Internet of Things

Hardware Development
IX

National Vocational & Technical Training Commission (NAVTTC)

 Textbook of

Internet of Things
Hardware Development
Grade – IX

National Vocational and Technical Training Commission

H-9, Islamabad

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Author: Muhammad Umair researcher,Sensors Cloud and Services (SCS)
Lab, School of Computer Sciences
Reviewers:
1. Dr. Ahmed Mustafa, Chief Instructor, P-TEVTA, Lahore
2. Dr. Hina Khalid, Assistant Professor, UET, Lahore
3. Mr. Atif Anees, DACUM Facilitator
4. Ms. Mansoorah Ibrahim, Education Officer, NCC, Islamabad
5. Mr. Muhammad Asim, Coordinator, NAVTTC
Designing: Gul Awan Printers, Blue Area, Islamabad.
Edition: 1st Edition, 2022
ISBN:
Publishers: National Vocational & Technical Training Commission H-9, Islamabad.
Website: www.navttc.gov.pk,

All rights are preserved with the National Vocational and Technical Training Commission. No
part of this book can be copied, translated, reproduced or used for guide books, key notes,
helping books etc. without permission of NAVTTC.
Note: Names of Curriculum Developers will be part of curriculum document. In the book there
will be names of reviewers only.

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 PREFACE

This book has been written to meet the requirements of Matric Tech to train the students
in the trade Internet of Things (IoT). This book is specific for IoT hardware development.
Matric-Tech in IoT has been introduced for the first time in the history of Pakistan. This
textbook is the first national effort to describe all the topics related to IoT hardware
development in a single book. A key attempt has been made to make the book interesting
and useful. All the chapters presented in this book cover the required basic details in a
manner understandable to the students of Matric Tech. All the chapters include
assessments in form of MCQs, short questions and long questions.

The book covers 40% theoretical and 60% practical content. This content is equally
helpful for the students of electronics, computer sciences and networking.

Any improvements and suggestions for the betterment of this book will be highly
appreciated.

Executive Director
National Vocational & Technical Training Commission
(NAVTTC)

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 Table of Contents
Sr. No. Chapter Name Page Number
1. Basic Electrical Theory 1
1.1 Basic Principle of Electricity 2
1.2 Ohm’s Law 9
1.3 Cells and Batteries 12
2. Electric Circuits 22
2.1 Basic Components of Electric Circuits 23
2.2 Kichoff’s Voltage Law 26
2.3 Kirchoff’s Current Law 30
3. Fundamental Electronics-I for IoT 37
3.1 PN Junction 38
3.2 Diodes 39
3.3 Zener Diode 46
3.4 BJTs 51
4. Electronics-2 for IoT 59
4.1 Field Effect Transistors 60
4.2 JFETs 63
4.3 MOSFETs 66
4.4 Thyristors 70
4.5 UJT 71
5. Introduction to Microcontrollers 81
5.1 Microcontrollers 82
5.2 Arduino 84
5.3 Arduino IDE 85
5.4 Connecting an Arduino with Computer System 92
5.5 Programming Arduino 95
6. Work Heath and Safety 101
6.1 Basics of Work Health and Safety 102
6.2 WHS in IoT Environments 107

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 Chapter 1
Basic Electrical Theory

After Studying this chapter, you will be able to

 define electricity.
 understand electrical quantities and their units.
 explain characteristics of conductors, insulator, semiconductor.
 describe power and energy and its difference.
 apply instruments to measure current, voltage, resistance.
 use oscilloscope to plot wave form.
 apply ohm’s law for measuring current, voltage and resistance.
 define cell and batteries.
 describe the importance of cell and batteries.
 explain the types of cell and batteries.
 explain the charging procedure/principle of battery.
 use cell and battery as a series and parallel source.
 describe the components/parts of cell and battery.
 explain the construction and working principles of cells and batteries.
 explain the procedure for maintaining a battery.
 describe the importance of electrolyte in the battery.
 explain the testing procedure of batteries.
 explain the use of tools and equipment required for testing of batteries.
 calculate the size of battery for a specific circuit through different techniques.

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Chapter 1

1.1 Basic Principle of Electricity

1.1.1 Electricity
Electricity is the flow of electricalenergy. Electricity is the secondary form of energy
which means that other sources of energy i.e., kinetic energy, thermal energy and solar
energy etc. are converted into electrical energy.

Do you know? Point to Ponder

 In dams, kinetic energy of water is  Which type of energy is converted into
converted into electrical energy. electrical energy in coal-based power
plants?

How does electricity get to your home?

Electricity is generated at dams and thermal power plants located in remote areas. The
electricity that power plants generate is delivered to consumers over transmission and
distribution power lines. This complex system sometimes called the “grid” includes
substations, transformers, and power lines that connect electricity producers and
consumers.

1.1.2 Electrical Quantities and Units

Electricity is represented by electricity quantities. There are three main electrical
quantities:
I. Voltage
II. Current
III. Resistance

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 Chapter 1

Power Transmission

Powerplant

Power Distribution

Grid Station

Fig. 1.1 Electricity from generation site to the home

Voltage
A voltage is a potential difference between two points of an electric circuit. A voltage is
the pressure from an electrical power source that causes current in an electric circuit.A
voltage is like a diffusion phenomenon as shown in Figure 1.2. A voltage is represented
by V and is measured in volts (V).
Current
Flow of charges inside an electric circuit is called electric current. An electric power
source such as a battery consists of high number of charged particles which creates a
potential difference between two points of an electric circuit, causing current. Figure 1.3
shows an analogy between water and current. A current is represented by Iand is
measured in amperes (A).

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Chapter 1

Do you know?
 A voltage is just like diffusion
phenomenon in an electric circuit.

Fig. 1.2 Diffusion of Electrons

Fig. 1.3 Analogy between Electric Supply and Water Supply

Resistance
A resistance is a component opposing the current flow in an electric circuit. The higher
the value of resistance, more will be the opposition. A resistance is represented by R and
is measured in ohms (Ω).

Figure 1.4 Resistance

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 Chapter 1

AC and DC Quantities
There are two types of current. Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC).
Magnitude (value) and direction of DC remains constant while AC keeps on changing its
direction. Similarly, there exists AC and DC voltages.

Figure 1.5 Difference between AC and DC

Point to Ponder
 Why there exists two different types of quantities: AC and DC voltage and current?

1.1.3 Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

Conductors
Current can flow in conductors. Conductors have free electrons on its surface which
allow current to pass through easily. They are made up of atoms having free electrons.
Copper, silver and aluminum are good conductors of electricity.
Insulators
Insulators are made up of material that do not allow electricity to pass through it. They
are made up of atoms that do not have free electrons. Plastic, glass and rubber etc. are
good insulators for electricity.

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Chapter 1

Semi conductor
Semiconductors have limited free electrons so their conductivity lies between conductors
and Insulators. Silicon and germanium are semiconductors.

Activity
 Identify conductors and insulators of heat in your home.

Point to Ponder
 Is a good conductor of heat also a good conductor of current?

1.1.4 Electrical Power and Energy

Electric Power
Electric power of an electric circuit or appliance is the rate at which it consumes energy.
Unit of Power is Watt which is 1 Joule per second. Equation 1 represents power in terms
of energy.
Δ𝐸 -----------------------------(1)
𝑃=
Δ𝑡
ΔE is work being done. So, equation 1.1 can be rewritten as:

𝑊𝑄
𝑃= ----------------------------(2)
𝑄 𝑡
Voltage is basically the work done (W) per unit charge (Q). While current is charge per
unit of time. So, equation 1.2 can be rewritten as:

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 ----------------------------(3)

Electric Energy
It is a form of energy resulting from flow of electrons. It is usually derived from power.
Most common unit of consuming energy is in terms of kWh, that is equivalent of using 1

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 Chapter 1
kilowatt power for one hour. kWh is also used as a unit for computing electricity bill by
energy suppliers.

Do you know?
 When purchasing an electric appliance, consumer asks for the power rating (Watts)
of the appliance, which is the rate at which it will consume energy.

Activity
 Compute the static load (total power rating of all the appliances in your home).
 From your electric energy meter, note down the units which you have consumed.

1.1.5 Instruments to Measure Electrical Quantities

Ohm Meter
An ohm meter is a device to measure resistance. Connecting leads of ohm meter are
connected with the resistance to measure and display the resistance on ohm meter.

Figure 1.6 Ohm meter

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Chapter 1

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is used to measure voltages. Probes of voltmeter are connected with the
terminals of the circuits across which voltages are to be measured. A voltmeter is always
connected in parallel across a component whose voltages are to be measured.

Fig 1.7 Volt meter

Ammeter
An ammeter is used to measure current. Probes of
ammeter are connected with the terminals of the
circuits across which current is to be measured. It
should be noted that ammeter is always connected
in series (as shown in Figure 1.8) in the circuit
whose current is to be measured.
Fig 1.8 Ammeter

Digital Multi meter

A digital multi meter (DMM) is an instrument to measure different
electrical quantities. Digital multi meters combine the testing
capabilities of single-task meters—the voltmeter (for measuring
volts), ammeter (amps) and ohmmeter (ohms).
Fig 1.9 DMM

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 Chapter 1

Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display and analyze the
waveform of electronic signals. It draws a graph of the instantaneous signal voltage in
terms of time.
There are multiple controls on an oscilloscope. Scale of x-axis and y-axis can be adjusted.
There is a separate control to adjust the time scale of x-axis. To scale the y-axis, there is a
knob called voltage/div. There are multiple channels on an oscilloscope. This means you
can plot different signals simultaneously. To calibrate the oscilloscope, a probe is
connected on an input of a channel and the other end is connected to the calibration
terminal. The resulting waveform is then calibrated on the required scale.

Fig 1.10 Oscilloscope

1.2 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law states that the current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the
Voltage across it, given that all the physical quantities and temperature remains the same.

𝑉 ∝𝐼 ----------------------------(4)

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Chapter 1

This means that higher the voltage across a component, more will be the current through
it. Introducing a constant of proportionality in equation (4):

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 ----------------------------(5)

Resistance (R) is the constant of proportionality. From equation (5), we can find the third
parameter if we know two of them.

Example 1.1
If the resistance of an electric hearth is 50 Ω and a current of 3.2 A flows through the resistance. Find
the voltage across resistance.
Solution:
If we are asked to calculate the value of voltage with the value of current and resistance given to us,
then cover V in the triangle. Now, we are left with I and R or more precisely I × R.
Therefore, we use the following formula to calculate the value of V:

V=I×R

Substituting the values in the equation, we get

V = 3.2 A × 50 ohms = 160 V

V = 160V

Example 1.2
A voltage source of 8.0 V is connected to a purely resistive electrical appliance (a light bulb). An
electric current of 2.0 A flows through it. Assume the conducting wires to be resistance-free.
Calculate the resistance offered by the electrical appliance.
Solution:
When we are asked to find out the value of resistance when the values of voltage and current are
given, then we cover R in the triangle. This leaves us with only V and I, more precisely V ÷ I.
Substituting the values in the equation, we get
R=V÷I
R=8V÷2A=4Ω
R=4Ω

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 Chapter 1
Calculating Electrical Power Using Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law can be used to rewrite equation 1.3. The power formula written in terms of
ohm’s law is:

𝑃 = (𝐼𝑅) 𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 ----------------------------(6)
or
𝑉 𝑉2 ----------------------------(7)
𝑃=𝑉 =
𝑅 𝑅
Example 1.3
If the current and voltage of an electric circuit are given as 2.5A and 10V
respectively. Calculate the electrical power?

Solution: Given measures are,

I = 2.5A and V = 10V
The formula for electric power is,
P = VI
P = 10 × 2.5 = 25watts

Example 1.4
Calculate the power of an electrical circuit consisting of resistance 3Ω and a current
4A flowing through this circuit?

Solution:
Given parameters are,
I = 4A and R = 3Ω
Electric power formula is,
P = I2 R
P = 42×3
P = 16×3 = 48 watts

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Chapter 1

1.3 Cells and Batteries

Cell
A cell is a single unit device that converts chemical energy into electrical
energy. Typical rating of a cell is 1.5V while 3.7V is also available. A
cell can berechargeable or non-rechargeable.
Cell
Battery
A battery is a group of cells connected together. Cells can be connected
in series or parallel. Polarity of cells must be taken care of while
forming a battery.

Battery
Series and Parallel Connection of Cells/Batteries
Different batteries can also be tied together to enhance voltage and current capacity.
Series Connection: A series connection is formed when positive terminal of one battery
is connected with the negative terminal of the other battery. Series connection increases
the voltage capacity of the battery bank but current capacity remains the same.

Series and Parallel Connection of Batteries

Parallel Connection: A parallel connection is formed when positive terminals are

connected with positive terminals of other batteries and negative terminals are also

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 Chapter 1
connected together. Parallel connection increases the current capacity of the battery bank
while voltage rating remains the same.

Point to Ponder
 What is the voltage rating of a UPS battery?
 Voltage of a battery is DC or AC.

Do you know?
 The voltage rating of a laptop battery is 19.5V and is usually formed of 6 cells.

Importance of Batteries
 A battery provides portability to a device / appliance.
 The main purpose of the batteries is to store electrical energy.
 Rechargeable batteries enable multiple times usage of batteries.
 Size of battery is very crucial to use it in a specific application.
1.3.1 Types of Batteries
There are four main types of secondary batteries:
 Lead – Acid Batteries
 Nickel – Cadmium Batteries
 Nickel – Metal Hydride Batteries
 Lithium – Ion Batteries
Lead–Acid Batteries: Lead-acid batteries are the most widely Lead-Acid Battery

used batteries. They have 70 to 80% conversion efficiency.

These batteries are mostly used in UPS and vehicles.

Nickel–Cadmium Batteries: Ni-Cd batteries use Nickel

Oxyhydroxide (NiOOH) as Cathode and Cadmium metal (Cd)
as anode. These batteries usually have a voltage rating of
Ni-Cd Battery

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Chapter 1

1.2V. These batteries are mostly used in photography

equipment and power tools.

Nickel–Metal Hydride Batteries: These are relatively new

type of batteries are an extended version of Nickel – Hydrogen
Electrode batteries, which were exclusively used in aerospace
applications (satellites). The positive electrode is the Nickel
Oxyhydroxide (NiOOH) while the negative electrode of the cell
is a metal alloy, where hydrogen is stored reversibly. Ni-MH Battery

Lithium–Ion Batteries: A lithium-ion battery is a family of

rechargeable battery types in which lithium ions move from the
negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and
back when charging. They have the best energy to weight ratios.
Lithium-Ion Battery
1.3.2 Components of a Battery
Cells are comprised of 3 essential components.
1. The Anode is the negative or reducing electrode that releases electrons to the
external circuit and oxidizes during and electrochemical reaction.
2. The Cathode is the positive or oxidizing electrode that acquires electrons from the
external circuit and is reduced during the electrochemical reaction.
3. The Electrolyte is the medium that provides the ion transport mechanism between
the cathode and anode of a cell. Electrolytes are often thought of as liquids, such
as water or other solvents, with dissolved salts, acids, or alkalis that are required
for ionic conduction.
1.3.3 Working Principle of a Battery
A battery works on the oxidation and reduction reaction of an electrolyte with metals.
When two dissimilar metallic substances, called electrode, are placed in a diluted
electrolyte, oxidation and reduction reaction take place in the electrodes respectively
depending upon the electron affinity of the metal of the electrodes. As a result of the

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oxidation reaction, one electrode gets negatively charged called cathode and due to the
reduction reaction, another electrode gets positively charged called anode.

The cathode forms the negative terminal whereas anode forms the positive terminal of a
battery. To understand the basic principle of battery properly, first, we should have some
basic concept of electrolytes and electrons affinity. Actually, when two dissimilar metals
are immersed in an electrolyte, there will be a potential difference produced between
these metals.

It is found that, when some specific compounds are added to water, they get dissolved
and produce negative and positive ions. This type of compound is called an electrolyte.
The popular examples of electrolytes are almost all kinds of salts, acids, and bases etc.
The energy released during accepting an electron by a neutral atom is known as electron
affinity.

If two different kinds of metals are immersed in the same electrolyte solution, one of
them will gain electrons and the other will release electrons.The metal with low electron
affinity will gain electrons from the negative ions of the electrolyte solution. Whereas,
the metal with high electron affinity will release electrons and these electrons come out
into the electrolyte solution and are added to the positive ions of the solution. In this way,
one of these metals gains electrons and another one loses electrons. Therefore, there will
be a difference in electron concentration between these two metals.

This difference in electron concentration causes an electrical potential difference

developed between the metals. This electrical potential difference or EMF can be utilized
as a source of voltage in any electronics or electrical circuit. This is a general and basic
working principle of a battery.

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Chapter 1

Fig 1.11 Construction and Working of a Battery

1.3.4 Charging Principle of a Battery

During charging of a battery, external DC source is applied to the battery. The negative
terminal of the DC source is connected to the negative plate or anode of the battery and
positive terminal of the source is connected to the positive plate or cathode of the
battery. Now, due to external DC source, electrons will be injected in the anode.
Reduction reaction takes place in the anode instead of cathode. Actually, in case of
discharge of the battery, reduction reaction takes place at cathode. Due to this reduction
reaction, the anode will regain electrons and returns to its previous state when the battery
was not discharged.
As the positive terminal of the DC source is connected to the cathode, the electrons of
this electrode will be attracted by this positive terminal of DC source. As a result,
oxidation reaction takes place at the cathode and cathode material regains its previous
state (when it was not discharged). This is the overall basic of charging of battery.

Note for lecture.

 Charging and discharging curves of a battery can also be explained here.

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1.3.5 Maintaining a Battery

Maintenance increases battery life. Follow the following procedures for better
maintaining a battery.
 Maintain electrolyte level of a battery.
 Regularly clean the terminals of a battery
 Battery should be charged slowly
 Allow the battery to cool down once it is fully charged.
1.3.6 Testing of a Battery

Visual Test
 Check the container, cover and terminals. If physical damage is present, replace
the battery.
 Check the indicator (If the battery has the indicator). Always look right down
when viewing the indicator and lightly tap the indicator on the battery to dislodge
any air bubbles.

Voltage Test
 If voltage is below 12.4V, recharge the battery immediately.
Load Test
 Connect the battery tester to battery terminals.
 Measure the temperature of the battery around.
 Apply the load for 15 seconds and read the voltage.
 If the voltages drop significantly, recharge the battery and test again.
 If the battery fails the load test twice, replace it.

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Chapter 1

Gravity Test
The most accurate and direct way to test the state of charge of a battery cell is to
determine the specific gravity of the battery electrolyte. The higher the specific gravity of
the electrolyte the higher the state of charge.
Hydrometer: Hydrometer is used to perform gravity test. Hydrometers come in many
sizes and shapes. A hydrometer with a float is recommended, contained in a glass vessel
with a rubber bulb to draw the acid into the tube. Stay away from floating-colored balls
as the extra inaccuracy results in very subjective testing. The hydrometer should give you
a numeric reading directly from the instrument. A good hydrometer is accurate to +/-
0.005 points so 1.265 could read from 1.260-1.270. The instrument accuracy should be
known.

Test
 It is recommended to disconnect the battery especially if on a high rate of
charge/discharge.
 Remove vent cap. Carefully insert the hydrometer into the cell, not pushing down
on the top of the plates.
 Carefully draw liquid into the hydrometer and avoid "bumping" the hydrometer.
Be careful the float is not flooded (too much liquid) or sticking to the sides of the
glass tube.
 Obtain a reading by looking directly at the float.
 Repeat steps 3-5 to reconfirm reading.
 Record the cell number and result.

Tools for Testing a Battery

If you have a non-sealed battery, it is highly recommended that you use a good quality
temperature compensating hydrometer. There are two basic types of hydrometers, the
floating ball, and the gauge. The gauge type tends to be much easier to read and doesn't
involve the need to decipher colored balls. Battery hydrometers can be purchased at an
auto parts or battery store.

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To test a sealed battery or to troubleshoot a charging or electrical system, you will need a
digital voltmeter with 0.5 percent (or better) accuracy. A digital voltmeter can be
purchased at an electronics store. Analog (needle type) voltmeters are not accurate
enough to measure the millivolt differences of a battery's state-of-charge or measure the
output of the charging system. A battery load tester is optional.

1.3.7 Battery Life

A 10 Ah battery delivering 1A, would last 10 hours. If delivering 10A, it would last for
only 1 hour, or if delivering 5A, it would last only for 2 hours.
In other words, you can have “any time” as long as when you multiply it by the current,
you get 10Ah (the battery capacity).
So, no more confusion on how to calculate battery life.
For a 18650 2500mAh(2.5Ah) battery with a device that draws 500mA(0.5A) you have:
2.5Ah/0.5A=5 Hours
Key Points
 Electricity is the secondary form of energy which means that other sources of
energy i.e., kinetic energy, thermal energy and solar energy etc. are converted into
electrical energy.
 The electricity that power plants generate is delivered to consumers over
transmission and distribution power lines.
 A voltage is a potential difference between two points of an electric circuit.
 Flow of charges inside an electric circuit is called electric current.
 Magnitude and Direction of DC remians constant while AC keeps on changing its
direction.
 Conductors have free electrons on its surface which allow current to pass through
easily.
 Semiconductors have limited free electrons so their conductivity lies between
conductors and Insulators.
 Electric power of an electric circuit or appliance is the rate at which it consumes
energy.
 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
 Most common unit of consuming energy is in terms of kWh, that is equivalent of
using 1 kilowatt power for one hour.
 An ohm meter is a device to measure resistance.
 A voltmeter meter is a device to measure voltage.
 An ammeter is used to measure current.
 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
 𝑃 = (𝐼𝑅) 𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅
𝑉 𝑉2
 𝑃=𝑉 𝑅= 𝑅
 There are three main components of a battery: Anode, Cathode and Electrolyte.

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Chapter 1

Exercise

Multiple Choice Questions

1. An ohm meter is used to measure

a. Resistance b. Voltage c. Current d. None of these

2. A voltmeter is used to measure

a. Resistance b. Voltage c. Current d. None of these

3. An ammeter is used to measure

a. Resistance b. Voltage c. Current d. None of these

4. In series connection following remains the same

a. Resistance b. Voltage c. Current d. None of these

5. In parallel connection following remains the same

a. Resistance b. Voltage c. Current d. None of these

Write short answer of the following

1. Define Electricity.
2. How is electricity transmitted form power plants to your homes?
3. Define Voltage, Resistance and Current.
4. What is the difference between AC and DC quantities?
5. Differentiate between conductors, insulators and semiconductors.

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Answer the following question in detail

1. Differentiate between electric power and electric energy.
2. Describe Ohm meter.
3. Describe Ammeter.
4. Describe Voltmeter.
5. Differentiate between cells and batteries.

Solve the Following Problems

1. If the resistance of an electric hair dryer is 80 Ω and a current of 2.2 A flows
through the resistance. Find the voltage between two points.
2. An EMF source of 10.0 V is connected to a purely resistive electrical appliance.
An electric current of 1.5 A flows through it. Consider the conducting wires to be
resistance-free. Calculate the resistance offered by the electrical appliance.
3. If the current and voltage of an electric circuit are given as 3.5A and 9V
respectively. Calculate the electrical power?
4. Calculate the power of an electrical circuit consisting of resistance 6Ω and a
current 4.5A flowing through this circuit?
5. Calculate the power of an electrical circuit consisting of resistance 7Ω and a
voltage of 20V across it?

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 Chapter 2
Electric Circuits

After Studying this chapter, you will be able to

 describe electric circuits and its basic components.
 explain the construction of series circuit for calculation of current, voltage
and resistance.
 explain the construction of parallel circuit for calculation of current, voltage
and resistance.
 explain the construction of combinational circuit for calculation of current,
voltage and resistance.
 defineKirchhoff's voltage law.
 solve combinational circuit using KVL.
 construct a series parallel combinational circuit to verify KVL.
 defineKirchhoff's current law.
 solve combinational circuit using KCL.
 construct a series parallel combinational circuit to verify KCL.

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 Chapter 2
Electric charges need a conductive path to flow. An electric circuit is a closed path to
allow the flow of electrons. It usually includes a voltage source and a load. There can be
other components as well to control the parameters of the circuit.
2.1 Basic Components of Electric Circuits
There are following basic components of electric circuits:
 Conducting Wire
 Voltage Source
 Load
 Resistors
 Capacitors

Conducting Wire
A conducting wire forms a path for the flow of electrons. It is used to connect different
electrical components together. It should be a good conductor. Lesser the resistance of
the wire, higher will be the conductance. It is a good practice to incorporate the resistance
of conducting wire while solving an electric circuit.
Voltage Source
A voltage source is an essential component in an electric circuit. It acts as a source of
electrons and hence causes current. There can be different types of voltage sources in a
circuit i.e., battery, power supply and DC adapter etc. These sources can be AC or DC
voltage sources. Different symbols used for the voltage source are given below:

Symbols of Voltage sources

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Load
Load is the consumer of electric current. It can be an appliance i.e., light bulb and fan etc.
Load can be resistive, capacitive and inductive. Current consumed in a circuit is decided
by the load. Lower the resistance of the load, more will be the current.

Do you know? Point to Ponder

All appliances in a home is always  Which types of load an energy saver
connected in parallel. bulb and electric fan are?

Resistors
Resistor is one of the basic elements of an electric circuit. They
are commonly used to reduce the current flowing in a certain
Symbol of Resistor
branch of an electric circuit. Its symbol is:
Capacitors
A capacitor is an electrical component to store electrical energy. It is
created using two conductors placed next to each other and there is an
insulator in between them. It stores electrical energy in its electric field.
Symbol of Capacitor
It blocks the DC but allows AC to pass through it. Its symbol is:
2.1.1 Series Connections in Electric Circuits
In series connection, there is a single path for the current flow. All the components are
connected end to end such that current flowing in the circuit remains the same. The sum
of voltage across each element in a series circuit is equal to the total voltage of the power
supply. Total resistance of the circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistances.

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Fig. 2.1 Series Circuit

2.1.2 Parallel Connections in Electric Circuits

In a parallel connection, there can be multiple paths for the current flow. All the
components are connected to a set of common points of the circuit such that the voltage
across each component remains the same. The sum of current in each branch of a parallel
circuit is equal to the total current flowing in the circuit. Total resistance of the circuit is
less than the resistance of individual resistances.

Fig. 2.2 Parallel Circuit

2.1.3 Series-Parallel Connections in Electric Circuits

When the components are connected in such a way that neither series rule nor parallel
rule apply, then we have to identify individual portions of the circuit that are either
connected in series or in parallel. Take the following circuit, for instance:

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Fig. 2.3 Series Parallel Circuit

Here, R1 and R2 are connected in parallel. Similar is the case with R3 and R4. These two
sets of resistance are then connected in series.

2.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the sum of voltages inside a closed loop in an
electric circuit is always equal to zero. In other words, the sum of all voltages across
components which supply electrical energy (such as cells or generators) must equal the
sum of all voltages across the other components (resistance, capacitors etc.) in the same
loop. This law is a consequence of both charge conservation and the conservation of
energy.
As charge carriers flowing through a circuit pass through a component, they either gain
or lose electrical energy, depending upon the component (cell or resistor, for example).
This is due to the fact that work is done on or by them as a result of the electric forces
inside the components. The total work done on a charge carrier by electric forces in
supply components (such as cells) must be equal to the total work done by the charge
carrier in other components (such as resistors and lamps). This means that the sum of all
potential differences across the components involved in a circuit's loop must be zero if
we count voltages across supply components as positive and across 'electricity using'
components as negative.

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Figure 2.4 gives an example of KVL. We go around the circuit in the direction of the
arrow, which is the direction in which we think current will flow. On passing the battery,
the potential increases by 6V. We then lose 4V on passing the 2Ω resistor to give a new
potential of 2V. Finally, the potential drops by 2V in the 1Ω resistor. So, the total voltage
inside a loop is zero.

6𝑉 − 4𝑉 − 2𝑉 = 0

Fig. 2.4

Example 2.1
Find the current I and voltage V over each resistor.

Solution:
Apply KVL:
12V – V1 – V2 + 6V – V3 – V4 = 0
Putting the values of Voltages using Ohm’s Law:
12V – (I X 10 Ω) - (I X 20 Ω) + 6V - (I X 40 Ω) - (I X 20 Ω) = 0
I X 90 Ω = 18V
I = 18V / 90 Ω = 0.2 A
Now Applying Ohm’s law to find voltages:
V1 = 0.2 X 10 = 2 V
V2 = 0.2 X 20 = 4 V
V3 = 0.2 X 40 = 8V
V4 = 0.2 X 20 = 4V

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Note for teacher:

 Give an example of circuit containing multiple voltage sources. Ask the students
to apply KVL in the circuit.

Example 2.2
Find the current I and voltage V over each resistor, where as
R1 = 5Ω, R2 = 10Ω, R3 = 5Ω, R4 = 10Ω
And V = 20Volts

Solution:
There are two loops (closed paths) in the circuit, loop 1 with two resistors and a
single voltage source, wherein loop 2 there is no voltage source, three resistors
only.
The next step is to write equations for each loop. Based on the sign and current
name assigned, as shown below.
Loop 1:
V = I1 R1 + I2 R4
0 = I3 R2 + I3 R3 – I2 R4
Notice the negative sign in the second equation, it is because of being opposite in
direction of loop arrow i.e., for R2 and R3 it is (+ -) but for R4 it is (- +).
It should be noted that
I1 = I 2 + I 3
Now, put the value of I1, which will give you two simultaneous equations with
unknown variable I2 and I3. The value of these currents can be easily computed.
V = (R1 + R4) I2 + R1 I3
0 = - R4 I2 + (R3+ R2) I3
Let’s put the values of resistors and the voltage source,

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20 = (5 + 10)𝐼2 + 5𝐼3 — −(1)

0 = −10𝐼2 + (5 + 10)𝐼3 — – (2)
Now multiply the equation (1) by -3 and add with the equation (2)
0 = −10𝐼2 + (15)𝐼3 — −(2)
−60 = −45𝐼2 − 15𝐼3 — −(1)
Adding the above two equations will give us the equation (3)
−60 = −55𝐼2 + 0 − (3)
60
𝐼2 = − = 1.09𝐴𝑚𝑝
−55
Now putting the current I2 in the equation (2) to get current I3
0 = −10(1.09) + 15𝐼3
(1.09)
𝐼3 = 10 = 0.72𝐴𝑚𝑝
15
By applying KCL to the node b, the following equation can be obtained,
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
Now putting the values of the current will give us the value of I1
𝐼1 = 1.09 + 0.72 = 1.81𝐴𝑚𝑝
Now, it is easy to find any parameter of the circuit, just use the ohm’s law, as
shown below
𝑉3 = 𝐼3 𝑅3 = 0.72(5) = 3.6𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑉2 = 𝐼3 𝑅2 = 0.72(10) = 7.2𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑉4 = 𝐼2 𝑅4 = 1.09(10) = 10.9𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 1.81(5) = 9.05𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

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2.3 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the current flowing towards a node (or a
junction) must be equal to the current flowing away from it. This is a consequence of
charge conservation.
Current flow in circuits occurs when charge carriers travel around the circuit. Current is
defined as the rate at which this charge passes any point in the circuit. A fundamental
concept in physics is that charge will always be conserved. In the context of circuits this
means that, since current is the rate of flow of charge, the current flowing into a point
must be the same as current flowing out of that point.

Applying KCL on figure:

I1 + I2 = I 3

It is important to note what is meant by the signs of the current in the diagram. A positive
current means that the currents are flowing in the directions indicated on the diagram.
Directions are the direction in which any positive charges would flow, that is from the
plus of the battery round the circuit to the minus.
The standard way of displaying Kirchhoff's current law is by having all currents either
flowing towards or away from the node, as shown in Figure 2:

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Here, at least one of the currents will have a negative value (in the opposite direction to
the arrows on this diagram) and Kirchhoff's current law here would be written as:

I1 + I2 + I3 = 0

Example 2.3
What is the value of I in the circuit segment shown in Figure?

Solution:
Apply KCL:
I + 5A = 3A + 4A +2A
I = 4A

Interesting Information
 In 1845 Kirchhoff first announced Kirchhoff’s laws, which allow calculation of the
currents, voltages, and resistances of electrical networks. Extending the theory of the
German physicist Georg Simon Ohm, he generalized the equations describing current flow
to the case of electrical conductors in three dimensions. In further studies, he demonstrated
that current flows through a conductor at the speed of light.

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Example 2.4
Find the current flowing in the 40Ω Resistor, R3

Solution:
The circuit has 3 branches, 2 nodes (A and B) and 2 independent loops.
Using Kirchhoffs Current Law, KCL the equations are given as:
At node A : I1+ I2 = I3
At node B : I3 = I1 + I2
Using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, KVL the equations are given as:
Loop 1 is given as : 10 = R1 I1 + R3 I3 = 10 I1 + 40 I3
Loop 2 is given as : 20 = R2 I2 + R3 I3 = 20 I2 + 40 I3
Loop 3 is given as : 10 – 20 = 10 I1 – 20I2
As I3 is the sum of I1 + I2 we can rewrite the equations as;
Eq. No 1 : 10 = 10 I1 + 40(I1 + I2) = 50 I1 + 40 I2
Eq. No 2 : 20 = 20 I2 + 40(I1 + I2) = 40 I1 + 60 I2
We now have two “Simultaneous Equations” that can be reduced to give us the
values of I1 and I2
Substitution of I1 in terms of I2 gives us the value of I1 as -0.143 Amps
Substitution of I2 in terms of I1 gives us the value of I2 as +0.429 Amps
As : I3 = I1+ I2
The current flowing in resistor R3 is given as : -0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps
and the voltage across the resistor R3 is given as : 0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts
The negative sign for I1 means that the direction of current flow initially chosen
was wrong, but never the less still valid. In fact, the 20v battery is charging the 10v
battery.

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Key Points

 An Electric Circuit is a closed path to allow the flow of electrons.

 A voltage source acts as a source of electrons and hence causes current.
 A voltage is a potential difference between two points of an electric circuit.
 Resistors are commonly used to reduce the current flowing in a certain
branch of an electric circuit.
 A capacitor stores electrical energy in its electric field.
 A capacitor blocks the DC but allows AC to pass through it.
 In series connection, there is a single path for the current flow.
 The sum of current in each branch of a parallel circuit is equal to the total
current flowing in the circuit.
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the sum of voltages inside a
closed loop in an electric circuit is always equal to zero.
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the current flowing towards a
node (or a junction) must be equal to the current flowing away from it.

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Exercise
Multiple Choice Questions

1. KVL states that sum of ______ in loop is always zero.

a. Resistance b. Voltage c. Current d. None of these
2. KCL states that sum ______ flowing at a node is always zero.
a. Resistance b. Voltage c. Current d. None of these
3. _____ can store electrical charge.
a. Resistance b. Capacitor c. Inductor d. None of these
4. In series connection following remains the same
a. Resistance b. Voltage c. Current d. None of these
5. In parallel connection following remains the same
a. Resistance b. Voltage c. Current d. None of these

Write short answer of the following

1. What is an electric circuit?
2. What are the components in an electric circuit?
3. Define Voltage, Resistance and Current.
4. What is a capacitor?
5. Differentiate between series and parallel circuits.

Answer the following question in detail.

1. Describe KCL.
2. Describe KVL.

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Solve the Following

1. If the resistance of an electric hair dryer is 80 Ω and a current of 2.2 A flows
through the resistance. Find the voltage between two points.
2. An electronic device has a resistance of 20 ohms and a current of 15 A. What is
the voltage across the device?
3. In the circuit shown below, how much current does the ammeter show?

4. Find the current I and voltage V over each resistor, where R1 = 13Ω, R2 = 15Ω, R3
= 5.5Ω, R4 = 11Ω and V = 25Volts.

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5. Find the voltages across R1, R2 and R3.

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 Chapter 3
Fundamental Electronics-I for IoT

After Studying this chapter, you will be able to:

 define PN junction.
 define diode.
 understand working principle of diode.
 identify current voltage and power rating of diode.
 understand forward and reverse biasing.
 apply diodes as rectifier (half wave, full wave).
 construct a series parallel combinational circuit to verify KCL.
 defineZener diode.
 explain characteristics of Zener diode.
 current voltage and power rating of Zener diode.
 understand the voltage and current regulation.
 differentiate between load and line regulation.
 understand the application Zener diode in a circuit.
 introduce to transistor.
 define bipolar junction transistor.
 construct transistor and its working principle.
 explain application of transistor.

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3.1 P-N Junction

A p-n junction is a boundary between two semiconductor material types, namely the p-
type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.
The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes and the n-side
or the negative side has an excess of electrons. In a semiconductor, the p-n junction is
created by the method of doping. The process of doping is explained in further detail in
the next section.
3.1.1 Formation of P-N Junction
If different semiconductor materials are used to make a p-n junction, there will be a grain
boundary that would prevent the movement of electrons from one side to the other by
scattering the electrons and holes and thus, we use the process of doping.Consider a thin
p-type silicon semiconductor sheet. If we add a small amount of pentavalent impurity to
this, a part of the p-type Si (Silicon) will get converted to n-type silicon. This sheet will
now contain both p-type region and n-type region and a junction between these two
regions. The processes that follow after the formation of a p-n junction are of two types –
diffusion and drift. As we know, there is a difference in the concentration of holes and
electrons at the two sides of a junction, the holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-side and
the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. These give rise to a diffusion current
across the junction.

Fig. 3.1 PN junction

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When an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionized donor is left behind on
the n-side, which is immovable. As the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is
developed on the n-side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-side to
the n-side, and ionized acceptor is left behind in the p-side, resulting in the formation of a
layer of negative charges in the p-side of the junction. This region of positive charge and
negative charge on either side of the junction is termed as the depletion region. Due to
this positive space charge region on either side of the junction, an electric field direction
from a positive charge towards the negative charge is developed. Due to this electric
field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves to the n-side of the junction. This
motion is termed as the drift. The direction of drift current is opposite to that of the
diffusion current.

3.2 Diode
A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only conducts current in
one direction (as long as it is operated within a specified voltage level). An ideal diode
will have zero resistance in one direction, and infinite resistance in the reverse direction.
Although in the real world, diodes cannot achieve zero or infinite resistance. Instead, a
diode will have negligible resistance in one direction (to allow current flow), and very
high resistance in the reverse direction (to prevent current flow).
Semiconductor diodes are the most common type of diode. These diodes begin
conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage is present in the forward
direction (i.e., the “low resistance” direction). The diode is said to be “forward biased”
when conducting current in this direction. When connected within a circuit in the reverse
direction (i.e., the “high resistance” direction), the diode is said to be “reverse biased”.
A diode only blocks current in the reverse direction (i.e., when it is reverse biased) while
the reverse voltage is within a specified range. Above this range, the reverse barrier
breaks. The voltage at which this breakdown occurs is called the “reverse breakdown
voltage”.

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When the voltage of the circuit is higher than the reverse breakdown voltage, the diode is
able to conduct electricity in the reverse direction (i.e., the “high resistance” direction).
This is why we say diodes have a high resistance in the reverse direction – not an infinite
resistance.
A P-N junction is the simplest form of the semiconductor diode. In ideal conditions, this
P-N junction behaves as a short circuit when it is forward biased, and as an open circuit
when it is in the reverse biased.
Diode Symbol
The symbol of a diode is shown below. The arrowhead points in the direction of
conventional current flow in the forward biased condition. That means the anode is
connected to the p side and the cathode is connected to the n side.

Symbol of Diode

We can create a simple P-N junction diode by doping pentavalent or donor impurity in
one portion and trivalent or acceptor impurity in the other portion of silicon or
germanium crystal block.
These dopings make a PN junction in the middle part of the block. We can also form a P-
N junction by joining a p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor together with a
special fabrication technique. The terminal connected to the p-type is the anode. The
terminal connected to the n-type side is the cathode.
3.2.1 Working Principle of a Diode
A diode’s working principle depends on the interaction of n-type and p-type
semiconductors. An n-type semiconductor has plenty of free electrons and a very few
numbers of holes. In other words, we can say that the concentration of free electrons is
high and that of holes is very low in an n-type semiconductor. Free electrons in the n-type

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semiconductor are referred to as majority charge carriers, and holes in the n-type
semiconductor are referred to as minority charge carriers.
A p-type semiconductor has a high concentration of holes and a low concentration of free
electrons. Holes in the p-type semiconductor are majority charge carriers, and free
electrons in the p-type semiconductor are minority charge carriers.

3.2.2 Forward Biased Diode

A diode is forward biased if a positive terminal of a source is connected to the p-type side
and the negative terminal of the source is connected to the n-type side of the diode.
Initially, there is no current flowing through the diodebecause the majority charge
carriers still do not get sufficient impact of the external field to cross the depletion region.
As we know that the depletion region acts as a potential barrier against the majority
charge carriers. This potential barrier is called forward potential barrier. The majority
charge carriers start crossing the forward potential barrier only when the value of
externally applied voltage across the junction is more than the potential of the forward
barrier. For silicon diodes, the forward barrier potential is 0.7 volt and for germanium
diodes, it is 0.3 volt.
When the externally applied forward voltage across the diode becomes more than the
forward barrier potential, the free majority charge carriers start crossing the barrier and
contribute the forward diode current. In this situation, the diode behaves as a short-
circuited path, and the forward current gets limited by only externally connected resistors
to the diode.

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Fig. 3.2 Forward biased diode

3.2.3 Reverse Biased Diode

A diode is reverse biased ifthe negative terminal of the voltage source is connected to the
p-type side and the positive terminal of the voltage source to the n-type side of the diode.
Due to the electrostatic attraction of the negative potential of the source, the holes in the
p-type region would be shifted more away from the junction leaving more uncovered
negative ions at the junction. In the same way, the free electrons in the n-type region
would be shifted more away from the junction towards the positive terminal of the
voltage source leaving more uncovered positive ions in the junction.
As a result of this phenomenon, the depletion region becomes wider. This condition of a
diode is called the reverse biased condition. At that condition, no majority carriers cross
the junction, and they instead move away from the junction. In this way, a diode blocks
the flow of current when it is reverse biased.
As we know that there are always some free electrons in the p-type semiconductor and
some holes in the n-type semiconductor. These opposite charge carriers in a
semiconductor are called minority charge carriers.In the reverse biased condition, the
holes find themselves in the n-type side would easily cross the reverse-biased depletion
region as the field across the depletion region does not present rather it helps minority
charge carriers to cross the depletion region. As a result, there is a tiny current flowing

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through the diode from positive to the negative side. The amplitude of this current is very
small as the number of minority charge carriers in the diode is very small. This current is
called reverse saturation current.
If the reverse voltage across a diode is increased beyond a safe value, a number of
covalent bonds are broken to contribute a huge number of free electron-hole pairs in the
diode. This is due to higher electrostatic force and due to higher kinetic energy of
minority charge carriers colliding with atoms. The huge number of such generated charge
carriers would contribute a huge reverse current in the diode. If this current is not limited
by an external resistance connected to the diode circuit, the diode may permanently be
destroyed. This phenomenon is called Avalanche Breakdown.

Fig. 3.3 Reverse biased diode

3.2.4 IV Characteristics of a Diode

Curve in Figure 3.3 indicates Current vs Voltage relationship in a diode. The forward
portion of the curve indicates that the diode conducts when the P-region is made positive
and the N-region negative.The diode conducts almost no current in the high resistance
direction, i.e., when the P region is made negative and the N-region is made positive.
Now the holes and electrons are drained away from the junction, causing the barrier
potential to increase. This condition is indicated by the reverse current portion of the
curve.The dotted section of the curve indicates the ideal curve, which would result if it
were not for avalanche breakdown. Figure 3.3 shows the static characteristic of a junction
diode.

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Fig. 3.3 IV characteristics of a diode

3.2.5 Rectification Circuits
The main application of p-n junction diode is in rectification circuits. These circuits are
used to convert AC signals to DC signals. Diode rectifier gives an alternating voltage
which pulsates in accordance with time.
There are two primary methods of diode rectification:
 Half Wave Rectifier
 Full Wave Rectifier

Half Wave Rectifier

In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each AC input cycle is rectified. When the p-n
junction diode is forward biased, it offers a little resistance and when it is reversing
biased it provides high resistance. During one-half cycles, the diode is forward biased
when the input voltage is applied and in the opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased.

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The half-wave rectifier has both positive and negative cycles. During the positive half of
the input, the current will flow from positive to negative which will generate only a
positive half cycle of the AC supply. When AC supply is applied to the transformer, the
voltage will be decreasing at the secondary winding of the diode. All the variations in the
AC supply will reduce, and we will get the pulsating DC voltage to the load resistor.
In the second half cycle, the current will flow from negative to positive and the diode will
be reverse biased. Thus, at the output side, there will be no current generated, and we
cannot get power at the load resistance. A small amount of reverse current will flow
during reverse bias due to minority carriers.

Fig. 3.4 Half wave rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier

Full-wave rectifier circuits are used for producing an output voltage or output current
which is purely DC. The main advantage of a full-wave rectifier over half-wave rectifier
is that the average output voltage is higher in full-wave rectifier.Ripple produced in full-
wave rectifier is less as compared to the half-wave rectifier.
The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of each AC input. When the p-n junction is
forward biased, the diode offers low resistance and when it is reversing biased it gives

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high resistance. The circuit is designed in such a manner that in the first half cycle if the
diode is forward biased then in the second half cycle it is reverse biased and so on.

Fig. 3.5 Full wave rectifier

Do you know? Point to Ponder

Filtering capacitors are used to  Where are rectifiers being used?
convert pulsating DC voltage into a
constant DC voltage.

3.3 Zener Diode

A heavily doped semiconductor diode which is
designed to operate in reverse direction is known as
the Zener diode. In other words, the diode which is
specially designed for optimizing the breakdown Symbol of a Zener Diode

region is known as the Zener diode. The symbolic representation of Zener diode is shown
in the figure.

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Example 3.1
An AC voltage of peak value 20 V is connected in series with a silicon diode and load
resistance of 500 Ω. If the forward resistance of diode is 10 Ω, Find:
(i) peak current through diode
(ii) peak output voltage
(iii) What will be these values if the diode is assumed to be ideal?

Solution:
Peak input voltage = 20 V
Forward resistance, rf= 10 Ω
Load resistance, RL= 500 Ω
Potential barrier voltage, V0 = 0.7 V
The diode will conduct during the positive half-cycles of AC input voltage only.
V4 = 0.2 X 20 = 4V
(i) The peak current through the diode will occur at the instant when the input
voltage reaches positive peak i.e. Vin = VF = 20 V.

(ii) Peak output voltage:

(iii) Ideal diode case:

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Example 3.2
Find the current through the diode in the circuit shown:
(i) Assume the diode to be ideal.

Solution:
We shall use Thevenin’s theorem to find current in the diode.

Fig shows Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Since the diode is ideal, it has zero
resistance

3.3.1 Zener Diode Circuit Diagram:

The circuit diagram of the Zener diode is shown in the figure below. The Zener diode is
used in reverse bias. The reverse biasing means the n-type material of the diode is
connected to the positive terminal of the supply and the P-type material is connected to

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the negative terminal of the supply. The depletion region of the diode is very thin because
it is made of the heavily doped semiconductor material.

Fig. 3.6 Zener diode circuit diagram

3.3.2 Working of Zener Diode

The Zener diode is made up of heavily doped semiconductor material. The heavily doped
means the high-level impurities is added to the material for making it more conductive.
The depletion region of the Zener diode is very thin because of the impurities. The
heavily doping material increases the intensity of the electric field across the depletion
region of the Zener diode even for the small reverse voltage.
When no biasing is applied across the Zener diode, the electrons remain in the valence
band of the p-type material and no current flow through the diode. The band in which the
valence electrons (outermost orbit electron) place is known as the valence band electron.
The electrons of the valence band easily move from one band to another when the
external energy is applied across it.
When the reverse bias applies across the diode and the supply voltage is equal to the
Zener voltage then it starts conducting in the reverse bias direction. The Zener voltage is
the voltage at which the depletion region completely vanishes.
The reverse bias applies across the diode increases the intensity of electric field across the
depletion region. Thus, it allows the electrons to move from the valence band of P-type
material to the conduction band of N-type material. This transferring of valence band

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electrons to the conduction band reduces the barrier between the p and n-type material.
When the depletion region become completely vanish the diode starts conducting in the
reverse biased.

Fig. 3.7 Working of a Zener diode

3.3.3 Characteristics of Zener Diode

The VI characteristic graph of the Zener diode is shown in the figure below. This curve
shows that the Zener diode, when connected in forwarding bias, behaves like an ordinary
diode. But when the reverse voltage applies across it and the reverse voltage rises beyond
the predetermined rating, the Zener breakdown occurs in the diode.
At Zener breakdown voltage the current starts flowing in the reverse direction. The graph
of the Zener breakdown is not exactly vertical shown above which shows that the Zener
diode has resistance. The voltage across the Zener is represented by the equation shown
below.
V = VZ + IZRZ
Interesting Information
 Zener is named after American physicist Clarence Zener, who first described the Zener
effect in 1934 in his primarily theoretical studies of breakdown of electrical insulator
properties. Later, his work led to the Bell Labs implementation of the effect in form of an
electronic device, the Zener diode.

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Fig. 3.8 IV Characteristics of a Zener diode

3.4 Bipolar Junction Transistor

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (also known as a BJT or BJT Transistor) is a three-terminal
semiconductor device consisting of two p-n junctions which are able to amplify or
magnify a signal. It is a current controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are the
base, the collector and the emitter. A BJT is a type of transistor that uses both electrons
and holes as charge carriers.
If a signal of small amplitude is applied to the base is available in the amplified form at
the collector of the transistor. This is the amplification provided by the BJT. Note that it
does require an external source of DC power supply to carry out the amplification
process.
There are two types of bipolar junction transistors – NPN transistors and PNP transistors.
A diagram of these two types of bipolar junction transistors is given below (Figure 3.9):

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Example 3.3
For the circuit shown in Figure
Find:
(i) the output voltage
(ii) the voltage dop across series resistance
(iii) the current through Zener diode.

Solution:
If you remove the Zener diode in Figure, the voltage V across the open-circuit is
given by:

Since voltage across Zener diode is greater than Vz (= 50 V), the Zener is in the
“on” state. It can,therefore, be represented by a battery of 50 V as shown in
Figure.

(i) Referring to Figure (ii)

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Minimum Zener current:

The Zener will conduct minimum current when the input voltage isminimum i.e.
80 V. Under such conditions, we have,

Fig. 3.9 IV Construction of BJT

From the above figure, we can see that every BJT has three parts named emitter, base and
collector. JE and JC represent the junction of emitter and junction of collector

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respectively. Now initially it is sufficient for us to know that emitter-based junction is

forward biased and collector-base junctions are reverse biased.
3.4.1 Applications of BJT
One common application of a BJT is to drive an LED. An LED driver is shown in Figure
3.10. The driver shown in this figure is used to couple a low current part of the circuit to
a relatively high current device (the LED). When the output from the low current circuit
is low (0 V), the transistor is in cut-off and the LED is off. When the output from the low
current circuit goes high (+3.3 V), the transistor is driven into saturation and the LED
lights. The driver is used because the low-current part of the circuit may not have the
current capability to supply the 20 mA (typical) required to light the LED to full
brightness.

Fig. 3.10 BJT as a Switch

Activity
Build the LED switch circuit shown in figure 3.10 on your solder-less breadboard.
RC serves to limit the current that flows in the LED from the +5 V power supply (Vp).
The switch is controlled by digital signal DO. Scope channel 1 will display the voltage
across the switch transistor Q1 (VCE) and scope channel 2 will display the voltage across
the LED.

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Teacher Notes:
 Conduct this activity in Lab. Oscilloscope must be used to plot voltages.

Example 3.4

A 7.2 V Zener is used in the circuit shown in Fig. 3 and the load current is to vary
from 12 to 100 mA. Find the value of series resistance R to maintain a voltage of 7.2
V across the load. The input voltage is constant at 12V and the minimum Zener
current is 10mA.

Solution:

The voltage across R is to remain constant at 12 − 7.2 = 4.8 V as the load current
changes from 12 to 100 mA. The minimum Zener current will occur when the load
current is maximum.

If R = 43.5 Ω is inserted in the circuit, the output voltage will remain constant over the
regulating range. As the load current IL decreases, the Zener current IZ will increase
to such a value that IZ + IL = 110 mA.

Note that if load resistance is open-circuited, then IL = 0 and Zener current becomes

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Key Points
 A p-n junction is a boundary between two semiconductor material types,
namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.
 The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes
and the n-side or the negative side has an excess of electrons.
 A diode only conducts current in one direction.
 A diode is forward biased if a positive terminal of a source is connected to
the p-type side and the negative terminal of the source is connected to the n-
type side of the diode.
 A diode is reverse biased if we connect the negative terminal of the voltage
source to the p-type side and the positive terminal of the voltage source to
the n-type side of the diode.
 Rectifiers are used to convert AC signals to DC signals Flow of charges
inside an electric circuit is called electric current.
 In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each AC input cycle is rectified.
 Full-wave rectifier circuits are used for producing an output voltage or
output current which is purely DC.
 Zener diode is a heavily doped semiconductor diode which is designed to
operate in reverse direction.
 Zener diode is commonly used for load regulation.

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Exercise
Select the most appropriate option
1. ____ allows uni-directional flow of current.
a. Resistance b. Capacitor c. Diode d. None of these

2. ____ is used for load regulation.

a. Resistance b. Zener Diode c. Capacitor d. None of these

3. _____ can be used as a switch.

a. BJT b. Capacitor c. BJT d. None of these

4. There are _____ p-n junctions in a BJT

a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. Can be (a) and (c)

5. _______ is always used in reverse bias.

a. Resistance b. Diode c. Zener diode d. BJT

Give short answer of the following

1. Define Diode.
2. What are the applications of diode?
3. Describe the formation of PN junction diode.
4. Define rectification.
5. Describe Half Wave rectifier.
6. Describe Full Wave rectifer.
7. Define Zener diode.

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Answer the following question in detail

1. Describe the formation of zener diode.
2. Define load regulation and how zener diode can be used for load regulation.
3. What is the difference between Silicon and germinium based diodes.

Solve the Following

1. The circuit of Figure uses two Zener diodes, each rated at 15 V, 200 mA. If the
circuit is connected to a 45-volt unregulated supply, determine :(i) The regulated
output voltage (ii) The value of series resistance R.

2. A 10-V Zener diode is used to regulate the voltage across a variable load resistor.
The input voltage varies between 13 V and 16 V and the load current varies
between 10 mA and 85 mA. The minimum Zener current is 15 mA. Calculate the
value of series resistance R.

3. The Zener diode shown in Figure has VZ = 18 V. The voltage across the load
stays at 18 V as long as IZ is maintained between 200 mA and 2 A. Find the value
of series resistance R so that E0 remains 18 V while input voltage Ei is free to
vary between 22 V to 28V.

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Electronics for Internet of Things

After Studying this chapter, you will be able to:

 define FET.
 understand the power rating of FET and its datasheet.
 understand working principle of FET.
 compare JFETs and MOSFETs.
 construct JFETs and MOSFETs.
 identify symbols used for JFET and MOSFETs.
 use multimeter/ datasheet to identify the Gate Source & Drain of FET.
 understand biasing of FET (JFET, MOSFET).
 draw characteristic curve of FET.
 define Thyristor.
 introduce UJT.
 understand construction of UJT.
 understand the biasing of UJT.
 understand characteristic curve of UJT.
 comprehend intrinsic stand-off ratio & RC time constant.

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4.1 Field Effect Transistor

The FET (Field Effect Transistor) is a three-terminal electronic device used to control the
flow of current by the voltage applied to its gate terminal. The three terminals in this
device are named drain, source, and gate. Figure 4.1 shows the construction of a FET.
 Source: It is a terminal through which charge carriers enter the channel.
 Drain: It is a terminal through which charge carriers leave the channel.
 Gate: This terminal controls the conductivity between the source and the drain
terminals.

FETs are also known as unipolar transistors as opposed to BJTs that are bipolar
transistors. In FETs, either holes or electrons are used for the conduction process.
Whereas, conduction process doesn’t involve both charge carriers simultaneously. FETs
usually come with high input impedance at lower frequencies. They are robust and cheap
and are used in many electrical circuits. The low power consumption and low power
dissipation make this device an ideal fit for integrated circuits.

Fig. 4.1 Construction of FET

4.1.1 Working
The FET is an electronic device that contains charge carriers, either electrons or holes
that flow from source to drain terminals through the active channel. The conductivity
process is controlled by applying the input voltage at the gate terminal.

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The current-carrying path that exists between the source and drain terminals is known as
“channel” which can be composed of either N-type or P-type semiconductor material.
Refer to Figure 4.2 for working of FET.

Fig. 4.2 Working of FET

4.1.2 FET Datasheet Specifications & Parameters

FET datasheets contain different parameters and specifications which define the
performance of the particular FET type.When developing a new circuit or replacing an
existing FET it is important to understand the different parameters and specifications that
appear in the datasheets so that the correct device can be chosen and used. All the
specifications and parameters are important in different applications.

Interesting Information
The concept of a field-effect transistor (FET) was first patented by Austro-
Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925and by Oskar Heil in 1934,
but they were unable to build a working practical semiconducting device based
on the concept.

Some of the mainspecifications of FET are defined below. These specifications are
always provided in datasheets. Some of the parameters are particularly important for

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different types of FET, e.g., JFET, while others may be more applicable to the MOSFETs
etc.

 Gate source voltage, VGS: The FET parameter VGS is the rating for the maximum
voltage that can be tolerated between the gate and source terminals. The purpose
for including this parameter in the datasheet is to prevent damage of the gate
oxide. The actual gate oxide withstand voltage is typically much higher than this
but it varies as a result of the tolerances that exist in the manufacturing processes.
It is advisable to remain well within this rating so that the reliability of the device
is maintained.
 Drain-Source Voltage, VDSS:This is a rating for the maximum drain-source
voltage that can be applied without causing avalanche breakdown. The parameter
is normally stated for the case where the gate is shorted to the source.While
designing a circuit, it is always best to leave a significant margin between the
maximum voltage to be experienced and the VDSS specification.
 Gate Reverse Leakage Current, Igss: The current which flows in the reverse
bias.It is the leakage current between the gate and source at VDS = 0 and is defined
by applying the maximum rating VGSS between the gate and source.
 Threshold voltage VGS(TH): The threshold voltage VGS(TH) is the minimum gate
voltage that can form a conducting channel between the source and the drain.
 Drain current at zero gate voltage, Idss: This FET parameter is the maximum
continuous current the device can carry with the device fully on. Normally it is
specified for a particular temperature, typically 25°C.This FET specification is
based on the junction-to-case thermal resistance rating and the case
temperature.This FET parameter is of particular interest for power MOSFETs and
when determining the maximum current parameter, no switching losses are
accounted for. Also holding the case at 25°C is not feasible in practice. As a result,
the actual switching current should be limited to less than half of the Idss at TC =
25°C rating in a hard switched application.

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 Gate source cut-off voltage, VGS(off):The gate source cut-off voltage is a turn-off
specification. It defines the threshold voltage for a given residual current, so the
device is basically off but on the edge of turning on. The threshold voltage has a
negative temperature coefficient, i.e., it decreases with increasing temperature.
This temperature coefficient also affects turn-on and turn-off delay times.
 Forward transconductance, Gfs: Forward transconductance (Gfs) represents the
signal gain (drain current divided by gate voltage) of a MOSFET.
 Input capacitance, Ciss: The input capacitance parameter for a FET is the
capacitance that is measured between the gate and source terminals with the drain
shorted to the source for AC signals. In other words, this is the capacitance
between the gate and channel. Ciss is made up of the gate to drain capacitance Cgd
in parallel with the gate to source capacitance Cgs. This can be expressed as:
Ciss=Cgs+Cgd
 Drain-source on resistance, Rds(on): With the FET turned hard on, this is the
resistance in ohms exhibited across the channel between the drain and source. It is
particularly important in switching applications from logic to power switching as
well as in RF switching (in radios and televisions), including applications in
mixers. FETs typically are able to provide a good performance for switching and
have a relatively low Rds(on) value.

FET datasheets contain different parameters and specifications to define the performance
of the FET. These are all provided in datasheets that enable the correct choice of FET to
be made.

4.2 JFET
The junction-gate field-effect transistor (JFET) is one of the simplest types of field-effect
transistor. Figure 4.3 shows the basic form of construction of a practical n-channel and p-
channel JFET. A p-channel JFET can be made by transposing the p and n materials as
shown in Figure 4.3. All JFETs operate in the depletion mode.

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Fig. 4.3 Construction of JFET

Figure 4.4 shows typical transfer characteristics of a low-power n-channel JFET, and
illustrates some important features of this type of device. These dopings make a P-N
junction in the middle part of the block. We can also form a P-N junction by joining a p-
type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor together with a special fabrication
technique. The terminal connected to the p-type is the anode. The terminal connected to
the n-type side is the cathode.

Fig. 4.4 Transfer Characteristics of JFET

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The most important characteristics of the JFET are as follows:
 When a JFET is connected to a supply with the polarity shown in Figure 4.2 (drain
+ve for an n-channel FET, -ve for a p-channel FET), a drain current (ID) flows and
can be controlled via a gate-to-source bias voltage VGS.
 ID is maximum when VGS = 0, and is reduced by applying a reverse bias to the gate
(negative bias in an n-channel device, positive bias in a p-type). The magnitude of
VGS needed to reduce ID to zero is called the ‘pinch-off’ voltage, VP, and typically
has a value between 2 and 10 volts. The magnitude of ID when VGS = 0 is denoted
IDSS, and typically has a value in the range 2 to 20mA.
 The JFET’s gate-to-source junction has the characteristics of a silicon diode.
When reverse-biased, gate leakage currents (IGSS) are only a couple of nA (1nA =
.001µA) at room temperature. Actual gate signal currents are only a fraction of
annA, and the input impedance of the gate is typically thousands of mega ohms at
lower frequencies.
 If the JFET’s gate-to-source junction is forward-biased, it conducts like a normal
silicon diode. If it is excessively reverse-biased, it avalanches like a Zener diode.
In both cases, the JFET suffers no damage if gate currents are limited to a few
milli amperes.
 Note in Figure 4.4 that, for each VGS value, drain current ID rises linearly from
zero as the drain-to-source voltage (VDS) is increased from zero up to some value
at which a ‘knee’ occurs on each curve, and that ID then remains constant as VDS is
increased beyond the knee value. Thus, when VDS is below the JFET’s knee value,
the drain-to-source terminals act as a resistor.
 RDS can be varied from a few hundred ohms (at VGS = 0) to thousands of mega
ohms (at VGS = VP), enabling the JFET to be used as a voltage-controlled switch or
as an efficient ‘chopper’ that does not suffer from offset-voltage or saturation-
voltage problems.

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 Note in Figure 4.4 that when VDS is above the knee value, the ID value is
controlled by the VGS value and is almost independent of VDS, i.e., the JFET acts
as a voltage-controlled current generator. The JFET can be used as a fixed-value
current generator by either tying the gate to the source, or by applying a fixed
negative bias to the gate. Alternatively, it can (when suitably biased) be used as a
voltage-to-current signal amplifier.
 FET ‘gain’ is specified as transconductance, gm, and denotes the magnitude of
change of drain current with gate voltage, i.e., a gm of 5mA/V signifies that a
VGS variation of one volt produces a 5mA change in ID. Note that the form I/V is
the inverse of the ohms formula, so gm measurements are often expressed in
‘mho’ units. Usually, gm is specified in FET data sheets in terms of mmhos (milli-
mhos) or µmhos (micro-mhos).
 In most practical applications, the JFET is biased into the linear region and used as
a voltage amplifier. N-channel JFET can be used as a common source amplifier
(corresponding to the bipolar npn common emitter amplifier).

4.3 MOSFET
The second and most important family of FETs are IGFET or MOSFET. In these FETs,
the gate terminal is insulated from the semiconductor body by a very thin layer of silicon
dioxide, hence the title ‘Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor,’ or IGFET. The devices
generally use a ‘Metal-Oxide Silicon’ semiconductor material in their construction, hence
the alternative title of MOSFET.
Figure 4.5 shows the basic construction and the standard symbol of the n-channel
depletion-mode FET. It resembles the JFET, except that its gate is fully insulated from
the body of the FET (as indicated by the Figure 4.6) but, in fact, operates on a slightly
different principle to the JFET.

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It has a normally-open n-type channel between drain and source, but the channel width is
controlled by the electrostatic field of the gate bias. The channel can be closed by
applying suitable negative bias, or can be increased by applying positive bias.

In practice, the FET substrate may be externally available, making a four-terminal device,
or may be internally connected to the source, making a three-terminal device. An
important point about the IGFET/MOSFET is that it is also available as an enhancement-
mode device, in which its conduction channel is normally closed but can be opened by
applying forward bias to its gate.

Fig. 4.5 Construction of MOSFET

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Fig. 4.6 Symbol of MOSFET

To turn the device on, significant positive gate bias is needed, and when this is of
sufficient magnitude, it starts to convert the p-type substrate material under the gate into
an n-channel, enabling conduction to take place.
Figure 4.7 shows the typical transfer characteristics of an n-channel enhancement-mode
IGFET/MOSFET, and the VGS/ID curves of the same device. Note that no ID current
flows until the gate voltage reaches a ‘threshold’ (VTH) value of a few volts, but that
beyond this value, the drain current rises in a non-linear fashion.

Fig. 4.7 Transfer Characteristics of MOSFET

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Note that the transfer graph is divided into two characteristic regions, as indicated (in
Figure 4.7) by the dotted line.These are the ‘triode’ region and the ‘saturated’ regions
respectively. In the triode region, the device acts like a voltage-controlled resistor.In the
saturated region, it acts like a voltage-controlled constant-current generator.
The basic n-channel MOSFETs can be converted to p-channel devices by simply
transposing their p and n materials, in which case their symbols must be changed by
reversing the directions of their substrate arrows.
Note that the very high gate impedance of MOSFET devices makes them liable to
damage from electrostatic discharges and, for this reason, they are often provided with
internal protection via integral diodes or Zener diodes.

Comparison Table of JFET and MOSFET

PARAMETERS JFET MOSFET

Mode of It operates only in depletion It can be operated in either depletion

operation mode. or enhancement mode.

Symbol

Input impedance JFET have much smaller MOSFETs have much higher input
input impedance mainly of impedance of about 1010 to 1015 Ω due
the order of 108 Ω. to small leakage current.

Characteristic As JFET has higher drain The characteristic curve is less flat
curve resistance, the characteristic than those of JFET.
curve is flatter.

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PARAMETERS JFET MOSFET

Drain resistance JFET has drain resistance of Drain resistance in case of MOSFETs
the order of 105 to 106 Ω is of the order of 1 to 50 K Ω.

Fabrication Fabrication process of JFET MOSFET can be easily fabricated

is more difficult than thus it is more widely used.
MOSFET.

Cost Manufacturing of JFET is MOSFETs are slightly expensive as

cheaper as compared to compared to JFET.
MOSFET.

Susceptibility to It does not require special These are more susceptible to

damage handling. overload voltage and requires special
handling.

4.4 Thyristors
Thyristors are also switching devices similar to the transistors. Transistors can be used as
amplifying and switching device but they cannot handle higher current. So, to
handlehigher currents, thyristors are used.
Thyristor includes many types of switches, some of them are SCR (Silicon Controlled
Rectifier), GTO (Gate Turn OFF), and IGBT (Insulated Gate Controlled Bipolar
Transistor) etc. SCR is the most widely used device, so the word Thyristor become
synonymous to SCR.
SCR or Thyristor is a four-layered, three-junction semiconductor switching device. It has
three terminals: anode, cathode, and gate. Thyristor is also a unidirectional device like a
diode, which means it allows current only in one direction. It consists of three P-N
junctions in series as it is of four layers. Gate terminal is used to trigger the SCR by
providing small voltage to this terminal, which is called gate triggering method to turn
ON the SCR.

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Difference betweenThyristorand MOSFET
Thyristor and MOSFET both are electrical switches and are most commonly used. The
basic difference between both of them is that MOSFET switches are voltage-controlled
devices and can only switch DC current while Thyristors switches are current controlled
device and can switch both DC and AC current. There are some more differences
between Thyristor and MOSFET which are given below in the table:

Property Thyristor MOSFET

Thermal Run away Yes No

Temperature
less high
sensitivity

High voltage high

Type High voltage medium current device
current device

Separate switching
Turning off Not required
circuit is required

No continuous supply is required

Turning On Single pulse required
except during turning On and Off

Switching speed Low high

Resistive input
Low high
impedance

Controlling Current controlled device Voltage controlled device

4.5 UJT
UJT stands for UniJunction Transistor. It is a three terminal semiconductor switching
device. The Unijunction Transistor is a simple device that consists of a bar of n-type

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silicon material with a non-rectifying contact at either end (base 1 and base 2), and with a
rectifying contact (emitter) alloyed into the bar part along its length, to form the only
junction within the device (hence the name ‘Unijunction’).
The Unijunction Transistor is also known as Double Base Diode. The unique switching
characteristics of UJT makes it different from conventional BJT’s and FET’s by acting as
switching transistor instead of amplifying the signals. It exhibits negative resistance in its
characteristics which employs it as relaxation oscillators in variety of applications.
4.5.1 Symbol and Construction of Unijunction Transistor (UJT):
In Unijunction Transistor, the P-N Junction is formed by lightly doped N-type silicon bar
with heavily doped P-type material on one side. The ohmic contact on either ends of the
silicon bar is termed as Base 1 (B1) and Base 2 (B2) and P-type terminal is named as
emitter.

Fig. 4.8 Basic Construction & Symbol of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

The emitter junction is placed such that it is closer to terminal Base 2 than Base 1. The
symbols of both UJT and JFET resemble the same except the emitter arrowhead
represents the direction in which conventional current flow, but they operate differently.

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4.5.2 Working of a Unijunction Transistor

The equivalent circuit (Figure 4.9) shows that N-type channel consists of two resistors
RB2 and RB1 in series with an equivalent diode, D representing the PN junction. The
emitter PN junction is fixed along the ohmic channel during its manufacturing process.

Fig. 4.9 Simplified Equivalent Circuit of Unijunction Transistor

The variable resistance RB1 is provided between the terminals Emitter (E) and Base 1
(B1), the RB2 between the terminals Emitter (E) and Base 2 (B2). Since the PN junction is
closer to B2, the value of RB2 will be less than the variable resistance RB1.
A voltage divider network is formed by the series resistances RB2 and RB1. When a
voltage is applied across the semiconductor device, the potential will be in proportion to
the position of base points along the channel. The Emitter (E) will act as input when
employed in a circuit, as the terminal B1 will be grounded. The terminal B2 will be
positive biased to B1, when a voltage (VBB) applied across the terminals B1 and B2. When
the emitter input is zero, the voltage across resistance RB1 of the voltage divider circuit is
calculated by:
𝑅𝐵1
𝑉𝑅𝐵1 = (𝑉 )
𝑅𝐵1 +𝑅𝐵2 𝐵𝐵
The important parameter of Unijunction Transistor is ‘intrinsic stand-off ratio’ (η), which
is resistive ratio of RB1 to RBB. Most UJT’s have η value ranging from 0.5 to 0.8. The P-N

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junction is reverse biased; when small amount of voltage which is less than voltage
developed across resistance RB1 (ηVBB) is applied across the terminal emitter (E). Thus, a
very high impedance is developed prompting device to move into non-conducting state
i.e., it will be switched off and no current flows through it. The UJT begins to conduct
when the P-N junction is forward biased.
The forward biased is achieved when voltage applied across emitter terminal is increased
and becomes more than VRB1. This results in larger flow of emitter current from emitter
region to base region. Increase in emitter current reduces the resistance between emitter
and Base 1, resulting in negative resistance at emitter terminal.
The Unijunction Transistor (UJT) will act as voltage breakdown device, when the input
applied between emitter and base 1 reduces below breakdown value i.e., RB1 increases to
a higher value. This shows that RB1 depends on the emitter current and it is variable.

4.5.3 Characteristics Curve of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

The characteristics of Unijunction Transistor (UJT) can be explained by three parameters:

 Cutoff
 Negative Resistance Region
 Saturation
Figure 4.10 shows the detailed characteristics of UJT.
Cutoff
Cutoff region is the area where the Unijunction Transistor (UJT) doesn’t get sufficient
voltage to turn on. The applied voltage hasn’t reached the triggering voltage, thus making
transistor to be in off state.
Negative Resistance Region
When the transistor reaches the triggering voltage, VTRIG, Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
will turn on. After a certain time, if the applied voltage increases to the emitter lead, it

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will reach out at VPEAK. The voltage drops from VPEAK to Valley Point even though the
current increases (negative resistance).

Fig. 4.9 Characteristics of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

Saturation
In saturation region, current increases with the increase in the applied voltage to emitter
terminal.
4.5.4 Applications of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
The Unijunction Transistor can be employed in variety of applications such as:

 Switching Device
 Triggering Device for Triacs and SCR’s
 Timing Circuits
 For phase control
 In sawtooth generators
 In simple relaxation oscillators

Activity
 Implement UJT as a switch on breadboard.

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Advantages of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

The advantages of Unijunction Transistor include
 Low cost
 Negative resistance characteristics
 Requires low value of triggering current.
 A stable triggering voltage
 Low power absorbing device

Disadvantage of Uni junction Transistor (UJT)

The main disadvantage of Unijunction Transistor is its inability to provide appropriate
amplification

Example 4.1
The intrinsic stand-off ratio for a UJT is determined to be 0.6. If the inter-base
resistance (RBB) is 10kΩ what are the values of RB1 and RB2?

Solution:
Intrinsic stand-off ratio for a UJT is given as
𝑅𝐵1
𝜂=
𝑅𝐵1+𝑅𝐵2
𝑅𝐵1
0.6 =
10𝐾
𝑅𝐵1 = 6𝐾Ω

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Teacher Notes
All the topics of this chapter should be taught covering only the basics. Details should
be as minimum as possible.

Example 4.2
A UJT has 10V between the bases. If the intrinsic stand-off ratio is 0.65, find the
value of stand-off voltage. What will be the peak point voltage if the forward voltage
drop in the p-n junction is .7V?

Solution:
VBB=10V, 𝜂=0.65, 𝑉𝐷 =0.7𝑉
Stand-off voltage (VRB1) is given as
𝑉𝑅𝐵1 =𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵
𝑉𝑅𝐵1 =0.65×10
𝑉𝑅𝐵1 =6.5𝑉
Peak point Voltage (VP) is given as
𝑉𝑃 =𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷
After putting values and solving:
𝑉𝑃 =7.2𝑉

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Key Points
 The FET (Field Effect Transistor) is a three-terminal electronic device used
to control the flow of current by the voltage applied to its gate terminal.
 The conductivity process in FET is controlled by applying the input voltage
at the gate terminal.
 The junction-gate field-effect transistor (JFET) is one of the simplest types
of field-effect transistor.
 All JFETs operate in the depletion mode.
 In MOSFETs, the gate terminal is insulated from the semiconductor body by
a very thin layer of silicon dioxide.
 In the triode region, MOSFET acts like a voltage-controlled resistor; in the
saturated region, it acts like a voltage-controlled constant-current generator.
 Thyristors are also switching devices similar to the transistors and they are
capable of operating in high current conditions.
 The unique switching characteristics of UJT makes it different from
conventional BJT’s and FET’s by acting as switching transistor instead of
amplifying the signals.
 The main disadvantage of Unijunction Transistor is its inability to provide
appropriate amplification.

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Exercise
Select the most appropriate option
1. Which of the following are three terminal electronic devices:
a. Resistance b. FET c. MOSFET d. Both b and c

2. In MOSFETs,which terminal is insulated from the semiconductor body.

a. Drainb. Source c. Gate d. None of these
3. _____ are like transistor but can operate in high current conditions.
a. BJT b. Thyristors c. MOSFETs d. None of these

4. ____ is also known as a double base diode.

a. UJT b. BJT c. Zener d. JFET
5. _______ are voltage controlled devices
a. JFET b. MOSFET c. Thyristor d. None of these

Write short answer of the following.

1. Define FET.
2. Define MOSFET?
3. What is the difference between thyristors and MOSFETs.
4. Define UJT.
5. What is the disadvantage of using UJT?

Answer the following question in detail.

1. Explain the working of MOSFET.
2. Differentiate between UJT and Thyristor.
3. Describe the working of UJT.
4. Enlist Applications of UJT.
5. List down advantages of UJT.

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Solve the Following Problems:

1. The intrinsic stand-off ratio for a UJT is determined to be 0.5. If the inter-base
resistance (RBB) is 12kΩ what are the values of RB1 and RB2?
2. A UJT has 15V between the bases. If the intrinsic stand-off ratio is 0.75, find the
value of stand-off voltage. What will be the peak point voltage if the forward
voltage drop in the p-n junction is .7V?
3. Determine the minimum and maximum peak-point voltage for UJT with
VBB=24V. Given that UJT has a range of 𝜂=0.74 𝑡𝑜 0.86.

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Introduction to Microcontrollers

After Studying this chapter, you will be able to:

 define microcontroller.
 describe purpose of microcontroller.
 differentiate microcontroller and microprocessor.
 know common microcontroller.
 name some well-known microcontroller used specifically for IoT application.
 know and understanding of Arduino.
 understand pin configuration of Arduino.
 basic understanding of Arduino IDE.
 process the installation of Arduino IDE.
 know built-in libraries.
 add libraries in Arduino IDE.
 know about USB mini and USB micro.
 process of installing and updating USB to serial driver for Windows.
 select the relevant COM port on Arduino IDE.
 configure required baud rate of COM port in driver.
 select relevant board in Arduino IDE.

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5.1 Microcontrollers
5.1.1 What is a Microcontroller?
A microcontroller is a programmable integrated chip (IC). It has different ports which can
be controlled using a program written by the user. These ports control the connected
circuitry according to the uploaded program. A typical microcontroller has a
microprocessor unit (MPU), memory, and some peripherals.
5.1.2 What Do Microcontrollers Do?
A microcontroller board can sense, monitor and respond to various events, behaviors or
input signals that it receives from connected components.
A microcontroller, for example, might be programmed to push a specific type of output
signal or behavioral control in response to certain input conditions. This could include the
execution of tasks such as:
 Turning ON an LED or OLED display in response to touch-based user demand.
 Playing lights and sounds in temperature-sensing applications or other varieties of
alarms and warning systems.
 Responding to the need for a motor to switch on or off in a pump or other
mechanical device.
 Adjusting tilt, balance, and velocity in gyroscope or accelerometer-based
applications.

5.1.3 Microcontroller vs Microprocessors

A microprocessor does not contain any memory (RAM or ROM) or I/O ports. The
instruction set telling a standalone microprocessor how to execute a given function are
generally stored externally. In a microcontroller, all these various components - including
the simplified processor - are combined into a single self-contained unit.
Performance-wise, microcontrollers and microprocessors are differentiated as:

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Microcontroller

 is an entirely self-contained unit that contains a very simple CPU or

microprocessor.
 is used for a single specific application, as pre-programmed by the user
 is not especially powerful in performance terms; typically, it only draws a
small amount of power and contain little in terms of integrated data storage
capacity.
 needs to be programmed by the operator to perform any meaningful role.
 can not operate outside of their specifically programmed code.
 is generally meant for use in specific devices or appliances designed to perform
one task repeatedly.

Microprocessor

 is much more complex and versatile in terms of function range, and intended
for use in more general computing (as opposed to in specialized one-task
devices).
 have much faster processor (clock) speeds than MCUs, often measured in
gigahertz (GHz) rather than Hz.
 is challenging and expensive to manufacture, unlike relatively simple and
cheap microcontrollers.
 require far more external components (RAM, I/O ports, data storage,
EEPROM or flash memory) to operate, none of which are integrated into the
microprocessor and must be connected separately.
 have a considerably higher power draw and are subsequently much less cost-
effective to run continually.

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Common Microcontrollers
Some commonly used microcontrollers are:
1. 8086 Microcontrollers
2. AVR Microcontrollers
3. Arduino Boards
4. STM
5. ESP
6. Raspberry Pi
Microcontrollers for IoT

Most widely used microcontrollers for development of IoT systems are:

1. ESP8266
2. ESP32
3. Raspberry Pi

5.2 Arduino
Arduino is an open-source embedded systems platform based on easy-to-use hardware
and software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a
button, or a Twitter message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor, turning on
an LED, publishing something online. You can tell your board what to do by sending a
set of instructions to the microcontroller on the board. You need to use the Arduino
programming language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino Software (IDE) to start
working on Arduino.
5.2.1 Arduino UNO
Arduino UNO is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P (datasheet). It has 14
digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16
MHz ceramic resonator (CSTCE16M0V53-R0), a USB connection, a power jack, an
ICSP header and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the

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microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with an
AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. Pin configuration of Arduino UNO is shown
below:

Fig 5.1 Pin Configuration of Arduino UNO

5.3 Arduino IDE

 Arduino IDE is an open-source software, designed by Arduino.cc and mainly used
for writing, compiling & uploading code to almost all Arduino Modules.
 It is an official Arduino software, making code compilation easy.
 It is available for all operating systems i.e., MAC, Windows, Linux and runs on
the Java Platform that comes with inbuilt functions and commands that play a vital
role in debugging, editing and compiling the code.

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 A range of Arduino modules are available including Arduino Uno, Arduino Mega,
Arduino Leonardo, Arduino Micro and many more.
 Each of them contains a microcontroller on the board that is actually programmed
and accepts the information in the form of code.
 The main code, also known as a sketch, created on the IDE platform will
ultimately generate a Hex File (executable file containing hex codes) which is then
transferred and uploaded in the controller on the board.
 The IDE environment mainly contains two basic parts: Editor and Compiler. The
former is used for writing the required code and thelater is used for compiling and
uploading the code into the given Arduino Module.
 This environment supports both C and C++ languages.

5.3.1 Installing the Arduino IDE

1. Visit http://www.arduino.cc/en/main/software to download the latest Arduino IDE
version for your computer’s operating system. There are versions for Windows,
Mac, and Linux systems. At the download page, click on the “Windows Installer”
option for the installation.
2. Save the .exe file to your hard drive.
3. Open the .exe file.
4. Click the button to agree to the licensing agreement:

Do you know? Point to Ponder

Instruction set of every microcontroller is in What is the programming interface
Assembly language which is converted to of a microcontroller?
machine language instructions while
compiling.

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Fig 5.2 Arduino setup: License agreement

5. Decide which components to install, then click “Next”:

Fig 5.3 Arduino Setup: Installation options

6. Select which folder to install the program to, then click “Install”:

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Fig 5.4 Arduino Setup: Installation folder

7. Wait for the program to finish installing, then click “Close”.

8. Now find the Arduino shortcut on your Desktop and click on it. The IDE will open up
and you’ll see the code editor.
Libraries
Libraries are a collection of code that makes it easy for you to connect to a sensor,
display, module, etc. For example, the built-in ‘LiquidCrystal’ library makes it easy to
talk to character LCD displays. There are hundreds of additional libraries available on the
Internet for download. To use the additional libraries, you will need to install them.
How to Install a Library?
Using the Library Manager
To install a new library into your Arduino IDE you can use the Library Manager
(available from IDE version 1.6.2 and above). Open the IDE and click to the "Sketch"
menu and then Include Library > Manage Libraries:

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Fig 5.5 Arduino IDE: Include Library

Then the Library Manager will open and you will find a list of libraries that are already
installed or ready for installation. In this example we will install the Bridge library. Scroll
the list to find it, click on it, then select the version of the library you want to install.
Sometimes only one version of the library is available:

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Fig 5.6 Arduino Setup: Library Manager

Finally click on install and wait for the IDE to install the new library. Downloading may
take time depending on your connection speed. Once it has finished, an Installed tag
should appear next to the Bridge library. You can close the library manager:

Teacher Notes:
 Tell students about the available interfaces on Arduino UNO.

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You can now find the new library available in the Sketch > Include Library menu. If you
want to add your own library to Library Manager, follow these instructions.

Importing a .zip Library

Libraries are often distributed as a ZIP file or folder. The name of the folder is the name
of the library. Inside the folder will be a .cpp file, a .h file and often a keywords.txt file,
examples folder, and other files required by the library. Starting with version 1.0.5, you
can install 3rd party libraries in the IDE. Do not unzip the downloaded library, leave it as
is.

In the Arduino IDE, navigate to Sketch > Include Library > Add .ZIP Library. At the top
of the drop-down list, select the option to "Add .ZIP Library'':

Fig 5.8 Arduino IDE: Adding .zip file of library

You will be prompted to select the library you would like to add. Navigate to the .zip
file's location and open it:

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Fig 5.9 Arduino Setup: Selecting .zip file

Return to the Sketch > Include Library menu. menu. You should now see the library at
the bottom of the drop-down menu. It is ready to be used in your sketch. The zip file will
have been expanded in the libraries folder in your Arduino sketches directory.

5.4 Connecting an Arduino with Computer System

1. Connect Arduino to your computer

USB-Mini cable is used to connect Arduino to your computer. Different types of USB
connectors are shown in figure:

Fig 5.10 USB cables

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2. Install/update USB-Serial Driver

The following instructions are for Windows 7, Vista and 10. They are also valid for
Windows XP, with small differences in the dialog windows. In the following instruction
only the Leonardo board will be mentioned, but the same procedure is valid for all the
Arduino boards.
Plug in your board and wait for Windows to begin its driver installation process. If the
installer does not launch automatically, navigate to the Windows Device Manager
(Start>Control Panel>Hardware) and find the Arduino listing. Right click and
choose Update driver:
Note: The following figure shows driver for Arduino Leonardo. Process of updating the
driver is same for all boards.

Interesting Information
 A device driver is a software
component that allows a hardware
device to communicate with the
operating system of a computer.
Drivers allow an operating system to
correct interpret and implements the
signals that come from the hardware
device.

Fig 5.11 Arduino Setup: Device manager: Update Driver

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In the next screen, click "Browse my computer for driver software", and click Next.

Fig 5.12 Arduino Setup: Update Driver

Click the Browse button. Another dialog appears: navigate to the folder with the
Arduino software that you just downloaded. Select the drivers folder an click OK, then
click Next.

Fig 5.13 Arduino Setup: Select Driver

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You will receive a notification that the board has not passed Windows Logo testing.
Click on the button Continue Anyway.

Fig 5.14 Arduino Setup: Driver installed

After a few moments, a window will tell you the wizard has finished installing software
for Arduino Leonardo. Press the Close button.

5.5 Programming Arduino

Open the LED blink example sketch: File > Examples >01.Basics > Blink.

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Fig 5.15 Arduino IDE: Blink Example

You'll need to select the entry in the Tools > Board menu that corresponds to your
Arduino board.

Fig 5.16 Arduino IDE: Select Board

Select the serial device of the board from the Tools | Serial Port menu. This is likely to
be COM3 or higher (COM1 and COM2 are usually reserved for hardware serial ports).

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To find out, you can disconnect your board and re-open the menu; the entry that
disappears should be the Arduino board. Reconnect the board and select that serial port.

Fig 5.17 Arduino IDE: Select Port

Hardware Setup
Place the LED sensor in the breadboard. Connect a 220-ohm resistor to its anode and
connect its pin to GND pin of Arduino. Connect a wire from the resistor to corresponding
pin on Arduino (digital pin). Connect the Cathode of LED to GND of Arduino.

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Fig 5.17 Arduino: Hardware Setup for Blink Example

Simply click the "Upload" button in the environment. Wait a few seconds - you should
see the RX and TX LEDs on the board flashing. If the upload is successful, the message
"Done uploading." will appear in the status bar.

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Key Points
 A microcontroller has different ports which can be controlled using a
program written by the user.
 Microcontroller contains peripherals i.e. RAM/ROM, I/O ports, EEPROM
etc.
 A microprocessor contains no peripherals.
 IDE is used to write a code, compile code, burn the code and debug the
program.
 A device driver is necessary to connect arduino with computer.
 Operating voltage of Arduino is 5V.
 Libraries are the ready-made programs/functions which can be added in the
existing code according to the need.

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Exercise

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A microcontroller contains the following perpherals:
a. RAM & ROM b. I/O ports c. EEPROM d. All of these

2. Which of the following is not a Arduino board:

a. Arduino UNO b. Arduino Leaonardo c. Arduino Nano d. None of these

3. Arduino operates at:

a. 5V b. 3.3 V c. 20V d. Both a and b

4. Which of the following IDE is used for Arduino.

a. Keil b. Microsoft Visual Studion c. Eclipse d. Arduino IDE

5. Which interfaces are available on Arduino

a. UART b. SPI c. I2C d. All of these
Write short answer of the following.
1. Define microcontroller.
2. Differentiate between microcontroller and microprocessor.
3. Define IDE.
4. What are libraries and why are they used?
5. Name some arduino based boards.
6. Name some commonly used microcontrollers for IoT.
7. What is a device driver.
8. What do you mean by pin configuration?
9. What are I/O ports?
10. Name some I/O interfaces vailable on Arduino.

Activites.
1. Install Arduino IDE.
2. Install device driver for Arduino.
3. Add any library in Arduino IDE.
4. Connect an LED with Arduino and blink it using an example program.
5. Explore serial port. Print some text on serial monitor of Arduino IDE.

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Work Health and Safety

After Studying this chapter, you will be able to:

 understand basic rules and principles of WHS.

 introduce Ergonomics.
 understand legal obligations and work ethics regarding health and safety.
 identify common workplace hazards.
 manage workplace hazards.
 follow organizational WHS and other relevant policies, procedures andprocesses.
 understand the scope of project.
 identify techniques of the risk profile for all stakeholders.
 identify Clients Health and safety specifications SOPs.
 understand development techniques of health and safety plan.
 implement techniques of health and safety plan.

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6.1 Basics of Work Health and Safety

6.1.1 Safe and healthy work environment
The workspaces and production methods, in a good working environment, have been
designed and implemented in such a way that workers can work and move around safely.
Workers are familiar with the hazards and risks related to the raw materials used in the
work and the substances produced in the work processes. They are well trained to control
them efficiently. The machines and tools used in the work suit their purposes. Employees'
physical and mental preconditions are taken into account while planning and scaling the
work.
Workspaces and Passageways in a Safe Environment
In a safe working environment:
 Structural aspects of the work environment take into account the safety of
passageways, workplace lighting, sound environment and indoor air quality.
 Functional factors include the organization of transportation and keeping
workspaces and offices organized and neat.

Order and cleanliness

Cleanliness contributes to the safety and health of the workplace.Therefore, it is a top
priority. Slipping and tripping caused by the disorder or untidiness of the workplace make
up a significant portion of workplace accidents. Special consideration must be paid to the
identification and management of physical, chemical and biological health hazards in the
workplace. Work machinery, equipment and tools must be in good working order, and
they may be used only for the planned work and under the intended conditions. The
necessary personal protective equipment and assistive devices must also be in good
working order and used only for the planned situation.

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Fig 6.1 Example of a good working environment

6.1.2 Rules and Principles of Work Health and Safety

 All people are given the highest level of health and safety protection that is
reasonably practicable.

 Those who manage or control activities that give rise, or may give rise, to risks to
health or safety are responsible for eliminating or reducing health and safety risks.

 Employers and self-employed people should be proactive and take reasonably

practicable measures to ensure health and safety in their business activities.

 Employers and employees should exchange information about risks to health and
safety and measures that can be taken to reduce those risks.

 Employees are entitled, and should be encouraged, to be represented on health and

safety issues.

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6.1.3 Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the process of designing or arranging workplaces, products and systems so
that they fit the people who use them. Ergonomics applies to the design of anything that
involves people – workspaces, sports and leisure, health and safety. Itis a branch of
science that aims to learn about human abilities and limitations, and then apply this
learning to improve people’s interaction with products, systems and environments.
Ergonomics helps to improve workspaces and environments to minimize risk of injury or
harm. Ergonomics should be applied to design amenities of a working environment. As
technologies change, so does the need to ensure that the tools we access for work, rest
and play are designed for our body’s requirements.

Fig 6.1 Ergonomically Designed Chair

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6.1.4 Obligations and Ethics towards WHS

Some simple steps to remember when considering ethics in WHS profession are:
 Follow the governmental requirements, laws, guidelines, as well as company
principles and policies when conducting WHS related tasks and making decisions.
 Be transparent in communicating data, findings, recommendations to the
respective management.
 Follow the code of ethics of the relevant professional association and/or
accreditation body and report any incident
 Detach personal judgement, thoughts and ideas from professional setting as much
as possible.
 Support and follow WHS values and principles

6.1.5 Common Workplace Hazards

The six main categories of hazards are:
 Biological: Biological hazards include viruses, bacteria, insects, animals, etc.,
that can cause adverse health impacts. For example blood and other bodily
fluids, harmful plants, sewage, dust and vermin.
 Chemical: Chemical hazards are hazardous substances that can cause harm.
These hazards can result in both health and physical impacts, such as skin
irritation, respiratory system irritation, blindness, corrosion and explosions.
 Physical: Physical hazards are environmental factors that can harm an
employee without necessarily touching them, including heights, noise,
radiation and pressure.
 Safety: These are hazards that create unsafe working conditions. For example,
exposed wires or a damaged carpet might result in a tripping hazard. These are
sometimes included under the category of physical hazards.

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 Ergonomic: Ergonomic hazards are a result of physical factors that can result
in musculoskeletal injuries. For example, a poor workstation setup in an office,
poor posture and manual handling.
 Psychosocial: Psychosocial hazards include those that can have an adverse
effect on an employee’s mental health or wellbeing. For example, sexual
harassment, victimization, stress and workplace violence.
6.1.6 Managing Workplace Hazards
If it is not possible to eliminate the hazard.Below are six steps to determine the most
effective measures to control workplace hazards and to minimise risk.
Step 1: Design or re-organise to eliminate hazards.
Step 2: Substitute the hazard with something safer.
Step 3: Isolate the hazard from people.
Step 4: Use engineering controls.
Step 5: Use administrative controls.
Step 6: Use Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).
6.1.7 Purpose of Organizational Policies, Procedures and Processes
The purpose of organizational policies, procedures, processes and systems for WHS are
to establish the practices and standards that a company will follow in regards to
compliance with Work Health & Safety guidelines.
 These company policies and procedures will ensure that the company is in full
compliance with the legislative requirements concerning work health & safety
for employees
 The policies will create a safe work environment for all employees and will
reduce the cost the company has for sending employees to see doctors after
accidents, and will reduce the insurance costs of the company because of their
safety rating

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 The establishment of the policies will create better work relationships between
company owners, and their employees. The employees will know that the
company is trying to protect them from injury

6.2 WHS in IoT Environments

6.2.1 Understand the Scope of Project
IoT working environments demand extreme precautions while handing IoT equipment.
The first and foremost requirement is to understand the scope of the project i.e. to
understand the product development cycle. For instance what processes will be involved
in designing an IoT product or project. Some IoT projects will be hardware based, some
will be software based. So, WHS requirements will vary for different IoT projects.

6.2.2 Risk Profile for different Stakeholders

Different teams are involved in the development of an IoT system i.e., software team,
electronics team, PCB team and QA etc. So, WHS requirements will vary for the
different teams. For example, WHS principle for software team will be different as
compared to that of hardware team.

6.2.3 Client’s Health and Safety SOPs

There is always a need to develop SOPs to operate the IoT product or system. These
SOPs will be helpful for the client’s health and safety. IoT devices have different
contexts and require separate SOPs for each application. For example, smart homes and
smart cities will require different SOPs for the smooth and safe operation of an IoT
system. For instance, an IoT sensor device which is installed in the pantry should have
strict SOPs regarding the installation and operation of device. SOPs will be such as: The
IoT device installed in the pantry should be at a defineddistance from the hearth, and it
should not be installed in the path of smoke etc.

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6.2.4 Development Techniques of Health and Safety Plan

Development of health and safety plan in IoT working environment is directly related to
the design of IoT devices i.e., what is the maximum temperature the device can bear;
Water resistivity of the device; working temperature range of components (sensors and
actuators) installed in the device; and operating current and voltage of the device etc. All
these design parameters will lead to a successful health and safety plan.

Fig 6.3Example of a good IoT enabled environment

6.2.4 ImplementationTechniques of Health and Safety Plan

Nowadays IoT devices are being used to monitor work health and safety SOPs. To better
implement the health and safety plan in an IoT working environment, some IoT devices
must be dedicated to sense and report the cases where SOPs are not followed. For
instance, tools in an IoT working environment can be synchronized with the personal
protective equipment. Tools will not turn on unless the personal protective equipment is
worn. Figure 6.1 shows an example of intelligent personal protective equipment.

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Fig 6.4IoT based protective equipment

Key Points

 Structural aspects of the work environment should take into account the safety of
passageways, workplace lighting, sound environment and indoor air quality.
 Functional factors of the work environment must include the organization of
transportation and keeping workplaces and offices organized and neat.
 Those who manage or control activities that give rise, or may give rise, to risks to
health or safety are responsible for eliminating or reducing health and safety
risks.
 Employers and employees should exchange information about risks to health and
safety and measures that can be taken to reduce those risks.
 Psychosocial hazards include those that can have an adverse effect on an
employee’s mental health or wellbeing.

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Exercise

Write short answer of the following

1. Define ergonomics.
2. Describe electrical hazards.
3. Enlist hazards involved in an electronics work environment.
4. What are the hazards involved with the handling of IoT devices?

Answer the following question in detail.

1. Describe basic rules and principles of WHS.
2. Describe Ergonomics.
3. What are common workplace hazards?
4. How workplace hazards should be managed?
5. What are the WHS requirements for IoT workplaces?
6. What are the implementation techniques for WHS in IoT environments?

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 Glossary

Amenities: A desirable or useful feature or facility of a building or place.

Atoms: Atoms are the basic units of matter and the defining structure of elements.
Charge Conservation:In physics, charge conservation is the principle that the total electric
charge in an isolated system never changes. The net quantity of electric charge, the amount of
positive charge minus the amount of negative charge in the universe, is always conserved.
Clock: A clock signal (historically also known as logic beat) oscillates between a high and a low
state and is used like a metronome to coordinate actions of digital circuits.
Closed Loop: A closed loop is a portion of an electric circuit which have a closed path for the
flow of current.
Diffusion: Diffusionprocess results from random motion of molecules by which there is a net
flow of matter from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
Diluted Electrolyte: Electrolytes having low concentration of free ions
Dimension: A measurable extent of a particular kind, such as length, breadth, depth, or height.
EEPROM:EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) is user-modifiable
read-only memory (ROM) that allow users to erase and reprogram stored data repeatedly in an
application.
Electric Force:The attractive or repulsive interaction between any two charged objects is an
electric force.
Electric Grid: An electrical grid is an interconnected network for electricity delivery from
producers to consumers.
Electron:The electron is a subatomic particlewhose electric charge is negative one elementary
charge.
Electrostatic Force:The electric force between charged bodies at rest is conventionally called
electrostatic force.
Generator: Voltage generators are modelled as an ideal voltage source in series with a resistor.
Hazard:A hazard is a source or a situation with the potential for harm in terms of human injury
or ill-health, damage to property, damage to the environment, or a combination of these.
Hole: Hole is the lack of an electron at a position where one could exist in an atom.
IC: An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a
microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece (or "chip") of semiconductor
material, usually silicon.

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Impedance: Impedance is the opposition to alternating current presented by the combined effect
of resistance and reactance in a circuit.
Instruction Set:An instruction set is a group of commands for a CPU in machine language.
I/O Port: The input/output port is a memory address used by software to communicate with
hardware on your computer.
Kinetic Energy:Kinetic energy, form of energy that an object or a particle has by reason of its
motion.
Oxidation-Reduction Reaction:An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction is a type of chemical
reaction that involves a transfer of electrons between two species.
Rating: Ratings are the maximum and minimum values of electrical quantities compatible with a
specific component.
Raw Materials:Raw materials are the input goods or inventory that a company needs to
manufacture its products.
Risk:A risk is the chance of something happening that will have a negative effect.
Sensitivity: Sensitivity is a measure of how well a test can identify true positives and specificity
is a measure of how well a test can identify true negatives.
SOP:A standard operating procedure (SOP) is a set of step-by-step instructions compiled by an
organization to help workers carry out routine operations.
Substrate: A substrate is the medium in which a chemical reaction takes place
Unit of measurement:A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a quantity, defined and
adopted by convention or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same kind of
quantity.
Valence Band: The valence band is the band of electron orbitals that electrons can jump out of,
moving into the conduction band when excited.

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 About the Author

Muhammad Umair is a researcher at the Sensors, Cloud and Services (SCS) Lab,
School of Computer Sciences, The University of Sydney, Australia. Muhammad
Umairis also aLecturer at the Department of Electrical, Electronics and
TelecommunicationEngineering, New Campus, UET Lahore. He completed his
B.Sc. Electrical Engineering and M.Sc.Electrical Engineering from the University
of Engineering & Technology (UET) Lahore in 2014 and 2017,respectively. He
has worked as a Research Officer at Internet of Things (IoT) lab at Al-
KhwarizmiInstitute of Computer Sciences, UET Lahore. He has also worked at
Sultan Qaboos IT Researchlab as a Research Officer. His survey on Social IoT
platforms is the most cited survey for SIoTapplications. He has designed graduate
level courses on IoT.

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