (ii) the one with more damping?

ANSWER
­driving frequency.
the oscillator with the least damping (smallest value of b) will have the greatest response at any
frequencies as the value of the damping constant b is decreased. Hence for fixed values of k and m,
❙ (i) Figure 14.28 shows that the curve of amplitude versus driving frequency moves upward at all

CHAPTER 14 SUMMARY
Periodic motion: Periodic motion is motion that repeats 1 1 x
f = T =  (14.1)
­itself in a definite cycle. It occurs whenever an object has T f
a stable equilibrium position and a restoring force that
2p x = -A x = 0 x = A
acts when the object is displaced from equilibrium. v = 2pf =  (14.2) x 6 0 x 7 0
T
Period T is the time for one cycle. Frequency f is the ax y y y ax
­number of cycles per unit time. Angular frequency v is 2p n n n
Fx Fx
times the frequency. (See Example 14.1.) x x x
mg mg mg

Simple harmonic motion: If the restoring force Fx in Fx = - kx (14.3) x

periodic motion is directly proportional to the dis­ A
Fx k
placement x, the motion is called simple harmonic ax = = - x (14.4)
m m O t
­motion (SHM). In many cases this condition is satis- T 2T
fied if the displacement from equilibrium is small. k -A
The ­angular frequency, frequency, and period in SHM v =  (14.10)
Am
do not ­depend on the amplitude but on only the mass m
and force constant k. The displacement, velocity, and v 1 k
f = =  (14.11)
­acceleration in SHM are sinusoidal functions of time; 2p 2p A m
the amplitude A and phase angle f of the oscillation are 1 m
determined by the initial displacement and velocity of T = = 2p  (14.12)
f Ak
the object. (See Examples 14.2, 14.3, 14.6, and 14.7.)
x = A cos1vt + f2 (14.13)
454    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

Energy in simple harmonic motion: Energy is conserved E = 12 mvx2 + 12 kx2 Energy E = K + U

in SHM. The total energy can be expressed in terms of (14.21)
1 2 U
= 2 kA = constant
the force constant k and amplitude A. (See Examples 14.4 K
and 14.5.)
x
-A O A

Angular simple harmonic motion: In angular SHM, the k Balance wheel Spring
v = and
­frequency and angular frequency are related to the mo- AI
ment of inertia I and the torsion constant k.  (14.24)
1 k
f = tz u
2p A I Spring torque tz opposes
angular displacement u.

Simple pendulum: A simple pendulum consists of a g

v =  (14.32)
point mass m at the end of a massless string of length L. AL
Its motion is approximately simple harmonic for suffi- L
v 1 g
ciently small amplitude; the angular frequency, frequency, f = =  (14.33)
2p 2p A L
and period then depend on only g and L, not on the mass u
or amplitude. (See Example 14.8.) T
2p 1 L
T = = = 2p  (14.34) mg cos u
v f Ag mg sin u
mg

Physical pendulum: A physical pendulum is any mgd O

object suspended from an axis of rotation. The angular v =  (14.38)
B I
frequency and period for small-amplitude oscillations are d sinu
u d
­independent of amplitude but depend on the mass m, dis- I cg
T = 2p  (14.39) mg sinu
tance d from the axis of rotation to the center of gravity, A mgd
mg cos u
and moment of inertia I about the axis. (See Examples 14.9
mg
and 14.10.)

Damped oscillations: When a force Fx = - bvx is added x = Ae-1b>2m2t cos 1v′t + f2 (14.42) x
to a simple harmonic oscillator, the motion is called a A Ae-1b>2m2t
damped oscillation. If b 6 21km (called underdamp- k b2
ing), the system oscillates with a decaying amplitude and v′ = -  (14.43)
B m 4m2
an angular frequency v′ that is lower than it would be O t
T0 2T0 3T0 4T0 5T0
without damping. If b = 21km (called critical damping)
or b 7 21km (called overdamping), when the system is
b = 0.12km
­displaced it returns to equilibrium without oscillating.
-A b = 0.42km

Forced oscillations and resonance: When a sinusoidally Fmax A

A =  (14.46) 5Fmax>k b = 0.22km
varying driving force is added to a damped harmonic 21k - mvd22 2 + b2vd2
4Fmax>k b = 0.42km
­oscillator, the resulting motion is called a forced oscilla-
3Fmax>k b = 0.72km
tion or driven oscillation. The amplitude is a function of
2Fmax>k b = 1.02km
the driving frequency vd and reaches a peak at a driving Fmax>k
­frequency close to the natural frequency of the system. b = 2.02km
vd >v
This behavior is called resonance. 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
 Guided Practice    455

Chapter 14 Media Assets

GUIDED PRACTICE For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to Mastering Physics.

KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS (c) What are the potential energy and the kinetic energy of the puck
when the displacement of the glider is 0.0300 m?
Be sure to review EXAMPLES 14.2 and 14.3 (Section 14.2) before
VP14.4.2 A block of mass 0.300 kg attached to a horizontal spring
attempting these problems.
oscillates on a frictionless surface. The oscillation has amplitude
VP14.3.1 A glider of mass 0.400 kg is placed on a frictionless, hori-
0.0440 m, and total mechanical energy E = 6.00 * 10 - 2 J. Find (a) the
zontal air track. One end of a horizontal spring is attached to the glider,
force constant of the spring and (b) the block’s speed when the potential
and the other end is attached to the end of the track. When released, the
energy equals exactly E>2.
glider oscillates in SHM with frequency 4.15 Hz. (a) Find the period
VP14.4.3 A glider attached to a horizontal spring oscillates on a
and angular frequency of the motion. (b) Find the force constant k of the
horizontal air track. The total mechanical energy of the oscillation is
spring. (c) Find the magnitude of the force that the spring exerts on the
4.00 * 10 - 3 J, the amplitude of the oscillation is 0.0300 m, and the
glider when the spring is stretched by 0.0200 m.
maximum speed of the glider is 0.125 m>s. (a) What are the force con-
VP14.3.2 A hockey puck attached to a horizontal spring oscillates on a
stant of the spring and the mass of the glider? (b) What is the maximum
frictionless, horizontal surface. The spring has force constant 4.50 N>m
acceleration of the glider? (c) What is the magnitude of the glider’s ac-
and the oscillation period is 1.20 s. (a) What is the mass of the puck?
celeration when the potential energy equals 3.00 * 10 - 3 J?
(b) During an oscillation, the acceleration of the puck has maximum
VP14.4.4 An object is undergoing SHM with amplitude A. For what
magnitude 1.20 m>s2. What is the amplitude of the oscillation?
values of the displacement is the kinetic energy equal to (a) 13 of the total
VP14.3.3 The piston of a gasoline engine oscillates in SHM with fre-
mechanical energy; (b) 45 of the total mechanical energy?
quency 50.0 Hz. At one point in the cycle the piston is 0.0300 m from equi-
librium and moving at 12.4 m>s. (a) What is the amplitude of the motion? Be sure to review EXAMPLES 14.8 and 14.9 (Sections 14.5 and 14.6)
(b) What is the maximum speed the piston attains during its oscillation? before attempting these problems.
VP14.3.4 A cat is sleeping on a platform that oscillates from side to VP14.9.1 On an alien planet, a simple pendulum of length 0.500 m has
side in SHM. The combined mass of the cat and platform is 5.00 kg, oscillation frequency 0.609 Hz. Find (a) the period of the pendulum and
and the force constant of the horizontal spring attached to the plat- (b) the acceleration due to gravity on this planet’s surface.
form that makes it oscillate is 185 N>m. Ignore friction. (a) What is VP14.9.2 What must be the length of a simple pendulum if its oscilla-
the frequency of the oscillation? (b) The cat will wake up if the ac- tion frequency is to be equal to that of an air-track glider of mass 0.350 kg
celeration of the platform is greater than 1.52 m>s2. What is the maxi- attached to a spring of force constant 8.75 N>m?
mum amplitude of oscillation that will allow the cat to stay asleep? VP14.9.3 At a bicycle repair shop, a bicycle tire of mass M and
­radius R is suspended from a peg on the wall. The moment of inertia
Be sure to review EXAMPLE 14.4 (Section 14.3) before attempting of the tire around the peg is 2MR2. If the tire is displaced from equilib-
these problems. rium and starts swinging back and forth, what will be its frequency of
VP14.4.1 A hockey puck oscillates on a frictionless, horizontal track oscillation?
while attached to a horizontal spring. The puck has mass 0.150 kg and VP14.9.4 A rod has length 0.900 m and mass 0.600 kg and is pivoted at
the spring has force constant 8.00 N>m. The maximum speed of the one end. The rod is not uniform; the center of mass of the rod is not at its
puck during its oscillation is 0.350 m>s. (a) What is the amplitude of the center but is 0.500 m from the pivot. The period of the rod’s motion as a pen-
oscillation? (b) What is the total mechanical energy of the oscillation? dulum is 1.59 s. What is the moment of inertia of the rod around the pivot?

BRIDGING PROBLEM Oscillating and Rolling

Two uniform, solid cylinders of radius R and total mass M are connected Figure 14.29 M
along their common axis by a short, light rod and rest on a horizontal Rolling cylinders
tabletop (Fig. 14.29). A frictionless ring at the rod’s center is attached to attached to a x
a spring of force constant k; the spring’s other end is fixed. The cylinders spring. k
R
are pulled to the left a distance x, stretching the spring, then released
from rest. Due to friction between the tabletop and the cylinders, the cyl-
inders roll without slipping as they oscillate. Show that the motion of the
center of mass of the cylinders is simple harmonic, and find its period.
EXECUTE
SOLUTION GUIDE 4. Draw a free-body diagram for the cylinders when they are dis-
IDENTIFY and SET UP placed a distance x from equilibrium.
5. Solve the equations to find an expression for the acceleration of the
1. What condition must be satisfied for the motion of the center of
center of mass of the cylinders. What does this expression tell you?
mass of the cylinders to be simple harmonic?
6. Use your result from step 5 to find the period of oscillation of
2. Which equations should you use to describe (a) the translational
the center of mass of the cylinders.
and rotational motions of the cylinders; (b) Which equation
should you use to describe the condition that the cylinders roll EVALUATE
without slipping? (Hint: See Section 10.3.) 7. What would be the period of oscillation if there were no friction
3. Sketch the situation and choose a coordinate system. List the and the cylinders didn’t roll? Is this period larger or smaller than
unknown quantities and decide which is the target variable. your result from step 6? Is this reasonable?
456    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

PROBLEMS
•, ••, •••: Difficulty levels. CP: Cumulative problems incorporating material from earlier chapters. CALC: Problems requiring calculus.
DATA: Problems involving real data, scientific evidence, experimental design, and>or statistical reasoning. BIO: Biosciences problems.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Q14.13 If a pendulum clock is taken to a mountaintop, does it gain or

lose time, assuming it is correct at a lower elevation? Explain.
Q14.1 An object is moving with SHM of amplitude A on the end of a
Q14.14 When the amplitude of a simple pendulum increases, should
spring. If the amplitude is doubled, what happens to the total distance the
its period increase or decrease? Give a qualitative argument; do
object travels in one period? What happens to the period? What happens to
not rely on Eq. (14.35). Is your argument also valid for a physical
the maximum speed of the object? Discuss how these answers are related.
pendulum?
Q14.2 Think of several examples in everyday life of motions that are,
Q14.15 Why do short dogs (like Chihuahuas) walk with quicker strides
at least approximately, simple harmonic. In what respects does each dif-
than do tall dogs (like Great Danes)?
fer from SHM?
Q14.16 At what point in the motion of a simple pendulum is the string
Q14.3 Does a tuning fork or similar tuning instrument undergo SHM?
tension greatest? Least? In each case give the reasoning behind your
Why is this a crucial question for musicians?
answer.
Q14.4 A box containing a pebble is attached to an ideal horizontal
Q14.17 Could a standard of time be based on the period of a certain
spring and is oscillating on a friction-free air table. When the box has
standard pendulum? What advantages and disadvantages would such a
reached its maximum distance from the equilibrium point, the pebble
standard have compared to the actual present-day standard discussed in
is suddenly lifted out vertically without disturbing the box. Will the
Section 1.3?
­following characteristics of the motion increase, decrease, or remain
Q14.18 For a simple pendulum, clearly distinguish between v (the
the same in the subsequent motion of the box? Justify each answer.
angular speed) and v (the angular frequency). Which is constant and
(a) Frequency; (b) period; (c) amplitude; (d) the maximum kinetic en-
which is variable?
ergy of the box; (e) the maximum speed of the box.
Q14.19 In designing structures in an earthquake-prone region, how
Q14.5 If a uniform spring is cut in half, what is the force constant of
should the natural frequencies of oscillation of a structure relate to typi-
each half? Justify your answer. How would the frequency of SHM using
cal earthquake frequencies? Why? Should the structure have a large or
a half-spring differ from the frequency using the same mass and the en-
small amount of damping?
tire spring?
Q14.6 A glider is attached to a fixed ideal spring and oscillates on a
horizontal, friction-free air track. A coin rests atop the glider and oscil-
EXERCISES
lates with it. At what points in the motion is the friction force on the
coin greatest? The least? Justify your answers. Section 14.1 Describing Oscillation
Q14.7 Two identical gliders on an air track are connected by an ideal 14.1 • BIO (a) Music. When a person sings, his or her vocal cords
spring. Could such a system undergo SHM? Explain. How would the vibrate in a repetitive pattern that has the same frequency as the note
period compare with that of a single glider attached to a spring whose that is sung. If someone sings the note B flat, which has a frequency
other end is rigidly attached to a stationary object? Explain. of 466 Hz, how much time does it take the person’s vocal cords to vi-
Q14.8 You are captured by Martians, taken into their ship, and put to brate through one complete cycle, and what is the angular frequency
sleep. You awake some time later and find yourself locked in a small of the cords? (b) Hearing. When sound waves strike the eardrum, this
room with no windows. All the Martians have left you with is your membrane vibrates with the same frequency as the sound. The highest
digital watch, your school ring, and your long silver-chain necklace. pitch that young humans can hear has a period of 50.0 ms. What are
Explain how you can determine whether you are still on earth or have the frequency and angular frequency of the vibrating eardrum for this
been transported to Mars. sound? (c) Vision. When light having vibrations with angular frequency
Q14.9 The system shown in Fig. 14.17 is mounted in an elevator. ranging from 2.7 * 1015 rad>s to 4.7 * 1015 rad>s strikes the retina of
What happens to the period of the motion (does it increase, decrease, the eye, it stimulates the receptor cells there and is perceived as vis-
or remain the same) if the elevator (a) accelerates upward at 5.0 m>s2; ible light. What are the limits of the period and frequency of this light?
(b) moves upward at a steady 5.0 m>s; (c) accelerates downward at (d) Ultrasound. High-frequency sound waves (ultrasound) are used to
5.0 m>s2 ? Justify your answers. probe the interior of the body, much as x rays do. To detect small ob-
Q14.10 If a pendulum has a period of 2.5 s on earth, what would be its jects such as tumors, a frequency of around 5.0 MHz is used. What are
period in a space station orbiting the earth? If a mass hung from a verti- the period and angular frequency of the molecular vibrations caused by
cal spring has a period of 5.0 s on earth, what would its period be in the this pulse of sound?
space station? Justify your answers. 14.2 • If an object on a horizontal, frictionless surface is attached
Q14.11 A simple pendulum is mounted in an elevator. What happens to a spring, displaced, and then released, it will oscillate. If it is
to the period of the pendulum (does it increase, decrease, or remain displaced 0.120 m from its equilibrium position and released with
the same) if the elevator (a) accelerates upward at 5.0 m>s2 ; (b) moves zero initial speed, then after 0.800 s its displacement is found to be
­upward at a steady 5.0 m>s ; (c) accelerates downward at 5.0 m>s2 ; 0.120 m on the opposite side, and it has passed the equilibrium posi-
(d) accelerates downward at 9.8 m>s2 ? Justify your answers. tion once during this interval. Find (a) the amplitude; (b) the period;
Q14.12 What should you do to the length of the string of a simple pen- (c) the frequency.
dulum to (a) double its frequency; (b) double its period; (c) double its 14.3 • The tip of a tuning fork goes through 440 complete vibrations
angular frequency? in 0.500 s. Find the angular frequency and the period of the motion.
 Problems    457

14.4 • The displacement of an oscillating object as a function of time 14.12 • A small block is attached to an ideal spring and is moving
is shown in Fig. E14.4. What are (a) the frequency; (b) the amplitude; in SHM on a horizontal, frictionless surface. When the block is at
(c) the period; (d) the angular frequency of this motion? x = 0.280 m, the acceleration of the block is - 5.30 m>s2. What is the
14.5 •• A machine part is undergoing SHM with a frequency of frequency of the motion?
4.00 Hz and amplitude 1.80 cm. How long does it take the part to go 14.13 • A 2.00 kg, frictionless block is attached to an ideal spring
from x = 0 to x = - 1.80 cm ? with force constant 300 N>m. At t = 0 the spring is neither stretched
nor compressed and the block is moving in the negative direction at
12.0 m>s. Find (a) the amplitude and (b) the phase angle. (c) Write an
Figure E14.4
equation for the position as a function of time.
x (cm) 14.14 •• Repeat Exercise 14.13, but assume that at t = 0 the block has
10.0 velocity -4.00 m>s and displacement + 0.200 m away from equilibrium.
14.15 •• A block of mass m is undergoing SHM on a horizontal, fric-
t (s) tionless surface while attached to a light, horizontal spring. The spring
O 5.0 10.0 15.0
has force constant k, and the amplitude of the SHM is A. The block
-10.0 has v = 0, and x = +A at t = 0. It first reaches x = 0 when t = T>4,
where T is the period of the motion. (a) In terms of T, what is the time
t when the block first reaches x = A>2? (b) The block has its maxi-
Section 14.2 Simple Harmonic Motion mum speed when t = T>4. What is the value of t when the speed of
14.6 • You are pushing your nephew on a playground swing. The the block first reaches the value vmax>2? (c) Does v = vmax>2 when
swing seat is suspended from a horizontal bar by two light chains. Based x = A>2?
on your experience with swings, estimate the length of each chain. Treat 14.16 •• A small block is attached to an ideal spring and is moving
the motion of the child as that of a simple pendulum and assume that for in SHM on a horizontal, frictionless surface. When the amplitude of the
safety the amplitude of the motion is kept small. You give your nephew motion is 0.090 m, it takes the block 2.70 s to travel from x = 0.090 m
a light push each time he reaches his closest distance from you. How to x = -0.090 m. If the amplitude is doubled, to 0.180 m, how long
much time elapses between your pushes? does it take the block to travel (a) from x = 0.180 m to x = - 0.180 m
14.7 • A 2.40 kg ball is attached to an unknown spring and allowed and (b) from x = 0.090 m to x = - 0.090 m?
to oscillate. Figure E14.7 shows a graph of the ball’s position x as a 14.17 • BIO Weighing Astronauts. This procedure has been used to
function of time t. What are the oscillation’s (a) period, (b) frequency, “weigh” astronauts in space: A 42.5 kg chair is attached to a spring and
(c) angular frequency, and (d) amplitude? (e) What is the force constant allowed to oscillate. When it is empty, the chair takes 1.30 s to make one
of the spring? complete vibration. But with an astronaut sitting in it, with her feet off the
floor, the chair takes 2.54 s for one cycle. What is the mass of the astronaut?
Figure E14.7 14.18 • A 0.400 kg object undergoing SHM has ax = - 1.80 m>s2
when x = 0.300 m. What is the time for one oscillation?
x (cm) 14.19 • On a frictionless, horizontal air track, a glider oscillates at the end
3.0 of an ideal spring of force constant 2.50 N>cm. The graph in Fig. E14.19
2.0
1.0 shows the acceleration of the glider as a function of time. Find (a) the mass
t (s) of the glider; (b) the maximum displacement of the glider from the equilib-
-1.0
O
0.50 1.0
rium point; (c) the maximum force the spring ­exerts on the glider.
-2.0
-3.0
Figure E14.19
ax (m>s2)
14.8 •• In a physics lab, you attach a 0.200 kg air-track glider to the
end of an ideal spring of negligible mass and start it oscillating. The 12.0
elapsed time from when the glider first moves through the equilibrium 6.0
t (s)
point to the second time it moves through that point is 2.60 s. Find the O 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40
- 6.0
spring’s force constant. -12.0
14.9 • When an object of unknown mass is attached to an ideal spring
with force constant 120 N>m, it is found to vibrate with a frequency of
6.00 Hz. Find (a) the period of the motion; (b) the angular frequency; 14.20 • A 0.500 kg mass on a spring has velocity as a function of time
(c) the mass of the object. given by vx1t2 = - 13.60 cm>s2 sin314.71 rad>s2t - 1p>224. What are
14.10 • When a 0.750 kg mass oscillates on an ideal spring, the (a) the period; (b) the amplitude; (c) the maximum acceleration of the
frequency is 1.75 Hz. What will the frequency be if 0.220 kg are mass; (d) the force constant of the spring?
(a) added to the original mass and (b) subtracted from the original 14.21 • A 1.50 kg mass on a spring has displacement as a function of
mass? Try to solve this problem without finding the force constant time given by
of the spring. x1t2 = 17.40 cm2 cos 314.16 rad>s2t - 2.424
14.11 •• An object is undergoing SHM with period 0.900 s and
amplitude 0.320 m. At t = 0 the object is at x = 0.320 m and is in- Find (a) the time for one complete vibration; (b) the force constant of
stantaneously at rest. Calculate the time it takes the object to go the spring; (c) the maximum speed of the mass; (d) the maximum force
(a) from x = 0.320 m to x = 0.160 m and (b) from x = 0.160 m to on the mass; (e) the position, speed, and acceleration of the mass at
x = 0. t = 1.00 s; (f) the force on the mass at that time.
458    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

14.22 • BIO Weighing a Virus. In February 2004, scientists at maximum speed? Based on your answer, does the block spend more time
Purdue University used a highly sensitive technique to measure the while traveling at speeds greater than vmax>2 or less than vmax>2?
mass of a vaccinia virus (the kind used in smallpox vaccine). The 14.31 •• A block of mass m is undergoing SHM on a horizontal, fric-
procedure involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of a tiny tionless surface while it is attached to a light, horizontal spring that has
sliver of silicon (just 30 nm long) with a laser, first without the virus force constant k. The amplitude of the SHM of the block is A. What
and then after the virus had attached itself to the silicon. The differ- is the distance  x  of the block from its equilibrium position when
ence in mass caused a change in the frequency. We can model such a its speed v is half its maximum speed vmax? Is this distance larger or
process as a mass on a spring. (a) Show that the ratio of the frequency smaller than A>2?
with the virus attached 1 fS + V2 to the frequency without the virus 1fS2 14.32 •• A block with mass m = 0.300 kg is attached to one end
is given by fS + V>fS = 1>11 + 1mV>mS2, where mV is the mass of the of an ideal spring and moves on a horizontal frictionless surface.
virus and mS is the mass of the silicon sliver. Notice that it is not neces- The other end of the spring is attached to a wall. When the block is
sary to know or measure the force constant of the spring. (b) In some at x = +0.240 m, its acceleration is ax = - 12.0 m>s2 and its velocity
data, the silicon sliver has a mass of 2.10 * 10-16 g and a frequency of is vx = + 4.00 m>s. What are (a) the spring’s force constant k; (b) the
2.00 * 1015 Hz without the virus and 2.87 * 1014 Hz with the virus. amplitude of the motion; (c) the maximum speed of the block during
What is the mass of the virus, in grams and in femtograms? its motion; and (d) the maximum magnitude of the block’s acceleration
14.23 •• CALC The jerk is defined to be the time rate of change of during its motion?
the acceleration. (a) If the velocity of an object undergoing SHM is 14.33 •• You are watching an object that is moving in SHM. When
given by vx = - vA sin(vt), what is the equation for the x-component the object is displaced 0.600 m to the right of its equilibrium position, it
of the jerk as a function of time? (b) What is the value of x for the ob- has a velocity of 2.20 m>s to the right and an acceleration of 8.40 m>s2
ject when the x-component of the jerk has its largest positive value? to the left. How much farther from this point will the object move be-
(c) What is x when the x-component of the jerk is most negative? fore it stops momentarily and then starts to move back to the left?
(d) When it is zero? (e) If vx equals - 0.040 s2 times the x-component of 14.34 •• A mass is oscillating with amplitude A at the end of a
the jerk for all t, what is the period of the motion? spring. How far (in terms of A) is this mass from the equilibrium
position of the spring when the elastic potential energy equals the
kinetic energy?
Section 14.3 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion 14.35 • A 2.00 kg frictionless block attached to an ideal spring with
14.24 •• For the oscillating object in Fig. E14.4, what are (a) its max- force constant 315 N>m is undergoing simple harmonic motion. When
imum speed and (b) its maximum acceleration? the block has displacement +0.200 m, it is moving in the negative x-­
14.25 • A small block is attached to an ideal spring and is moving in direction with a speed of 4.00 m>s. Find (a) the amplitude of the ­motion;
SHM on a horizontal, frictionless surface. The amplitude of the motion (b) the block’s maximum acceleration; and (c) the maximum force the
is 0.165 m. The maximum speed of the block is 3.90 m>s. What is the spring exerts on the block.
maximum magnitude of the acceleration of the block?
14.26 • A small block is attached to an ideal spring and is moving in
SHM on a horizontal, frictionless surface. The amplitude of the motion Section 14.4 Applications of Simple Harmonic Motion
is 0.250 m and the period is 3.20 s. What are the speed and acceleration 14.36 • A proud deep-sea fisherman hangs a 65.0 kg fish from an ideal
of the block when x = 0.160 m? spring having negligible mass. The fish stretches the spring 0.180 m.
14.27 • A 0.150 kg toy is undergoing SHM on the end of a horizon- (a) Find the force constant of the spring. The fish is now pulled down
tal spring with force constant k = 300 N>m. When the toy is 0.0120 m 5.00 cm and released. (b) What is the period of oscillation of the fish?
from its equilibrium position, it is observed to have a speed of (c) What is the maximum speed it will reach?
0.400 m>s. What are the toy’s (a) total energy at any point of its motion; 14.37 • A 175 g glider on a horizontal, frictionless air track is attached
(b) amplitude of motion; (c) maximum speed during its motion? to a fixed ideal spring with force constant 155 N>m. At the instant you
14.28 •• A harmonic oscillator has angular frequency v and ampli­ make measurements on the glider, it is moving at 0.815 m>s and is 3.00 cm
tude A. (a) What are the magnitudes of the displacement and veloc- from its equilibrium point. Use energy conservation to find (a) the am-
ity when the elastic potential energy is equal to the kinetic energy? plitude of the motion and (b) the maximum speed of the glider. (c) What
(Assume that U = 0 at equilibrium.) (b) How often does this occur in is the angular frequency of the oscillations?
each cycle? What is the time between occurrences? (c) At an instant 14.38 •• A uniform, solid metal disk of mass 6.50 kg and diameter
when the displacement is equal to A>2, what fraction of the total energy 24.0 cm hangs in a horizontal plane, supported at its center by a vertical
of the system is kinetic and what fraction is potential? metal wire. You find that it requires a horizontal force of 4.23 N tangent
14.29 • A 0.500 kg glider, attached to the end of an ideal spring with to the rim of the disk to turn it by 3.34°, thus twisting the wire. You now
force constant k = 450 N>m, undergoes SHM with an amplitude of remove this force and release the disk from rest. (a) What is the torsion
0.040 m. Compute (a) the maximum speed of the glider; (b) the speed constant for the metal wire? (b) What are the frequency and period of
of the glider when it is at x = - 0.015 m; (c) the magnitude of the the torsional oscillations of the disk? (c) Write the equation of motion
maximum acceleration of the glider; (d) the acceleration of the glider for u1t2 for the disk.
at x = - 0.015 m; (e) the total mechanical energy of the glider at any 14.39 • A thrill-seeking cat with mass 4.00 kg is attached by a harness
point in its motion. to an ideal spring of negligible mass and oscillates vertically in SHM.
14.30 •• A block of mass m is undergoing SHM on a horizontal, fric- The amplitude is 0.050 m, and at the highest point of the motion the
tionless surface while attached to a light, horizontal spring. The spring has spring has its natural unstretched length. Calculate the elastic potential
force constant k, and the amplitude of the motion of the block is A. (a) The energy of the spring (take it to be zero for the unstretched spring), the
average speed is the total distance traveled by the block divided by the time kinetic energy of the cat, the gravitational potential energy of the system
it takes it to travel this distance. Calculate the average speed for one cycle relative to the lowest point of the motion, and the sum of these three
of the SHM. (b) How does the average speed for one cycle compare to the energies when the cat is (a) at its highest point; (b) at its lowest point;
maximum speed vmax? (c) Is the average speed more or less than half the (c) at its equilibrium position.
 Problems    459

14.40 • A thin metal disk with mass 2.00 * 10-3 kg and radius 14.49 •• A small sphere with mass m is attached to a massless rod
2.20 cm is attached at its center to a long fiber (Fig. E14.40). The disk, of length L that is pivoted at the top, forming a simple pendulum.
when twisted and released, oscillates with a period of 1.00 s. Find the The pendulum is pulled to one side so that the rod is at an angle u
torsion constant of the fiber. from the vertical, and released from rest. (a) In a diagram, show
the pendulum just after it is released. Draw vectors representing the
Figure E14.40 forces acting on the small sphere and the acceleration of the sphere.
Accuracy counts! At this point, what is the linear acceleration of the
sphere? (b) Repeat part (a) for the instant when the pendulum rod is
at an angle u>2 from the vertical. (c) Repeat part (a) for the instant
when the pendulum rod is vertical. At this point, what is the linear
speed of the sphere?
R
Section 14.6 The Physical Pendulum
14.50 •• We want to hang a thin hoop on a horizontal nail and have
14.41 •• A certain alarm clock ticks four times each second, with the hoop make one complete small-angle oscillation each 2.0 s. What
each tick representing half a period. The b­ alance wheel consists of a must the hoop’s radius be?
thin rim with radius 0.55 cm, connected to the balance shaft by thin 14.51 • Two pendulums have the same dimensions (length L) and
spokes of negligible mass. The total mass of the balance wheel is 0.90 g. total mass 1m2. Pendulum A is a very small ball swinging at the end of
(a) What is the moment of inertia of the balance wheel about its shaft? a uniform massless bar. In pendulum B, half the mass is in the ball and
(b) What is the torsion constant of the coil spring (Fig. 14.19)? half is in the uniform bar. Find the period of each pendulum for small
14.42 •• You want to find the ­moment of inertia of a complicated ma- oscillations. Which one takes longer for a swing?
chine part about an axis through its center of mass. You suspend it from a 14.52 •• A 1.80 kg monkey wrench is pivoted 0.250 m from its center
wire along this axis. The wire has a torsion constant of 0.450 N # m>rad. of mass and allowed to swing as a physical pendulum. The period for
You twist the part a small amount about this axis and let it go, timing small-angle oscillations is 0.940 s. (a) What is the moment of inertia of
165 oscillations in 265 s. What is its moment of inertia? the wrench about an axis through the pivot? (b) If the wrench is initially
displaced 0.400 rad from its equilibrium position, what is the angular
Section 14.5 The Simple Pendulum speed of the wrench as it passes through the equilibrium position?
14.43 •• You pull a simple pendulum 0.240 m long to the side through 14.53 •• The two pendulums shown in Fig. E14.53 each consist of
an angle of 3.50° and release it. (a) How much time does it take the pen- a uniform solid ball of mass M supported by a rigid massless rod, but
dulum bob to reach its highest speed? (b) How much time does it take if the ball for pendulum A is very tiny while the ball for pendulum B is
the pendulum is released at an angle of 1.75° instead of 3.50°? much larger. Find the period of each pendulum for small displacements.
14.44 •• Equation (14.35) shows that the equation T = 2p1L>g for Which ball takes longer to complete a swing?
the period of a simple pendulum is an approximation that is accurate
only when the angular displacement ϴ of the pendulum is small. For
Figure E14.53
what value of ϴ is T = 2p1L>g in error by 2.0%? In your calculation
consider only the first correction term in Eq. (14.35). A B
14.45 • A building in San Francisco has light fixtures consisting of
small 2.35 kg bulbs with shades hanging from the ceiling at the end of
L>2
light, thin cords 1.50 m long. If a minor earthquake occurs, how many
swings per second will these fixtures make? L L
14.46 • A Pendulum on Mars. A certain simple pendulum has a pe-
riod on the earth of 1.60 s. What is its period on the surface of Mars,
where g = 3.71 m>s2 ?
M
14.47 • After landing on an unfamiliar planet, a space explorer constructs M
a simple pendulum of length 50.0 cm. She finds that the pendulum makes
100 complete swings in 136 s. What is the value of g on this planet?
14.48 •• In the laboratory, a student studies a pendulum by graphing
the angle u that the string makes with the vertical as a function of time t, 14.54 •• CP A holiday ornament in the shape of a hollow sphere with
obtaining the graph shown in Fig. E14.48. (a) What are the period, fre- mass M = 0.015 kg and radius R = 0.050 m is hung from a tree limb
quency, angular frequency, and amplitude of the pendulum’s motion? by a small loop of wire attached to the surface of the sphere. If the orna-
(b) How long is the pendulum? (c) Is it possible to determine the mass ment is displaced a small distance and released, it swings back and forth
of the bob? as a physical pendulum with negligible friction. Calculate its period.
(Hint: Use the parallel-axis theorem to find the moment of inertia of the
Figure E14.48 sphere about the pivot at the tree limb.)
u 1degrees2
6 Section 14.7 Damped Oscillations
4 14.55 • An object is moving in damped SHM, and the damping con-
2
t 1s2 stant can be varied. If the angular frequency of the motion is v when the
O 1.0 2.0 3.0
-2 damping constant is zero, what is the angular frequency, expressed in
-4 terms of v, when the damping constant is one-half the critical damping
-6
value?
460    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

14.56 •• A 50.0 g hard-boiled egg moves on the end of a spring with 14.65 •• An object with mass m is moving in SHM. It has amplitude
force constant k = 25.0 N>m. Its initial displacement is 0.300 m. A A1 and total mechanical energy E1 when the spring has force constant k1.
damping force Fx = - bvx acts on the egg, and the amplitude of the You want to quadruple the total mechanical energy, so E2 = 4E1, and
motion decreases to 0.100 m in 5.00 s. Calculate the magnitude of the halve the amplitude, so A2 = A1>2, by using a different spring, one with
damping constant b. force constant k2. (a) How is k2 related to k1? (b) What effect will the
14.57 • An unhappy 0.300 kg rodent, moving on the end of a spring change in spring constant and amplitude have on the maximum speed of
with force constant k = 2.50 N>m, is acted on by a damping force the moving object?
Fx = -bvx. (a) If the constant b has the value 0.900 kg>s, what is the 14.66 •• CP A block with mass M rests on a frictionless surface and
frequency of oscillation of the rodent? (b) For what value of the con- is connected to a horizontal spring of force constant k. The other end
stant b will the motion be critically damped? of the spring is attached to a wall (Fig. P14.66). A second block with
14.58 •• A mass is vibrating at Figure E14.58 mass m rests on top of the first block. The coefficient of static friction
the end of a spring of force con- between the blocks is ms. Find the maximum amplitude of oscillation
x (cm)
stant 225 N>m. Figure E14.58 such that the top block will not slip on the bottom block.
shows a graph of its position x as 5
a function of time t. (a) At what Figure P14.66
times is the mass not moving?
t (s) ms
(b) How much energy did this sys- O 1 2 3 4
tem originally contain? (c) How k m
much energy did the system lose -5 M
between t = 1.0 s and t = 4.0 s?
Where did this energy go?
Section 14.8 Forced Oscillations and Resonance
14.67 •• A block with mass m is undergoing SHM on a horizontal,
14.59 • A sinusoidally varying driving force is applied to a damped frictionless surface while attached to a light, horizontal spring that
harmonic oscillator of force constant k and mass m. If the damping has force constant k. You use motion sensor equipment to measure the
constant has a value b1, the amplitude is A1 when the driving angular maximum speed of the block during its oscillations. You repeat the
frequency equals 1k>m. In terms of A1, what is the amplitude for the measurement for the same spring and blocks of different masses while
same driving frequency and the same driving force amplitude Fmax, if keeping the amplitude A at a constant value of 12.0 cm. You plot your
the damping constant is (a) 3b1 and (b) b1>2? data as vmax2 versus 1>m and find that the data lie close to a straight line
14.60 •• Equation (14.46) and Fig.14.28 describe a damped and driven that has slope 8.62 N # m. What is the force constant k of the spring?
oscillator. (a) For a damping constant b = 0.201km, confirm that the 14.68 •• CP Consider the system of two blocks and a spring shown
amplitude A is 5Fmax>k when vd = v, where v = 1k>m is the natural in Fig. P14.66. The horizontal surface is frictionless, but there is
angular frequency. (b) Repeat part (a) for b = 0.401km, and confirm that static friction between the two blocks. The spring has force constant
the amplitude A is 2.5Fmax>k when vd = v. (c) As a measure of the width k = 150 N>m. The masses of the two blocks are m = 0.500 kg and
of the resonance peak, calculate A when vd = v>2 for b = 0.201km M = 4.00 kg. You set the blocks into motion by releasing block M with
and for b = 0.401km. In each case, what is the ratio of the amplitude for the spring stretched a distance d from equilibrium. You start with small
vd = v to the amplitude for vd = v>2? For which value of the damping values of d, and then repeat with successively larger values. For small
constant does the amplitude increase by the larger factor? values of d, the blocks move together in SHM. But for larger values
of d the top block slips relative to the bottom block when the bottom
PROBLEMS block is released. (a) What is the period of the motion of the two blocks
14.61 •• Object A has mass mA and is in SHM on the end of a spring when d is small enough to have no slipping? (b) The largest value d can
with force constant kA. Object B has mass mB and is in SHM on the have and there be no slipping is d = 8.8 cm. What is the coefficient of
end of a spring with force constant kB. The amplitude AA for object A static friction ms between the surfaces of the two blocks?
is twice the amplitude AB for the motion of object B. Also, mB = 4mA 14.69 ••• A 1.50 kg, horizontal, uniform tray is attached to a vertical
and kA = 9kB. (a) What is the ratio of the maximum speeds of the two ideal spring of force constant 185 N>m and a 275 g metal ball is in the
objects, vmax,A>vmax,B? (b) What is the ratio of their maximum accelera- tray. The spring is below the tray, so it can oscillate up and down. The
tions, amax,A>amax,B? tray is then pushed down to point A, which is 15.0 cm below the equilib-
14.62 ••• An object is undergoing SHM with period 0.300 s and ampli- rium point, and released from rest. (a) How high above point A will the
tude 6.00 cm. At t = 0 the object is instantaneously at rest at x = 6.00 cm. tray be when the metal ball leaves the tray? (Hint: This does not occur
Calculate the time it takes the object to go from x = 6.00 cm to when the ball and tray reach their maximum speeds.) (b) How much
x = - 1.50 cm. time elapses between releasing the system at point A and the ball leav-
14.63 •• An object is undergoing SHM with period 1.200 s and ampli- ing the tray? (c) How fast is the ball moving just as it leaves the tray?
tude 0.600 m. At t = 0 the object is at x = 0 and is moving in the nega- 14.70 • CP A 10.0 kg mass is traveling to the right with a speed of
tive x-direction. How far is the object from the equilibrium position when 2.00 m>s on a smooth horizontal surface when it collides with and sticks
t = 0.480 s ? to a second 10.0 kg mass that is initially at rest but is attached to one
14.64 • Four passengers with combined mass 250 kg compress the end of a light, horizontal spring with force constant 170.0 N>m. The
springs of a car with worn-out shock absorbers by 4.00 cm when they other end of the spring is fixed to a wall to the right of the second mass.
get in. Model the car and passengers as a single object on a single ideal (a) Find the frequency, amplitude, and period of the subsequent oscilla-
spring. If the loaded car has a period of vibration of 1.92 s, what is the tions. (b) How long does it take the system to return the first time to the
period of vibration of the empty car? position it had immediately after the collision?
 Problems    461

14.71 ••• An apple weighs 1.00 N. When you hang it from the end where one atom is much more massive than the other, we can treat
of a long spring of force constant 1.50 N>m and negligible mass, it the hydrogen atom as oscillating in SHM while the iodine atom re-
bounces up and down in SHM. If you stop the bouncing and let the mains at rest. (a) A classical estimate of the vibrational frequency is
apple swing from side to side through a small angle, the frequency of f = 7 * 1013 Hz. The mass of a hydrogen atom differs little from the
this simple pendulum is half the bounce frequency. (Because the angle mass of a proton. If the HI molecule is modeled as two atoms connected
is small, the back-and-forth swings do not cause any appreciable change by a spring, what is the force constant of the spring? (b) The vibrational
in the length of the spring.) What is the unstretched length of the spring energy of the molecule is measured to be about 5 * 10-20 J. In the clas-
(with the apple removed)? sical model, what is the maximum speed of the H atom during its SHM?
14.72 ••• CP SHM of a Floating Object. An object with height h, (c) What is the amplitude of the vibrational motion? How does your
mass M, and a uniform cross-sectional area A floats upright in a liquid result compare to the equilibrium distance between the two atoms in the
with density r. (a) Calculate the vertical distance from the surface of the HI molecule, which is about 1.6 * 10-10 m?
liquid to the bottom of the floating object at equilibrium. (b) A down- 14.77 •• A 5.00 kg partridge is suspended from a pear tree by an
ward force with magnitude F is applied to the top of the object. At the ideal spring of negligible mass. When the partridge is pulled down
new equilibrium position, how much farther below the surface of the liq- 0.100 m below its equilibrium position and released, it vibrates with a
uid is the bottom of the object than it was in part (a)? (Assume that some period of 4.20 s. (a) What is its speed as it passes through the equilib-
of the object remains above the surface of the liquid.) (c) Your result rium position? (b) What is its acceleration when it is 0.050 m above the
in part (b) shows that if the force is suddenly removed, the object will equilibrium position? (c) When it is moving upward, how much time
oscillate up and down in SHM. Calculate the period of this motion in is required for it to move from a point 0.050 m below its equilibrium
terms of the density r of the liquid, the mass M, and the cross-sectional position to a point 0.050 m above it? (d) The motion of the partridge
area A of the object. You can ignore the damping due to fluid friction is stopped, and then it is removed from the spring. How much does the
(see Section 14.7). spring shorten?
14.73 •• CP A square object of mass m is constructed of four identi- 14.78 •• A slender rod of length 80.0 cm and mass 0.400 kg has its
cal uniform thin sticks, each of length L, attached together. This object is center of gravity at its geometrical center. But its density is not uni-
hung on a hook at its upper corner (Fig. P14.73). If it is rotated slightly to form; it increases by the same amount from the center of the rod out to
the left and then released, at what frequency will it swing back and forth? either end. You want to determine the moment of inertia Icm of the rod
for an axis perpendicular to the rod at its center, but you don’t know
Figure P14.73 its density as a function of distance along the rod, so you can’t use an
integration method to calculate Icm. Therefore, you make the following
Hook measurements: You suspend the rod about an axis that is a distance d
L (measured in meters) above the center of the rod and measure the pe-
L riod T (measured in seconds) for small-amplitude oscillations about the
axis. You repeat this for several values of d. When you plot your data
as T 2 - 4p2d>g versus 1>d, the data lie close to a straight line that has
slope 0.320 m # s2. What is the value of Icm for the rod?
L
L 14.79 •• CP SHM of a Butcher’s Scale. A spring of negligible mass
and force constant k = 400 N>m is hung vertically, and a 0.200 kg pan
is suspended from its lower end. A butcher drops a 2.2 kg steak onto
14.74 ••• An object with mass 0.200 kg is acted on by an elastic re- the pan from a height of 0.40 m. The steak makes a totally inelastic
storing force with force constant 10.0 N>m. (a) Graph elastic poten- collision with the pan and sets the system into vertical SHM. What are
tial energy U as a function of displacement x over a range of x from (a) the speed of the pan and steak immediately after the collision; (b) the
- 0.300 m to + 0.300 m. On your graph, let 1 cm = 0.05 J vertically and amplitude of the subsequent motion; (c) the period of that motion?
1 cm = 0.05 m horizontally. The object is set into oscillation with an 14.80 •• A 40.0 N force stretches a vertical spring 0.250 m. (a) What
initial potential energy of 0.140 J and an initial kinetic energy of 0.060 J. mass must be suspended from the spring so that the system will oscillate
Answer the following questions by referring to the graph. (b) What is with a period of 1.00 s? (b) If the amplitude of the motion is 0.050 m
the amplitude of oscillation? (c) What is the potential energy when the and the period is that specified in part (a), where is the object and in
displacement is one-half the amplitude? (d) At what displacement are the what direction is it moving 0.35 s after it has passed the equilibrium
kinetic and potential energies equal? (e) What is the value of the phase position, moving downward? (c) What force (magnitude and direction)
angle f if the initial velocity is positive and the initial displacement does the spring exert on the object when it is 0.030 m below the equilib-
is negative? rium position, moving upward?
14.75 • CALC A 2.00 kg bucket containing 10.0 kg of water is hang- 14.81 •• Don’t Miss the Boat. While on a visit to Minnesota
ing from a vertical ideal spring of force constant 450 N>m and oscillat- (“Land of 10,000 Lakes”), you sign up to take an excursion around
ing up and down with an amplitude of 3.00 cm. Suddenly the bucket one of the larger lakes. When you go to the dock where the 1500 kg
springs a leak in the bottom such that water drops out at a steady rate of boat is tied, you find that the boat is bobbing up and down in the
2.00 g>s. When the bucket is half full, find (a) the period of oscillation waves, executing simple harmonic motion with amplitude 20 cm.
and (b) the rate at which the period is changing with respect to time. Is The boat takes 3.5 s to make one complete up-and-down cycle.
the period getting longer or shorter? (c) What is the shortest period this When the boat is at its highest point, its deck is at the same height
system can have? as the stationary dock. As you watch the boat bob up and down, you
14.76 •• Quantum mechanics is used to describe the vibrational mo- (mass 60 kg) begin to feel a bit woozy, due in part to the previous
tion of molecules, but analysis using classical physics gives some useful night’s dinner of lutefisk. As a result, you refuse to board the boat
insight. In a classical model the vibrational motion can be treated as unless the level of the boat’s deck is within 10 cm of the dock level.
SHM of the atoms connected by a spring. The two atoms in a diatomic How much time do you have to board the boat comfortably during
molecule vibrate about their center of mass, but in the ­molecule HI, each cycle of up-and-down motion?
462    CHAPTER 14 Periodic Motion

14.82 • CP An interesting, though highly impractical example of oscilla- 14.88 ••• Two identical thin rods, Figure P14.88
tion is the motion of an object dropped down a hole that extends from one each with mass m and length L,
side of the earth, through its center, to the other side. With the assumption are joined at right angles to form
(not realistic) that the earth is a sphere of uniform d­ ensity, prove that the an L-shaped object. This object is L L
motion is simple harmonic and find the period. [Note: The gravitational balanced on top of a sharp edge
force on the object as a function of the object’s distance r from the center (Fig. P14.88). If the L-shaped ob-
of the earth was derived in Example 13.10 (Section 13.6). The motion is ject is deflected slightly, it oscillates.
simple harmonic if the acceleration ax and the displacement from equilib- Find the frequency of oscillation.
rium x are related by Eq. (14.8), and the period is then T = 2p>v.] 14.89 •• DATA A mass m is at-
14.83 ••• CP A rifle bullet with mass 8.00 g and initial horizontal ve- tached to a spring of force constant
locity 280 m>s strikes and embeds itself in a block with mass 0.992 kg 75 N>m and allowed to oscillate.
that rests on a frictionless surface and is attached to one end of an ideal Figure P14.89 shows a graph of its
spring. The other end of the spring is attached to the wall. The impact velocity component vx as a function Figure P14.89
compresses the spring a maximum distance of 15.0 cm. After the im- of time t. Find (a) the period, (b) the
pact, the block moves in SHM. Calculate the period of this motion. frequency, and (c) the angular fre- vx (cm>s)
14.84 ••• CP Two uniform solid spheres, each with mass quency of this motion. (d) What is the 20
M = 0.800 kg and radius R = 0.0800 m, are connected by a short, light amplitude (in cm), and at what times 10 t (s)
rod that is along a diameter of each sphere and are at rest on a hori- does the mass reach this position? -10
O
0.2 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.6
zontal tabletop. A spring with force constant k = 160 N>m has one end (e) Find the maximum acceleration -20
attached to the wall and the other end attached to a frictionless ring that magnitude of the mass and the times
passes over the rod at the center of mass of the spheres, which is mid- at which it occurs. (f) What is the value of m?
way between the centers of the two spheres. The spheres are each pulled 14.90 •• DATA You hang various masses m from the end of a ver-
the same distance from the wall, stretching the spring, and released. tical, 0.250 kg spring that obeys Hooke’s law and is tapered, which
There is sufficient friction between the tabletop and the spheres for the means the diameter changes along the length of the spring. Since the
spheres to roll without slipping as they move back and forth on the end mass of the spring is not negligible, you must replace m in the equa-
of the spring. Show that the motion of the center of mass of the spheres tion T = 2p1m>k with m + meff , where meff is the effective mass of
is simple harmonic and calculate the period. the oscillating spring. (See Challenge Problem 14.93.) You vary the
14.85 • CP In Fig. P14.85 the upper Figure P14.85 mass m and measure the time for 10 complete oscillations, obtaining
ball is released from rest, collides with the these data:
stationary lower ball, and sticks to it. The
strings are both 50.0 cm long. The upper m (kg) 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500
ball has mass 2.00 kg, and it is initially Time (s) 8.7 10.5 12.2 13.9 15.1
10.0 cm higher than the lower ball, which
has mass 3.00 kg. Find the frequency and (a) Graph the square of the period T versus the mass suspended from
maximum angular displacement of the the spring, and find the straight line of best fit. (b) From the slope
motion after the collision. of that line, determine the force constant of the spring. (c) From the
14.86 •• The Silently Ringing Bell. A 10.0 cm
vertical intercept of the line, determine the spring’s effective mass.
large, 34.0 kg bell is hung from a wooden (d) What fraction is meff of the spring’s mass? (e) If a 0.450 kg mass
beam so it can swing back and forth with oscillates on the end of the spring, find its period, frequency, and an-
negligible friction. The bell’s center of gular frequency.
mass is 0.60 m below the pivot. The bell’s moment of inertia about an axis 14.91 ••• DATA Experimenting with pendulums, you attach a light
at the pivot is 18.0 kg # m2. The clapper is a small, 1.8 kg mass attached string to the ceiling and attach a small metal sphere to the lower end
to one end of a slender rod of length L and ­negligible mass. The other end of the string. When you displace the sphere 2.00 m to the left, it nearly
of the rod is attached to the inside of the bell; the rod can swing freely touches a vertical wall; with the string taut, you release the sphere
about the same axis as the bell. What should be the length L of the clapper from rest. The sphere swings back and forth as a simple pendulum,
rod for the bell to ring silently—that is, for the period of oscillation for the and you measure its period T. You repeat this act for strings of vari-
bell to equal that of the clapper? ous lengths L, each time starting the motion with the sphere displaced
14.87 •• CALC A slender, uniform, Figure P14.87 2.00 m to the left of the vertical position of the string. In each case the
metal rod with mass M is pivoted with- sphere’s radius is very small compared with L. Your results are given
out friction about an axis through its in the table:
midpoint and perpendicular to the rod.
A horizontal spring with force constant L (m) 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.50 2.30
k is attached to the lower end of the T (s) 6.96 6.36 5.70 4.95 4.54 4.08 3.60 3.35 3.27
rod, with the other end of the spring at-
tached to a rigid support. If the rod is (a) For the five largest values of L, graph T 2 versus L. Explain why
displaced by a small angle ϴ from the the data points fall close to a straight line. Does the slope of this line
u
vertical (Fig. P14.87) and released, have the value you expected? (b) Add the remaining data to your
show that it moves in angular SHM and graph. Explain why the data start to deviate from the straight-line fit as
calculate the period. (Hint: Assume that L decreases. To see this effect more clearly, plot T>T0 versus L, where
the angle ϴ is small enough for the ap- T0 = 2p1L>g and g = 9.80 m>s2. (c) Use your graph of T>T0 versus L
proximations sin ϴ ≈ ϴ and cos ϴ ≈ 1 to be valid. The motion is simple to estimate the angular amplitude of the pendulum (in degrees) for
harmonic if d 2u>dt 2 = - v2u, and the period is then T = 2p>v.) which the equation T = 2p1L>g is in error by 5%.
 Problems    463

CHALLENGE PROBLEMS show that the angular frequency of oscillation is v = 1k>m. (c) Apply
the procedure of part (b) to obtain the angular frequency of oscillation v
14.92 ••• The Effective Force Figure P14.92 of the spring considered in part (a). If the effective mass M′ of the spring
Constant of Two Springs. Two springs (a) is defined by v = 1k>M′, what is M′ in terms of M?
with the same unstretched length but
different force constants k1 and k2 are at- k1 m
tached to a block with mass m on a level,
MCAT-STYLE PASSAGE PROBLEMS
frictionless surface. Calculate the effec- k2
tive force constant keff in each of the BIO “Seeing” Surfaces at the Nanoscale. One technique for making
three cases (a), (b), and (c) depicted in (b) ­images of surfaces at the nanometer scale, including membranes and

stant is defined by gFx = - keff x.)

Fig. P14.92. (The effective force con- ­biomolecules, is dynamic atomic force microscopy. In this technique, a
k1 m k2 small tip is attached to a cantilever, which is a flexible, rectangular slab
(d) An object with mass m, suspended supported at one end, like a diving board. The cantilever vibrates, so the tip
from a uniform spring with a force con- moves up and down in simple harmonic motion. In one o­ perating mode,
stant k, vibrates with a frequency f1. the resonant frequency for a cantilever with force constant k = 1000 N>m
When the spring is cut in half and the (c) is 100 kHz. As the oscillating tip is brought within a few n­ anometers of the
same object is suspended from one of surface of a sample (as shown in the figure), it experiences an attractive
k1 k2 m
the halves, the frequency is f2. What is force from the surface. For an oscillation with a small amplitude (typically,
the ratio f1>f2? 0.050 nm), the force F that the sample ­surface exerts on the tip varies lin-
14.93 ••• CALC A Spring with early with the displacement x of the tip,  F  = ksurf x, where ksurf is the
Mass. The preceding problems in this effective force constant for this force. The net force on the tip is therefore
chapter have assumed that the springs had negligible mass. But of course 1k + ksurf2x, and the frequency of
no spring is completely massless. To find the effect of the spring’s mass, the oscillation changes slightly due Sample
to the interaction with the surface. surface
consider a spring with mass M, equilibrium length L 0, and spring con-
stant k. When stretched or c­ ompressed to a length L, the potential energy Measurements of the frequency as Tip
is 12 kx2, where x = L - L 0. (a) Consider a spring, as described above, the tip moves over different parts of
that has one end fixed and the other end moving with speed v. Assume the sample’s surface can provide in-
that the speed of points along the length of the spring varies linearly with formation about the sample.
distance l from the fixed end. Assume also that the mass M of the spring 14.94 If we model the vibrating system as a mass on a spring, what is
is distributed uniformly along the length of the spring. Calculate the ki- the mass necessary to achieve the desired resonant frequency when the
netic energy of the spring in terms of M and v. (Hint: Divide the spring tip is not interacting with the surface? (a) 25 ng; (b) 100 ng; (c) 2.5 mg;
into pieces of length dl; find the speed of each piece in terms of l, v, and (d) 100 mg.
L; find the mass of each piece in terms of dl, M, and L; and integrate 14.95 In the model of Problem 14.94, what is the total mechanical
from 0 to L. The result is not 12 Mv2, since not all of the spring moves ­energy of the vibration when the tip is not interacting with the surface?
with the same speed.) (b) Take the time derivative of the conservation of (a) 1.2 * 10-18 J; (b) 1.2 * 10-16 J; (c) 1.2 * 10-9 J; (d) 5.0 * 10-8 J.
energy equation, Eq. (14.21), for a mass m moving on the end of a mass- 14.96 By what percentage does the frequency of oscillation change if
less spring. By comparing your results to Eq. (14.8), which defines v, ksurf = 5 N>m? (a) 0.1%; (b) 0.2%; (c) 0.5%; (d) 1.0%.

ANSWERS
Chapter Opening Question
?
(i) The back-and-forth motion of a leg during walking is like a physi- VP14.4.2 (a) 62.0 N>m (b) 0.447 m>s
cal pendulum, for which the oscillation period is T = 2p1I>mgd [see VP14.4.3 (a) k = 8.89 N>m, m = 0.512 kg (b) 0.521 m>s2
Eq. (14.39)]. In this expression I is the moment of inertia of the pen- (c) 0.451 m>s2
dulum, m is its mass, and d is the distance from the rotation axis to the VP14.4.4 (a) x = {A 22>3 (b) x = {A 21>5
pendulum center of mass. I is proportional to m, so the mass cancels out VP14.9.1 (a) 1.64 s (b) 7.32 m>s2
of this expression for T. Hence only the dimensions of the leg matter. VP14.9.2 0.392 m
(See Examples 14.9 and 14.10.) 1 g
VP14.9.3
2p A 2R
Key Example ARIATION Problems VP14.9.4 0.188 kg # m2
VP14.3.1 (a) T = 0.241 s, v = 26.1 rad>s (b) 272 N>m (c) 5.44 N
VP14.3.2 (a) 0.164 kg (b) 0.0438 m
VP14.3.3 (a) 0.0496 m (b) 15.6 m>s BRIDGING PROBLEM
VP14.3.4 (a) 0.968 Hz (b) 4.11 * 10 - 2 m
VP14.4.1 (a) 0.0479 m (b) 9.19 * 10 - 3 J (c) U = 3.60 * 10 - 3 J, T = 2p23M>2k
K = 5.59 * 10 - 3 J