REVISION NOTES:CHAPTER 2: CELLS

Right from the time when a diploid zygote was formed, till the present, we all are just made
up of 37.2 trillion microscopic and unicellular cells!

The cells cannot be seen by naked eyes; instead microscopes are needed to telescope our
view of these diminutive structures.

In the modern era, there are more than two types of microscopes that are used for viewing the
cells in detail. The most common type of microscope is a light microscope that can magnify
the cell appearance by x1500. Another one is an electron microscope that magnifies cell
appearance to x10,000,000, enabling scientists to see in greater detail.

A cell is the smallest part of an organism, all cells consist of a membrane, cytoplasm and a
nucleus.
Cell shape varies according to its function. Plant and animal cells differ in size, shape and
structure (plants cells are usually larger than animal cells).

Organelles are found in the cytoplasm each one has a specific job e.g. mitochondria.
Cell structure:

Cell membrane:

 Present in all cells

 Also called plasma membrane or cell surface membrane
 Made up of thin layer of protein and fats
 Partially permeable
 Inside cell membrane lies cytoplasm and other cell organelles.

Cell wall:

 Present in plant and prokaryote cells

 In plants, made up of cellulose
 Cellulose forms fibres in criss-cross patterns over one other
 Cell wall forms very strong covering to cell
 Prevents cell from bursting
Cytoplasm:

 Jelly like substance

 Contains 70% water
 Metabolic reactions of the cell take place over here
 Harmful and useful substances diffuse in and out of cells through the cytoplasm

Nucleus:

 Contains genetic information present in chromosomes

 Chromosomes are made up of Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
 Controls the functions of the cells and gives instructions carry them out
 Present in both plant and animal cells and absent in a prokaryotic cell

Vacuole:

 Vacuoles are spaces in cells containing a solution called cell sap

 The membrane of vacuole is called tonoplast.
 Large vacuoles are present in plant cells to store the useful products formed in
photosynthesis
 In animal cells, small vacuoles or no vacuoles at all can be present as animal cells are
heterotrophic
 Small vacuoles in animal cells often store food and water

Chloroplast:

 Is the organelle that distinguishes between an animal and a plant cell

 Contains a green coloured pigment known as chlorophyll
 They are important for plant cells in the process of photosynthesis

Mitochondria:

 Are powerhouses of cells

 Are found in all cells except those of a prokaryote
 In aerobic respiration, oxygen is used to release carbon dioxide from the contents of
the mitochondrion (starch in plants and glycogen in animals)

Note: Students should know how to identify mitochondria and rough

endoplasmic reticulum in diagrams and images of cells.

Cells with high rates of metabolism require large numbers of mitochondria to provide
sufficient energy.

Cells containing more mitochondria are-

1. Muscle cell- to contract

2. Sperm cell- to swim
3. Neurons- to carry electrical nerve impulses
Ribosomes:

 Ribosomes are cell organelles that are the places where a protein is made by the
synthesis of polypeptides using amino acids.
 They are either arranged on a network known as rough endoplasmic reticulum or
found free in the cytoplasm.
 They are found in all kinds of cells ranging from prokaryotic to eukaryotic.
 They do not have any membrane outside.

Difference between plant and animal cells

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Cell Wall Absent Present, formed of cellulose
Shape Irregular Regular mostly rectangular
Vacuole One or more small vacuoles One, large central vacuole
taking up 90% of cell
volume.
Centrioles Present in all animal cells Absent
Chloroplast Absent Present, helps in
photosynthesis.
Plastids Absent Present
Lysosomes Present in the cytoplasm Not evident
Cilia Present Very rare

Similarities between plant and animal cells:

1. Cell membrane
2. Nucleus
3. Cytoplasm
4. Organelles

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
 ● Very small organisms.
● Not more than 0.01 mm in length.
● The prokaryotic cell contains the following features:
- Cell wall and plasma membrane
- Pili and flagella
- Ribosomes
- Nucleoid region and plasmid
- Cytoplasm
Cell wall:
• Cell wall is made of peptidoglycan – a complex of protein and carbohydrates
• Surrounds the cell
• Protects the cell from bursting
• Maintains the shape of the cell.
• Some bacteria may have an additional layer called capsule or slime layer.
• If present, capsule or slime layer forms the outer most layer.
Cell membrane/Plasma membrane
• Found just inside the cell wall
• Similar in composition to the membrane of eukaryotic cells.
• Controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell.
• Plays role in binary fission.
Cytoplasm:
- Occupies the complete interior of the cell.
- Contains all the enzymes for chemical reactions.
- All cellular processes take place here.
- Storage food granules can be seen here.
Ribosomes:
- Large numbers of ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm.
- They are smaller than the ribosomes found in plant and animal cells (70S).
- They synthesize proteins.
Nucleoid region and Plasmid
- The chromosome is found in a region of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.
- The region contains single, long, continuous, circular DNA.
- DNA is not contained in a nuclear membrane.
- DNA is free: not bound by protein molecules.
- DNA controls the cellular activities.
- Some bacteria also contain additional small circular DNA called plasmids.
- Plasmids replicate independently and may be passed from one cell to another.
- Plasmids help the cells to adapt and withstand unusual conditions.

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Specialization of cells:
Multi-cellular plants and animals contain many different types of cell. Each type of cell is
designed for a particular function. Here are examples of cells and their functions in tissues.

SPECIALIZATION OF CELLS IN PLANTS:

 Root hair cell: It has long hairs to increase surface area of the cell. The cell sap is highly
concentrated. It is thin walled. It has a large number of mitochondria to provide energy
for active up take of minerals from the soil.
 
 Xylem vessels: It transports water and mineral salts to the plant. The xylem cells are dead
due to the deposition of lignin. Lignin thickens the cell wall making the cells very strong
and impermeable. This gives the stem strength. Lignin forms distinctive patterns in the
vessels-spiral, ladder shapes, reticulate and pitted. Xylem vessels are made of a series of
long xylem cells joined end-to-end. Once the region of plant stopped growing, the end
walls are digested away to form a continuous, fine tube.


 Palisade cells: These are found underneath the upper epidermis of plant leaves. They are
columnar in shape, packed with chloroplasts to trap light energy. Their function is to
make food by photosynthesis using carbon dioxide, water and light energy.


SPECIALIZATION OF CELLS IN ANIMALS:

 Red blood cell: It transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues. It has no nucleus, it has
haemoglobin which takes up oxygen, its shape gives it a large surface area and it is small
to fit in capillaries. All other cell organelles including mitochondria are absent in order to
increase the surface area for the accommodation of haemoglobin.

 Nerve cells: They conduct electrochemical impulses which travel to and from the brain.
They are very long and their chemical reactions cause impulses to travel through their
fibers. They also have a layer of fat for insulation.

Ciliated cell: These have cilia (hairs) which can move mucus away from the lungs by a wavy
motion.
 Sperm cell: This is male sex cell. The front of the cell is oval in shape and contains
nucleus which carries genetic information. There is a tip, called an acrosome, which
secretes enzymes to digest the cells around an egg and the egg membrane. Behind this is a
mid -piece which is packed with mitochondria to provide energy for movement. The tail
moves with a whip-like action enabling the sperm to swim. The function is reproduction,
achieved by fertilizing an egg cell.


 Egg cell: Is larger than sperm cell and are spherical. They have a larger amount of
cytoplasm containing yolk droplets made of protein and fat. The nucleus carries genetic
information. The function of the egg cell is reproduction.
 

Examiner's tips
1. You need to be able to give examples of tissues, organs and organ systems in both plants
and animals. A leaf is an organ made up of a number of tissues, e.g. upper epidermis,
palisade, mesophyll.
2. If you draw a diagram to support an exam answer, make sure you refer to its in your
written answer. Annotation is more likely to help you gain extra mark.
CELL, TISSUES, ORGANS & ORGAN SYSTEMS:

TISSUES
 Large numbers of specialized cells make up tissue.
 Muscles, blood and nerves are all tissues.
 Blood tissue contains red cells for carrying oxygen, white cells for destroying harmful bacteria, and
platelets to cause clotting in cuts

ORGANS

 Various tissues together make up an organ.

 Each organ has its own specific job.
 The heart, the stomach and the brain are all organs.
 The heart has to pump blood around the body. It is made up of muscle tissue, blood vessels and
nerves.
 Arteries and veins are usually thought of as organ as they consist of several tissue layers.
ORGAN SYSTEMS
Various organs together make up an organ system. E.g. the circulatory system carries blood to all
parts of the body. It is made up of heart, arteries, veins, capillaries and blood.

ORGANISM
Various organ systems together make up an organism. A human organism has:
 Respiratory system
 Digestive system
 Circulatory system
 Nervous system
 Endocrine system

SIZE OF SPECIMENS
Thickness of membrane - 10 nm
Viruses - 100 nm
Bacteria - 1 µm
Organelles - up to 10 µm
Most cells - up to 100 µm (three dimensional nature/shape)
[nm = nanometer µm = micrometer]

To calculate magnification:
Magnification = Measured Size of Diagram ÷ Actual Size of Object

Use of scale bar:

(Ref: http://www.fmfranco.com/Text/ib_biology/mag_size_scale_bars.pdf)
(Source:
http://sammonssci.weebly.com/uploads/3/7/7/0/37708101/03_magnification_and_scale_problems.pdf
)