INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 WATER:

Water is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula H2O. It is a

transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, and it is the main
constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms .It is vital
for all known forms of life, despite not providing food energy or organic micronutrients.
Its chemical formula, H2O, indicates that each of its molecules contains one oxygen and
two hydrogen atoms, connected by covalent bonds. The hydrogen atoms are attached to
the oxygen atom at an angle of 104.45°."Water" is also the name of the liquid state of
H2O at standard temperature and pressure.

Because Earth's environment is relatively close to water's triple point, water exists
on Earth as a solid, a liquid, and a gas. It forms precipitation in the form of rain and
aerosols in the form of fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, its
solid state. When finely divided, crystalline ice may precipitate in the form of snow.
The gaseous state of water

is steam or water vapor.

Water covers about 71% of the Earth's surface, with seas and oceans making up
most of the water volume (about 96.5%). Small portions of water occur as groundwater
(1.7%), in the glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and in the air
as vapor, clouds (consisting of ice and liquid water suspended in air), and precipitation
(0.001%). Water moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation, transpiration
(evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea[1].

1.2 Properties:

Water (H2O) is a polar inorganic compound. At room temperature

it is a tasteless and odorless liquid, nearly colorless with a hint of blue. This simplest
hydrogen chalcogenide is by far the most studied chemical compound and is described as
the "universal solvent" for its ability to dissolve many substances. This allows it to be the
"solvent of life":indeed, water as found in nature almost always includes various
dissolved substances, and special steps are required to obtain chemically pure water.
Water is the only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas in normal
terrestrial conditions.

1.3 States

The three common states of matter

The other two common states of matter of water are the solid phase, ice, and the
gaseous phase, water vapor or steam. The addition or removal of heat can cause phase
transitions: freezing (water to ice), melting (ice to water), vaporization (water to vapor),
condensation (vapor to water), sublimation (ice to vapor) and deposition (vapor to ice)[2-
3]
.

1.4 Human Uses:

Agriculture

The most substantial human use of water is for agriculture, including irrigated
agriculture, which accounts for as much as 80 to 90 percent of total human water
consumption. In the United States, 42% of freshwater withdrawn for use is for irrigation,
but the vast majority of water "consumed" (used and not returned to the environment)
goes to agriculture.

Access to fresh water is often taken for granted, especially in developed countries that
have built sophisticated water systems for collecting, purifying, and delivering water, and
removing wastewater. But growing economic, demographic, and climatic pressures are
increasing concerns about water issues, leading to increasing competition for fixed water
resources, giving rise to the concept of peak water. As populations and economies
continue to grow, consumption of water-thirsty meat expands, and new demands rise for
biofuels or new water-intensive industries, new water challenges are likely[4].
For drinking

The human body contains from 55% to 78% water, depending on body size. To
function properly, the body requires between one and seven liters (0.22 and 1.54 imp gal;
0.26 and 1.85 U.S. gal) of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount
depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this is
ingested through foods or beverages other than drinking straight water. It is not clear how
much water intake is needed by healthy people, though the British Dietetic Association
advises that 2.5 liters of total water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration,
including 1.8 liters (6 to 7 glasses) obtained directly from beverages. Medical literature
favors a lower consumption, typically 1 liter of water for an average male, excluding
extra requirements due to fluid loss from exercise or warm weather[5]

1.5 Water Pollution:

Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies,

usually as a result of human activities, so that it negatively affects its uses. Water bodies
include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater.

Water pollution results when contaminants mix with these water bodies.
Contaminants can come from one of four main sources: sewage discharges, industrial
activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including storm water. Water
pollution is either surface water pollution or groundwater pollution. This form of
pollution can lead to many problems, such as the degradation of aquatic
ecosystems or spreading water-borne diseases when people use polluted water
for drinking or irrigation. Another problem is that water pollution
reduces the ecosystem services (such as providing drinking water) that the water
resource would otherwise provide[6].

1.6 Definition:

A practical definition of water pollution is: "Water pollution is the addition of

substances or energy forms that directly or indirectly alter the nature of the water body in
such a manner that negatively affects its legitimate uses". Water is typically referred to as
polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants. Due to these contaminants,
it either no longer supports a certain human use, such as drinking water, or undergoes a
marked shift in its ability to support its biotic communities, such as fish[7].

1.7 Contaminants with an origin in sewage

The following compounds can all reach water bodies via raw sewage or even treated
sewage discharges:

Various chem. ical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products.

Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water (whilst

these chemicals can be a pollutant in the water distribution network, they are
fairly volatile and therefore not usually found in environmental waters).

Hormones (from animal husbandry and residue from human hormonal

contraception methods) and synthetic materials such as phthalates that mimic
hormones in their action. These can have adverse impacts even at very low
concentrations on the natural biota and potentially on humans if the water is
treated and utilized for drinking water.

insecticides and herbicides, often from agricultural runoff.

If the water pollution stems from sewage (municipal wastewater), the main
pollutants are:

suspended solids, biodegradable organic matter, nutrients and pathogenic

(disease-causing)

organisms.
 Main representative Possible effect of the
Pollutant paramete pollutant
r

Aesthetic problems

Sludge deposits
Suspended
solids Total suspended solids

Pollutants adsorption

Protection of pathogens

Oxygen consumption

Biodegradable Biological oxygen

Death of fish

organic matter demand (BOD)

Septic conditions

Excessive algae growth

Toxicity to fish (ammonia)

Nitrogen Illnesses in new-born infants (Blue

Nutrients

Phosphorus

baby syndrome from nitrate)

Pollution of groundwater

Coliforms, such

Pathogens as E. coli Waterborne diseases

Helminth eggs[9]

Toxicity (various)

Foam (detergents)
Pesticide
Non- s

Reduction of oxygen transfer

biodegradable Some detergents

(detergents)

organic matter Others

Non-biodegradability
 Bad odors (e.g.: phenols)

Excessive salinity – harm to

dissolve
Total d plantations (irrigation)

Inorganic

solids Toxicity to plants (some ions)

dissolved solids

Conductivity Problems with soil

permeability (sodium)

Pollutants and their effects*[5-7]

1.8 Organic compounds

Organic substances that enter water bodies are often toxic.[13]: 229

Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel
oil) and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from oil spills or
storm water runoff[14]

Volatile organic compounds, such as improperly stored industrial solvents.

Problematic species are organochlorides such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs)
and trichloroethylene, a common solvent.

1.9 Inorganic contaminants

Inorganic water pollutants include for example:

Ammonia from food processing waste

Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban storm water runoff) and acid mine
drainage

Nitrates and phosphates, from sewage and agriculture (see nutrient pollution)

Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites or sewage, logging, slash and
burn practices or land clearing sites.

Salt: Freshwater salinization is the process of salty runoff contaminating

freshwater

ecosystems.[18] Human-induced salinization is termed as secondary salinization,

with the use of de-icing road salts as the most common form of runoff[8].

1.10 Solid waste and plastics

Solid waste can enter water bodies through untreated sewage, combined sewer
overflows, urban runoff, people discarding garbage into the environment, wind
carrying municipal solid waste from landfills and so forth. This results in
macroscopic pollution– large visible items polluting the water– but also
microplastics pollution that is not directly visible. The terms marine debris and
marine plastic pollution are used in the context of pollution of oceans.
 Microplastics persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in aquatic and
marine ecosystems, where they cause water pollution. 35% of all ocean
microplastics come from textiles/clothing, primarily due to the erosion of
polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing, often during the washing process.

Stormwater, untreated sewage and wind are the primary conduits for
microplastics from land to sea. Synthetic fabrics, tyres, and city dust are the most
common sources of microplastics. These three sources account for more than 80%
of all microplastic contamination[9].

1.11 Pollution from point Sources:

Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a
single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category
include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain.

sewage

Sewage typically consists of 99.9% water and 0.1% solids. Sewage contributes
many classes of nutrients that lead to eutrophication. It is a major source of phosphate for
example. Sewage is often contaminated with diverse compounds found in personal
hygiene, cosmetics, pharmaceutical drugs (see also drug pollution), and their

metabolites Water pollution due to environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants

can have wide-ranging consequences. When sewers overflow during storm events this
can lead to water pollution from untreated sewage. Such events are called sanitary sewer
overflows or combined sewer overflows[10].

Industrial wastewater

Industrial processes that use water also produce wastewater. This is called
industrial wastewater. Using the US as an example, the main industrial consumers of
water (using over 60% of the total consumption) are power plants, petroleum refineries,
iron and steel mills, pulp and paper mills, and food processing industries. Some industries
discharge chemical wastes, including solvents and heavy metals (which are toxic) and
other harmful pollutants.
Industrial wastewater could add the following pollutants to receiving water bodies if the
wastewater is not treated and managed properly:

Heavy metals, including mercury, lead, and chromium

Organic matter and nutrients such as food waste: Certain industries (e.g. food
processing, slaughterhouse waste, paper fibers, plant material, etc.) discharge high
concentrations of BOD, ammonia nitrogen and oil and grease.

Inorganic particles such as sand, grit, metal particles, rubber residues from tires,
ceramics, etc.;

Toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides, etc.

Pharmaceuticals, endocrine disrupting compounds, hormones, perfluorinated

compounds, siloxanes, drugs of abuse and other hazardous substances

Microplastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene beads, polyester and

polyamide

Thermal pollution from power stations and industrial manufacturers

Radionuclides from uranium mining, processing nuclear fuel, operating nuclear

reactors, or disposal of radioactive waste.

Some industrial discharges include persistent organic pollutants such as per- and
polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)[11].

Oil spills

This section is an excerpt from Oil spill.

An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment,
especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of
pollution. The term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into
the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be
due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and
wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline and diesel
fuel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel,
or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.[11]
1.12 Impacts:

Ecosystems

Water pollution is a major global environmental problem because it can result in

the degradation of all aquatic ecosystems – fresh, coastal, and ocean waters. The specific
contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals,
pathogens, and physical changes such as elevated temperature. While many of the
chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium,
iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration usually determines what is a natural component
of water and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally occurring
substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna. Oxygen-depleting
substances may be natural materials such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well as
human-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity
(cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish
species[12].

1.13 Public health and waterborne diseases

A study published in 2017 stated that "polluted water spread gastrointestinal

diseases and parasitic infections 1.8 million also referred to
and killed people" (these are as
waterbornediseases).Persistent exposure to pollutants through water are environmental

health hazards, which can increase the likelihood for one to develop cancer or other
diseases[13].

1.14 Eutrophication from nitrogen pollution

Nitrogen pollution can cause eutrophication, especially in lakes. Eutrophication is

an increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that
increases the primary productivity of the ecosystem. Subsequent negative environmental
effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may
occur. This can harm fish and other animal populations[14].

This section is an excerpt from

Eutrophication has been defined in a number of ways including "nutrient-induced
increase in phytoplankton productivity". "excessive plant growth resulting from nutrient
enrichment", and "explosive growth of microorganisms, to the extent that dissolved
oxygen is depleted"[15].

1.15 Ocean acidification

Ocean acidification is another impact of water pollution. Ocean acidification is

the ongoing decrease in the pH value of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere[15].

Sampling, Measurements and Analysis:

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods:

physical, chemical and biological. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without
sampling, such as temperature. Others involve collection of samples, followed by
specialized analytical tests in the laboratory.

Standardized, validated analytical test methods, for water and wastewater samples have
been published.

Common physical tests of water include temperature, Specific conductance or

electrical conductance (EC) or conductivity, solids concentrations (e.g., total suspended
solids (TSS)) and turbidity. Water samples may be examined using analytical chemistry
methods. Many published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic
compounds. Frequently used parameters that are quantified are pH, BOD,[71]: 102 chemical
oxygen demand (COD), dissolved oxygen (DO), total hardness, nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorus compounds, e.g. nitrate and orthophosphates), metals (including copper, zinc,
cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH),
surfactants and pesticides.

The use of a biomonitor or bioindicator is described as biological monitoring.

This refers to the measurement of specific properties of an organism to obtain
information on the surrounding physical and chemical environment.Biological testing
involves the use of plant, animal or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an
aquatic ecosystem. They are any biological species or group of species whose function,
population, or status can reveal what degree of ecosystem or environmental integrity is
present. One example of a group of bio-indicators are the copepods and other small water
crustaceans that are present in many water bodies. Such organisms can be monitored for
changes (biochemical, physiological, or behavioral) that may indicate a problem within
their ecosystem.

This section is an excerpt from Water quality § Sample collection.

The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of

measurements of water quality indicators. Some measurements of water quality are most
accurately made on-site, because water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings.
Measurements commonly made on-site and in direct contact with the water source in
question include temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, oxygen reduction
potential (ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk depth[16].

1.16 Water treatment :

Water treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it
appropriate for a specific end-use. The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply,
irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being
safely returned to the environment. Water treatment removes contaminants and
undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the water becomes fit for
its desired end-use. This treatment is crucial to human health and allows humans to
benefit from both drinking and irrigation use[17].

1.17 Types:

Drinking water treatment

Water contamination is primarily caused by the discharge of untreated wastewater

from enterprises. The effluent from various enterprises, which contains varying levels of
contaminants, is dumped into rivers or other water resources. The wastewater may have a
high proportion of organic and inorganic contaminants at the initial discharge. Industries
generate wastewater as a result of fabrication processes, processes dealing with paper and
pulp, textiles, chemicals, and from various streams such as cooling towers, boilers, and
production lines[18].
Treatment for drinking water production involves the removal of contaminants and/or
inactivation of any potentially harmful microbes from raw water to produce water that

is pure enough for human consumption without any short term or long term risk of any
adverse health effect. In general terms, the greatest microbial risks are associated with
ingestion of water that is contaminated with human or animal (including bird) faeces.
Faeces can be a source of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths. The
removal or destruction of microbial

pathogens is essential, and commonly involves the use of suchas suspended solids,
toremove bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi,and minerals including iron and manganese.
Research including Professor Linda Lawton's group at Robert Gordon University,
Aberdeen is working to improve detection of cyanobacteria[18].

1.18 Wastewater treatment

Wastewater treatment is a processwhich removes and eliminates

contaminants from wastewater and converts this into an effluent that can be returned to
the water cycle. Once returned to the water cycle, the effluent creates an acceptable
impact on the environment or is reused for various purposes (called water
reclamation)[3]. The treatment process takes place in a wastewater treatment plant. There
are several kinds of wastewater which are treated at the appropriate type of wastewater
treatment plant. For domestic wastewater (also called municipal wastewater or sewage),
the treatment plant is called a Sewage Treatment. For industrial wastewater, treatment
either takes place in a separate Industrial wastewater treatment, or in a sewage treatment
plant (usually after some form of pre-treatment). Further types of wastewater treatment
plants include Agricultural wastewater treatment and leachate treatment plants.
Processes commonly used in wastewater treatment include phase separation (such
as sedimentation), biological and chemical processes (such as oxidation) or polishing.
The main by-product from wastewater treatment plants is a type of sludge that is usually
treated in the same or another wastewater treatment plant[4]. Biogas can be another by-
product if anaerobic treatment processes are used. Treated wastewater can be reused as
reclaimed water. The main purpose of wastewater treatment is for the treated wastewater
to be able to be disposed or reused safely. However, before it is treated, the options for
disposal or reuse must be considered so the correct treatment process is used on the
wastewater. Bangladesh has officially inaugurated the largest single sewage treatment
plant (STP) in South Asia, located in the Khilgaon area of the city. With a capacity to
treat five million sewage per day, the STP marks a significant step towards addressing the
country's wastewater management challenges.The term "wastewater treatment" is often
used to mean "sewage treatment"[19].

1.19 Industrial water treatment

Water treatment is used to optimize most water-based industrial processes, such

as heating, cooling, processing, cleaning, and rinsing so that operating costs and risks are
reduced. Poor water treatment lets water interact with the surfaces of pipes and vessels
which contain it. Steam boilers can scale up or corrode, and these deposits will mean
more fuel is needed to heat the same amount of water. Cooling towers can also scale up
and corrode, but left untreated, the warm, dirty water they can contain will encourage
bacteria to grow, and Legionnaires' disease can be the fatal consequence. Water treatment
is also used to improve the quality of water contacting the manufactured product (e.g.,
semiconductors) and/or can be part of the product (e.g., beverages, pharmaceuticals). In
these instances, poor water treatment can cause defective products.

In many cases, effluent water from one process can be suitable for reuse in
another process if given suitable treatment. This can reduce costs by lowering charges for
water consumption, reduce the costs of effluent disposal because of reduced volume, and
lower energy costs due to the recovery of heat in recycled wastewater[20].

1.20 Process:

For the elimination of hazardous chemicals from the water, many treatment
procedures have been applied.
 The processes involved in removing the contaminants include physical processes
such as settling and filtration, chemical processes such as disinfection and coagulation,
and biological processes such as slow sand filtration.

A combination selected from the following processes (depending on the season

and contaminants and chemicals present in the raw water) is used for municipal drinking
water treatment worldwide[6].

1.21 Chemical

Tanks with sand filters to remove precipitated iron (not working at the time)

Different chemical procedures for the conversion into final products or the removal of
pollutants are used for the safe disposal of contaminants.[21]

Pre-chlorination for algae control and arresting biological growth.

Aeration along with pre-chlorination for removal of dissolved iron when present
with relatively small amounts of manganese.

Disinfection for killing bacteria, viruses and other pathogens, using chlorine,
ozone and ultra-violet light.
1.22 Physical

Physical techniques of water/waste water treatment rely on physical phenomena

to complete the removal process, rather than biological or chemical changes[21].

Most common physical techniques are:

Sedimentation is one of the most important main wastewater treatment

procedures. Gravity settling is a method of separating particles from a fluid. The
particle in suspension remains stable in quiescent conditions due to the decrease
in water velocity throughout the water treatment process, following which the
particles settle by gravitational force. For solids separation that is the removal of
suspended solids trapped in the floc.

Filtration is the technique of removing pollutants based on their particle size.

Pollutant removal from waste water permits water to be reused for a variety of
purposes. The types of filters used in the procedure differ depending on the
contaminants present in the water. Particle filtration and Membrane filtration are
the two main forms of waste water filtration.[13]

Dissolved air flotation (Degasification) is the process of removing dissolved gases

from a solution . Henry's law states that the amount of dissolved gas in a liquid is
proportionate to the partial pressure of the gas. Degasification is a low-cost
method of removing carbon dioxide gas from waste water that raises the pH of the
water by removing the gas.[10]

Deaerator is used to reduce oxygen and nitrogen in boiler feed water

applications[22].
1.23 Physico-chemical

Also referred to as "Conventional" Treatment

Coagulation for flocculation. The addition of coagulants destabilizes colloidal

suspensions by neutralizing their charges, resulting in the aggregation of smaller
particles during the coagulation process.

Coagulant aids, also known as polyelectrolytes – to improve coagulation and for

more robust floc formation.

Polyelectrolytes or also known in the field as polymers, usually consist of either a

positive or negative charge. The nature of the polyelectrolyte used is purely based
on the source water characteristics of the treatment plant.

These will usually be used in conjunction with a primary coagulant such as ferric
chloride, ferric sulfate, or alum.

Chemical precipitation is a common process used to reduce heavy metals

concentrations in wastewater. The dissolved metal ions are transformed to an
insoluble phase by a chemical interaction with a precipitant agent such as lime. In
industrial applications stronger alkalis may be used to effect complete
precipitation. In drinking water treatment, the common-ion effect is often used to
help reduce water hardness[23].

1.23 Membrane filtration

Membrane filtration has gotten a lot of attention for inorganic effluent treatment
since it can remove not only suspended solids and organic components, but also inorganic
pollutants such heavy metals. For heavy metal removal, several forms of membrane
filtration, such as ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis, can be used
depending on the particle size that can be maintained[23-24].

1.24 Ion exchange

Ion exchange is a reversible ion exchange process in which an insoluble substance

(resin) takes ions from an electrolytic solution and releases additional ions of the same
charge in a chemically comparable amount without changing the resin's structure[24-25].
Electrochemical treatment technique

Electrodialysis (ED)

Membrane electrolysis (ME)

Electrochemical precipitation (EP)

Adsorption

Adsorption is a mass transfer process in which a substance is transported from the

liquid phase to the surface of a solid/liquid (adsorbent) and becomes physically and
chemically bonded (adsorbate). Adsorption can be classified into two forms based on the
type of attraction between the adsorbate and the adsorbent: physical and chemical
adsorption, commonly known as physisorption and chemisorption’s.

Activated carbon

Activated carbons (ACs) or biological-activated carbon (BAC) are effective

adsorbents for a wide variety of contaminants. The adsorptive removal of color, aroma,
taste, and other harmful organics and inorganics from drinking water and wastewater is
one of their industrial applications.

Both a high surface area and a large pore size can improve the efficiency of
activated carbon. Activated carbon was utilized by a number of studies to remove heavy
metals and other types of contaminants from wastewater. The cost of activated carbon is
rising due to a shortage of commercial activated carbon (AC). Because of its high surface
area, porosity, and flexibility, activated carbon has a lot of potential in wastewater
treatment [26].

1.25 Biological

This is the method by which dissolved and suspended organic chemical

components are eliminated through biodegradation, in which an optimal amount of
microorganism is given to re-enact the same natural self-purification process[19]. Through
two distinct biological process, such as biological oxidation and biosynthesis,
microorganisms can degrade organic materials in wastewater. Microorganisms involved
in wastewater treatment produce end products such as minerals, carbon dioxide, and
ammonia during the biological oxidation process. The minerals (products) remained in
the wastewater and were discharged with the effluent. Microorganisms use organic
materials in wastewater to generate new microbial cells with dense biomass that is
eliminated by sedimentation throughout the biosynthesis process [27].

1.26 Elemental Chlorine-Free Processes

The focus on reduction in adsorbable organic halides (AOX) in bleach effluents

has promoted ECF and TCF bleaching processes. ECF bleaching is a chlorine-free
process in that no elemental (molecular) chlorine is used in the bleaching sequences.
Although the term ECF does not specify it, typically chlorine dioxide is the principal
bleaching agent for these processes. ECF pulp, bleached with chlorine dioxide, continues
to grow and is now dominating the world bleached chemical pulp market. Demand for
ECF increased dramatically over the last 2 decades. ECF market share continues to grow
in all pulp-producing regions. This trend will continue as all new production planned in
all producing regions will incorporate ECF bleaching.

In North America, ECF production represents 96% of bleached chemical pulp

production. Other regions are well on their way to replacing pulps bleached with
molecular chlorine with ECF. This trend is expected to continue as new mills planned in
Germany, Chile, Brazil, and Asia incorporate ECF bleaching. The worldwide growth in
ECF is increasing, while TCF production has not increased substantially since 1995. The
amount of pulp produced in ECF sequences is more than 10 times the amount produced
in TCF sequences. Both ECF and TCF processes are expected to yield less pulp per ton
of wood fibers than conventionally bleached pulp because the use of increased number of
bleach/wash stages result in greater fiber loss. TCF, which has the most protracted
bleached cycle, has the lowest yield. Industry opinion is divided as to the relative merits
of ECF and TCF processes.

Field studies, research and chemical analysis over the last 2 decades, have shown
that treated wastewater from well-managed pulp and paper mills using ECF bleaching is
virtually free of dioxin and persistent bioaccumulative toxic substances. The remaining
chlorine containing organic substances resulting from ECF bleaching have a composition
similar to those found in nature, degrade naturally, and do not persist in the environment.
They present a negligible environmental risk to aquatic ecosystems. This research has
been confirmed in ecosystem simulations comparing wastewaters from ECF bleaching
with other nonchlorine bleaching concepts, including TCF. These investigations have
reached a common conclusion. Studies comparing ECF and TCF effluents confirmed the
absence of significant differences in biological effects in the aquatic environment[28].

1.27 Elemental Chlorine-Free Processes

sludge thickening and dewatering (STD) processes were applied in most

wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to reduce water content in sludge to below 80%
for landfill disposal during the past 20 years. This value was further reduced to 60%
according to the requirement of the newest standard for Pollution Control on the Landfill
Site of Municipal Solids Waste (GB 18918- 2008). Therefore, a stabilization process
using lime (CaO) and ferric chloride (FeCl3) for conditioning, more commonly known as
advanced sludge dewatering (ASD) process, was widely used in municipal WWTPs in
China . Since the first ASD project introduced to China in 2006, there had been 37 ASD
projects by 2013. The ASD process generated a large amount of dewatered sludge rich in
alkaline agents, and alkaline advanced dewatering reject water (ADRW). The alkaline
ADRW contains high concentration of soluble substances and calcium ion (Ca2+) owing
to the addition of lime. Recycling such a stream to the beginning of the treatment process
would considerably increase pollutants load and inhibit biomass activity. While the reuse
of stabilized sludge had gained widely attention in recent years , few studies focused on
the characterization and treatment of ADRW. Considering the high pH and Ca2+
concentration in the ADRW, we propose to use ADRW as a Ca2+ source for the
treatment of reject water from sludge thickening and dewatering process. The thickening
and dewatering reject water (TDRW) contributed to 10–50% of nitrogen load and 10–
80% of phosphorus (P) load although its flow rate was less than 5% of the total influent
flow rate . Chemical phosphorus removal using precipitants, such as aluminum, iron and
magnesium , were applied in reject water treatment. But the cost for precipitants was the
most significant operational expense associated with this approach. Therefore, some
cheap sources were suggested for chemical P removal, including by-product of
magnesium oxide production , seawater NF concentrate aluminum sludge and iron rich
sludge from drinking water treatment, iron ore etc[29].

1.28 Membrane distillation:

Desalination is a dynamic process, which uses more energy as compared to other

water treatment options, and thus remains an expensive alternative due to rising energy
prices and logistic supply problems in remote and island communities. To overcome the
limitation of energy cost in desalination processes, low-grade heat sources (below 100
◦C) can offer an excellent prospect. However, harnessing low-grade heat energy is
challenging because of current technology limitations. Extracting energy from sources
with variable heat input and small temperature differential from the environment is
theoretically difficult as per the second law of thermodynamics . This review focuses on
one of the major desalination technologies, i. e., the Membrane Distillation (MD) process
utilizing low-grade heat energy. State-of-the-art review articles dealing with the
integration of absolute low-grade heat sources with the MD process are limited to solar
energy only. Available reviews in the literature on MD process, deal membranes
chemistry , pore wetting/hydrophobicity , modelling or MD plant installation . Few
reviews discussing the water-energy nexus focus more on a single energy source such as
renewable energy sources . Recent reviews on MD revealed designing of MD membranes
, fouling in MD , wastewater recovery , oil wastewater treatment . In addition, no review
article regarding MD process utilizing different energy sources for desalination is
available. In this review, the suitability of the MD process for different types of low-
grade heat sources (solar energy, geothermal energy and waste heat from ships, industries
and power stations and secondary heat sources such as those derived by the
transformation of primary sources like crude oil, natural gas, wind, biomass
hydroelectricity, etc.) is examined [29].

1.29 graphene oxide membranes:

Natural organic matter (NOM) is ubiquitous in raw water that reaches water
treatment plants. Many water authorities have reported an increase in periods where
coagulant and filter media are less effective for the removal of natural organic matter
(NOM) and finely dispersed solids (turbidity). Changes in the complexity of natural
organic matter (NOM) in Sydney's catchments have impacted the performance of direct
filtration plants, resulting in reduced treatment capacity. The Nepean Water Filtration
plant in Western Sydney has reduced its capacity by around 40% after some heavy rain
events that increase NOMs in the raw water. The length of time with reduced water
produced is unpredictable and can last many weeks. Failure to successfully control the
NOM issue could result in highly expensive to the treatment processes at Sydney's Water
filtration plants in the next decade. Hence the need to identify new alternatives can
potentially be converted into technologies to be retrofitted to existing water filtration
plants. Graphene oxide is a new material that is being widely researched to establish
potential industrial applications . Graphene oxide is a compound of carbon, oxygen, and
hydrogen in a variable ratio that mainly depends on the synthesis procedure . It can be
prepared from graphite by introducing oxygenated functionalities using oxidizing agents .
These functionalities expand the layer separation between two stacked layers and make
the material hydrophilic. Although pristine graphene, a monoatomic layer of carbon
atoms is completely impermeable to any gases or solutions, graphene oxide exhibits
highly selective permeability to water molecules and has thus shown potential for
applications in filtration material . The advantage of graphene oxide-based membranes is
that it can be prepared as laminates from stacks of graphene oxide monoflake using a
very simple and cost-effective method. In the laminated form, graphene oxide layers are
stacked together (which is also known as graphene oxide paper ) with an interlayer
distance of ~0.86 nm which is the path for mass transport of ions using it as a filtration
membrane . Based on the reported graphene oxide membrane characteristics, it appears
that graphene oxide can offer 100% rejection for any species of a size equivalent to
NOMs[30].

1.30 Electrodialytic treatment:

Even with strict regulations on chemical waste disposal in Denmark and many
western countries, not to mention the general disregard of waste separation in developing
countries, organic and inorganic contaminants can severely pollute sewage sludge . This
can negatively affect biological treatment but also makes distribution or recycling of the
available nutrients in the sewage sludge problematic. Instead of being used in agriculture,
the polluted sewage sludge has to be disposed of in an alternative manner, for example
through thermal treatment or disposal in landfill sites . Although incineration can remove
most organic contaminants many of the inorganic contaminants, in the form of heavy
metals, remain present in the resulting sewage sludge ash (SSA) . Elektrokinetic
remediation has been studied extensively for the remediation of heavy metal polluted
media such as soils, sediments and (industrial) waste-streams , where remediation of
municipal sewage sludge has mostly been studied for dewatered, an aerobically digested
sludge . Although these studies consider the effect of pH on HM removal, they do not
explore the treatment of raw sludge as obtained directly from the wastewater treatment
plant (WWTP). The studies generally do not consider changes in the sludge during
wastewater treatment either, such as changes in organic matter (OM) content and pH, and
additional biological processes which could potentially increase/reduce HM mobility and
EK remediation efficiency [31].

1.31 photocatalysis and biological treatment for elemental chlorine free bleaching
wastewater

Among the traditional treatment methods for ECF bleaching wastewater, the
physical and chemical methods (flocculation, precipitation, and ion exchange) suffer
from high loss rate due to difficult regeneration and the biological methods (aerobic and
anaerobic) have certain limitations on the refractory organic pollution; thus, they cannot
effectively reduce the impact of wastewater on the environment. Consequently, various
advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been developed, including ozone oxidation ,
ozone combined with ultraviolet , TiO2 combined with ultraviolet/visible light and photo-
Fenton . AOPs exhibit good COD and AOX removal effect on ECF bleaching
wastewater, but the free radicals afforded can easily over oxidize organic matters, thus
increasing the oxidant costs.
Subsequently, the AOP and microbial sequence treatment method was proposed, i.e.,
wastewater was pretreated by AOP and then degraded by a microorganism. However, due
to the nonselectivity of AOP reactions, sequential processing is not easy to implement in
practical applications and the processing time is long . The problem of sequential
processing can be overcome if AOP and biodegradation simultaneously occur via a
tightly coupled process. arsolek et al. (2008) first proposed the intimate coupling
photocatalysis and biodegradation (ICPB) technology, which was successfully applied to
the degradation of 2,4,5-trichlorophenol. Thereafter, the system has been widely used in
the degradation of tetracycline , amoxicillin , phenolic compounds , and reactive dyes ,
and it has exhibited good degradation effect[32].

TNPL, KAGITHAPURAM, KARUR

TNPL was commissioned in 1985 with an installed capacity of 90,000 TPA of

Newsprint and Fine paper. Over the years, the Unit is now equipped with state-of-the-art
automation in all three modern high-speed paper machines, producing over 400,000 TPA,
making TNPL one of the prominent bagasse-based paper manufacturers across the globe.

As one of the integrated pulp and bagasse-based paper mills in the world, our
products are an extension of our commitment to sustainability – in production, innovation
and conservation. TNPL embraces self-sustenance in power generation and pulp –
sugarcane residue and chemical hardwood, producing 600,000 tonne paper and
Packaging Boards per annum.
 Fig.: TNPL, Kagithapuram, Karur

Established in Kagithapuram in October 1985, TNPL is one of the most eco-

friendly paper mills in the country. From raw materials to production and beyond, TNPL
gives precedence to conservation – of both resources and the environment.

Besides 3 state-of-the-art paper machines and a World Class Packaging Board

Machine, TNPL set up a Deinking Pulp Line dedicated to recycling waste paper. TNPL
earns its world-class paper quality renown, thanks to our investment in revolutionary
infrastructure. By recycling its effluents to create bio-gas, cement and reusable water,
TNPL closes the loop creating a circular economy.
 Fig.4: TNPL, Paper Unit

Valmet Auto Paper Lab

One of the most advanced and fully-automated paper testing machines, this helps
test,recognise discrepancies and file reports in record time.

Voith Deinking Floatation Cell

Brightens recycled papers through a procedure that enables selective removal of

printingink, stickies and hydrophobic impurities.

Horiba Laser Particle Size Analyser

A laser-based particle analyzer that characterises and analyses particles with high
precision to help our research team innovate better.

L&W Horizontal Tensile Tester

Dedicated to quality testing, this Sweden-made tensile tester determines the strength,
length, bond and serviceability of every product manufactured.
Metso Fibre Analyser FS 300

Helps determine and retain only high-quality raw materials by measuring eucalyptus and
acacia hardwood pulps for fiber length, width, and kink and vessel cells.

Gas Chromatograph

India’s only paper mill with this chromatograph, it evaluates the chemical components in
biogas and the purity of methane gas.

PRODUCTS

Our papers are not just a sustainable but a visual treat, too. Environment-positive,
with ECF bleaching and low Green House Gases (GHG) contribution, and versatile,
discover papers that don’t just feel and look good, but do good too.

TNPL Radiant Platinum TNPL Print Fine TNPL Printer’s Choice

TNPL Ace Marvel is ideal for Base paper for surface coating, Carbonless Paper,
andSublimation Paper.

TNPL Radiant Stationary is ideal for Student Notebooks, Textbooks, Examination

Papers, Brochures, Leaflets and other Commercial Grade Prints

TNPL Radiant Platinum is ideal for High-End Four-Color Printing, High Definition
Textbooks, Deluxe Notebooks, and also for Calendars and Computer Stationery.

TNPL Printer’s Choice is ideal for Sheet Offset Printing Applications like Magazines,
Brochures, Letterheads, and other Commercial Printing Jobs.

TNPL Print Fine is ideal for High Definition Textbooks and other High-End Printing
Applications.

INDIA’S LARGEST PAPER MILL WITH LOWEST WATER USAGE

In a bid to positively impact the environment, TNPL practices water conservation

with a vision to reduce any dependency on freshwater. With an advanced water treatment
plant, recycled wastewater is now fit to irrigate the 575-acre Plantation.

Fig.5: TNPL, Paper Packing Unit

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

P. Vasisthaand and R. Ganguly have described the quality of lake water using
various physicochemical and biological parameters selected on the Designated Best Use
(DBU) of the water body (lake) for various purposes. The Water quality of these
impurities are determined using different indices like Heavy Metal Index, eutrophication
potential and other associated indices system. The determination of existing properties
helps in determination of future trends of such pollutants and thereby the quality of the
lake water in future scenario. Different modeling techniques are used for prediction of
futuristic changes in lake water quality including watershed models, ground water models
and lake models.

P.K. Raji and M.K. Abraham have studied physicochemical, biological

parameters of the six major lakes. Water samples from the lakes were collected and
analysis was carried out on the parameters such as pH, Total Hardness, Biological
Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Total Nitrogen, Total Phosphorus, and E
coli. The ranges of various parameters obtained are pH (6-8.7), BOD (9-34 mg/L), COD
(13-102 mg/L) and TP (0.02-0.162 mg/L), TN (0.4-2.4 mg/L), TDS (386-2280 mg/L),
and E coli (34-900, N/100 ml) for the various lakes under study. An assessment of lake
water quality was done for domestic use by water quality index (WQI) also. The studies
reveal that some analytical aspects are higher than the prescribed limit by the WHO and
BIS standard. This analytical study would enhance the socio eco features of these water
bodies by implementing utility-based restoration and development programmes.

R.R. Pant et al have explained a total of 18 water samples were collected and
major physicochemical parameters were analyzed: pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total
dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD),
nitrate nitrogen (NO3N), phosphate- phosphorus (PO4-P), ammonia, chloride, free CO2
and total hardness (TH). The results revealed that the water of both lakes were relatively
pure with very less TDS as compared to other lakes considered for the comparison with
this study. However, the concentrations of CO2 and phosphates were found to be higher
than WHO guidelines for drinking water and also indicated the problem of rapid
eutrophication in both of the lakes. Thus, the higher concentrations of organic pollutants
and the rapid eutrophication process could be the serious threats should be considered by
the concerned authorities for the sustainability of the lakes in future.

S.K. Prasad and K.M. Kani have described it supports around 43 mangrove
species, 57 bird species, 97 species of fishes. Coconut husk retting, fishing, inland
navigation and a fishing harbour at the economic benefits provided by this lake. It is
getting polluted day by day due to offshore activities like wastes from hotels, agricultural
activities, farms and wastes from municipal waste disposal site. The case study describes
extend of water pollution lake and also suggest the measures to mitigate pollution. The
detailed physicochemical examinations are assessed for four months (December 2016 to
March 2017) and NSFWQI value of Lake is finally calculated as 27.5 describes as bad
quality of water.

S. Chaurasia and A. Nighojkar have studied integrated effect of various

parameters considering due to concentration of parameter and its significance by a single
number for particular use of water. WQI thus provides meaningful information about
water quality to general public and policy maker also present work deals with the various
physico, chemical and bacteriological parameters of lake water. The results obtain will
compared with the guidelines governed by Bureau of Indian Standards and World Health
Organization. All these results would be helpful to improve the quality of lake water in
future and it indicates the suitability of water for industrial, domestic and agriculture
purposes.

J. Rücker et al have explained the ecological status of 183 lakes. Long-term data
of two typical lakes and nutrient load from the common catchment were investigated.
About 64% – 83% of stratified and even 96% of polymictic shallow lakes currently fail
the WFD aims. Excessive nutrient emissions from agriculture were identified as the main
cause of this failure. While stratified deep lakes with small catchments have the best
chances of recovery, the deficits in catchment management are amplified downstream in
lake chains, so that especially shallow lakes in a large catchment are unlikely to reach
good ecological conditions. If the objectives of the WFD are not questioned, agricultural
practices and approaches in land use have to be fundamentally improved.
 M. Sojka et al have described the lakes have different morphometric parameters,
represent different hydrological types, trophic types and thermal regimes .which has been
included in the Polish Red Data Book of Plants. The chemical analysis included 55
parameters, within macro elements (MEs), trace elements (TEs) and rare earth elements
(REEs). Concentrations of MEs, TEs and REEs confirm the absence of anthropogenic
pressure. High variation of ME, TE and REE contents between individual lakes is due to
different geological structure. The cluster analysis enabled lakes to be divided into six
groups taking into account all analyzed water quality parameters. The lakes were
characterized by the lowest concentrations of MEs and REEs, which mainly result from
the small catchment area and their mainly endorheic character. The highest variability of
MEs, TEs and REEs occurred in lake, where the geological structure was dominant. The
lowest variability of MEs, TEs and REEs occurred in the lakes. The analysis of MEs, TEs
and REEs in relation to the environmental factors and trophic, hydrologic and thermal
typology allowed a better understanding of their spatial distribution in the lakes. The
obtained results indicate that the values of the studied elements were generally close to
the average values noted in surface waters according to the Geochemical Atlas of Europe.

B. Pant et al have studied physiochemical parameters of the surface water was

performed for a year The range of physical properties, i.e. water temperature,
transparency, electric conductivity and turbidity during the study period was 11.5 to
27.5°C, 235-332 cm, 170-185.5 μS/cm and 21-38.9 NTU respectively. Chemical
parameters like pH, dissolved oxygen, free CO2, total alkalinity, nitrate and phosphate
levels were found to be in the range of 7.4-8.7, 6.9-9 mg/L, 0-18.7 mg/L, 75-95 mg/L,
0.3-0.5 mg/L and 0.01-0.03 mg/L during the investigation period. The results indicate
that the water is fit for recreational and domestic use but the human activities must be
regulated near the lake to ensure long term utilization and preserving beauty of this lake.

A. Kistan et al have explained the Physico-chemical parameters, such colour, pH,

odour, Biological oxygen demand (BOD), Chemical oxygen demand (COD), Calcium,
Hardness, Alkalinity, chloride, Nitrate and magnesium were studied. The results obtained
showed a fluctuation in this parameter’s which gave an idea about the intensity of
pollution caused by industrial which is largest area in Asia and also manmade activities.
In the present study revealed that the lake water was alkaline. The chloride and hardness
concentrations were high. The water quality was found to be hard which was due to
excess of calcium and magnesium ions present in lake water in excess quantity. Every
parameter showed a significant correlation with increased lake water pollution. The
determined physico-chemical parameters were compared with the BIS and ICMR
standards for the drinking water to know about the quality of the groundwater.

H.K. Sharma and R.K. Singh have described state of the lake’s water quality, the
samples were compared with the standard water quality values. Turbidity, electrical
conductivity, total alkalinity, and heavy metal (lead, iron, and copper) concentration were
found to be above the desirable limit of the prescribed national and international
standards in all four seasons at both Mallital and Tallital. Reasons affecting the water
quality were found to be natural (thermal stratification and lead-bearing rocks) and
anthropogenic (domestic sewage, runoff, and illegal construction activities in the vicinity
of lake). Various lake restoration alternatives/interventions have been suggested that can
lead to an improvement in the lake’s water quality, such as afforestation and
phytoremediation.

G. Nirbhavane and K. Khobragade have explained water from lake collected

during Apr 2012 to July 2012 and analyzed for five parameters for seasonal variation.
During study it was observed that water quality of Lake is polluted by domestic sewage
from the intensively urbanized catchment. Lake is extensively used for washing, bathing
activities, and for conducting religious rituals, idol immersion which shows
eutrophication problem; hence the study was done to find out the quality of water for
various physico-chemical parameters. Lake is found to be more organically polluted and
greater degree of eutrophication was observed. The present paper describes details of
human impact on lake and suggests some measures for restoration of this important
resource.

E. Khwairakpam et al have studied application of a multifaceted physically based

two dimensional (2D) hydrodynamic model to simulate the transport phenomena of lake,
including the water quality of Lake, for which there is consensus that it is deteriorating
due to river discharge from sub-catchments carrying sewage loads, soil sediments and
agricultural fertilizers, and therefore, has emerged as a serious environmental concern.
Accordingly, the study attempts to understand the overall environmental quality of the
system and in particular simulate lake water quality (state) variables by coupling through
MIKE 21 ECO Lab. The model simulated dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen
demand throughout the lake.

A. Piranti et al have explained water quality based on regulation and to assess

water quality based on international regulations. The quality of water was assessed using
a survey method in 7 sites of the Lake 3 times for 3 months. Parameters measured were
all the water quality parameters required in accordance with Government Regulation No.
82 of 2001. The results indicated that there were 13 values that exceeded the water
quality standard of first grade. These exceeded parameters were total suspended solids
(TSS), biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD),
orthophosphate (PO4), NO3, As, Se, Cd, Mn, Cu, Pb, H2S, faecal coliform, and total
coliform. Water quality status of Lake was categorized as heavily polluted. The water
quality of Lake should be improved by reducing the pollutants entering the lake by
restriction of human activities causing lake pollution.

A.H. Motlagh et al have described certain aspects of ecology of algae and

physicochemical characteristics of water with reference to water quality in lake. The lake
provides a wide scope of identification of algal diversity existing in it. The lake is an
important source of water for zoological park and, it is essential to assess the quality of
water. The analysis of the physicochemical characteristics indicates that the water is
alkaline, and carbonates were recorded in high concentration. The dissolved oxygen is
present in very low concentration, and organic matter, chlorides, phosphates and total
hardness were present in high concentrations in the lake. The phytoplankton is dominated
by Chlorophyceae. The species Chlorella, Scenedesmus, Crucigenia, Pandorina, Euglena,
Phacus and Trachelomonas were dominant, and can be used as good indicators of water
quality and pollution.

P. Chaudhry et al have studied the water quality index of the lake water and its
dependence on catchment characteristics has been studied. By using the National
Sanitation
Foundation, Water Quality Index (NSFWQI) and Overall Index of Pollution (OIP), the
results of the water quality assessment have found the lake water as having ‘good’ and
‘acceptable’ quality respectively based on past seven years’ data. During the last few
years, construction activities in the catchment area have speeded up and a few invasive
alien plant species have come up in the lake. Inflow of untreated domestic wastewater
from nearby villages in the catchment, particularly during the rainy season, seems to be
the main reason for the weed problem in the lake. Strict enforcement of ban on new
construction activities and preventing the release of untreated domestic waste water from
the villages located in the catchment are the absolute necessary steps for maintaining and
improving the lake water quality.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
 3. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

SEPARATION OF ACCEPTED AND REJECTED WATER FROM EFFLUENT

WATER

Raw Water Tank

The effluent sample is inlet to the tank where the polyelectrolyte is added to it. The
electrolysis process is occurred in the tank due to the addition of the polyelectrolyte. The
effluent water is dissociated into positive and negative ions and deposited in the tank. The
undesired impurities are removed from the effluent water as deposits. The process is
called as agglomeration. Nearly, 50 % of the impurities are removed in this process.
Now, the remaining water is passed through the feed pump.

Sand Filter

The water came out from the feed pump is passed through the sand filter in which the
impurities of 40 microns sized particles could be removed.

Cartridge Filter

The water from the sand filter is passed through the cartridge filter in which the
impurities of 10 to 40 microns sized particles could be removed.

Pressure Pump

The water is passed through the pipe with high pressure due to this pressure pump.
This pump can increase the pressure of the water flow.

Around 185 polymembrane circular disc are placed one above one in this
compartments. Now, the pressure is increased the remaining impurities of less than 10
microns are removed. The outlet water is called as accepted water and the removed water
is called as rejected water.
 These effluent/feed water, accepted water and rejected water can be analyzed
qualitatively based on the water quality parameters.

QUALITATIVE SCREENIG METHODS

pH

Measure the pH of the effluent using pH meter after stirring sample well.

COLOUR

Apparatus & Reagents

1. Standard Platinum-Cobalt colour solution from 25 ppm to 70 ppm: Dissolve 1.246 g

Potassium hexachloro platinate and 1 g of Cobaltous chloride in 100 mL of con.
Hydrochloric acid and make up to 1 litre with Distilled water. This solution is of 500
Pt. Co units. Dilute accordingly to get the above required ranges.

2. Nessler tube.

3. 10 mL graduated pipette.

Measurement of Colour

Take 50 mL of sample (filtered through Whatmann 3 filter paper) in a Nessler

tube. Match the colour of the sample with the Std. colour solution. If colour exceeds the
range of standard colour solutions, dilute known volume of the sample with DM water to
50 mL and match with the standard.

Calculate the colour of effluent as,

Colour, Pt. Co units = (Ax50) / B

Where,

A=colour of the matching

standard. B= mL of

sample taken for dilution.

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS, TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLID (INORGANIC):

Apparatus

1. Funnel.

2. 100 mL conical flask.

3. 50 mL measuring cylinder.

4. 100 mL beaker.

5. Hot plate & Oven.

6. Balance to weight 1 mg.

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

Take 50 mL of the filtered sample (filtered through Whatmann No.3 filter paper)
in a previously weighed at 105+2°C (W3 g) and dry it for 2-3 hours, cool and weigh (W4
g).

Total Dissolved Solids, ppm = (W4-W3) x 20 x 1000.

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (INORGANIC)

Take 50 mL of the filtered sample (filtered through Whatmann No.3 filter paper),
in a previously weighed 100 mL silica dish (W5 g). Evaporate to 10 mL a hot plate. Dry
the beaker in an oven maintained at 105±2 °C. Then ignite the contents of the silica dish
at 550°C for 45-60 minutes, cool and weigh (W6 g).

Total Dissolved solids (inorganics), ppm = (W6-W5) x 20 x 1000

DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)

Apparatus & Reagents

1. BOD bottle 300 mL

2. Manganous sulphate solution

3. Alkaline Iodide solution

 4. Conc. Sulphuric acid

5. 0.025 N Sodium thio sulphate

6. Starch indicator.

Fill the sample in BOD bottles without any air bubbles.

Add 2 ml Manganous sulphate and 2 mL Alkaline iodide solution, placing the tip
of the pipette just below the liquid surface so as to avoid entering of air.

Fix stopper and mix by inversion.

Allow the precipitate to settle and again mix by inversion.

Allow the precipitate to settle. Then add 2 mL con. Sulphuric acid stopper and
mix inversion.

Measure 200 mL of this solution and titrate against 0.025 N Sodium thiosulphate
usingstarch indicator.

Dissolved oxygen, mg/L=Volume of thio consumed

BIO CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD at 20 °C)

Apparatus & Reagents

1. BOD bottles 300 mL.

2. Incubator to maintain 20±1 °C. Ferric chloride solution (0.25 g/l).

3. Calcium chloride solution (27.5 g/l).

4. Magnesium sulphate solution (22.5 g/l).

5. Phosphate buffer solution: Dissolve 8.5 g Potassium dihydrogenphosphate,

21.75 g Dipotassium hydrogenphosphate, 33.4 g Disodium hydrogenphosphate, 1.7 g

Ammonium chloride in 500 ml and dilute to one litre with DM water.

6. 1 N Sulphuric acid.

7. 1 N Sodium hydroxide.
8. Starch indicator.

9. Alkaline iodide solution: Dissolve 500 g Sodium hydroxide and 150 g Potassium
iodide in water and dilute to 950 mL. Cool to room temperature and add slowly with
constant stirring, a solution of 10 g of Sodium azide in 40 mL of DM water. Dilute to
one litre.

10. Manganous sulphate solution: Dissolve 480 g of MnSO4.4H2O in DM water, filter

and dilute to one litre.

11. Std. 0.025 N Sodium thiosulphate solution.

12. Seeding material (Domestic sewage water / Final treated effluent water).

13. Conc. Sulphuric acid.

14. Conc. Sulphuric acid.

Preparation of Standard Dilution Water

Add 15 mL each of Ferric chloride, Calcium Chloride, Magnesium sulphate, and

Phosphate buffer to 15 liters of DM water previously aerated for at least two hours.

Seeding of Dilution Water

Domestic waste water which has been stored at 20°C is used. Use sufficient seed
to produce a depletion of Oxygen at least 1 mg/litre. If micro-organisms are already
present in the sample (e.g. domestic waste water, surface water or unchlorinated water)
seeding is not necessary. Adapted seed is obtained from the effluent of a biological
treatment plant. (Final outlet / Secondary clarifier outlet).

Sample Pretreatment

The sample to be tested for BOD shall be neutralized to pH 7 using dilute

Hydrochloric acid or dilute Sodium hydroxide.

Chlorine or residual chlorine compounds interfere with BOD test. Test a portion
of the sample for residual chlorine using Starch-KI solution. Chlorine residuals in
neutralized samples must be destroyed by adding equivalent amount of sodium sulphite.
BOD Determination

If BOD exceeds the dissolved Oxygen content, dilution is required. Check

dissolved oxygen for the sample initially (D1). The dilution should be such that dissolved
oxygen after incubation for five days at 20°C, is in the range of 40%-60% of the initial
dissolved oxygen content of dilution sample.

Based on the COD of the sample and the BOD:COD ratio, assume the BOD of the
Calculate two % dilutions for the sample as sample.

Dilutions (I), %=300/ assumed BOD and

Dilutions (II), %=450/ assumed BOD

Fill two BOD bottles for each dilution. Determine the initial Dissolved oxygen for
each dilution in one of the two BOD bottles filled before incubation (D1).

Incubate the other bottle for five days at 20±2 °C. Find out final Dissolved
oxygen after 5 days (D2). Check the Dissolved oxygen incubation. Calculate the of the
dilution water (seeded/unseeded) before (BI) and after (B2) BOD5 of sample as,

BOD ppm {(D1-D2) - (B1-B2)} / P

Where,

D1 = Initial Dissolved oxygen of the dilution sample.

D2 = Dissolved oxygen of the sample after days incubation.

B1 = Initial Dissolved oxygen of seeded / in seeded dilution water.

B2 = Dissolved oxygen of seeded / unseeded dilution water after 3 days incubation.P = %

dilution of sample.

CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

Apparatus & Reagents

1. Reflux apparatus.

2. Hot plate.
 3. Std. 0.25 N Potassium dichromate.

4. Reagent grade Con. Sulphuric acid.

5. Reagent grade Mercuric sulphate.

6. Reagent grade Silver sulphate.

7. Ferroin indicator.

8. Std. 0.1N Ferrous ammonium sulphate (FAS).

9. Pipette out 20 mL of sample in to a 250 mL round bottom flask / boiling tube of

Kjelopous COD digestion apparatus. (If COD is high, use less volume of sample
and dilute to 20 mL with DM water).

10. Pipette out 10 mL of Std. 0.25N Potassium dichromate solution. Add 1 g of

Mercuric sulphate and 1 g of Silver sulphate.

11. Add some glass beads to avoid bumping.

12. Add 30 mL Con. Sulphuric acid in small portions with continuous swirling of the
flask.

Mix the contents of the flask thoroughly.

13. Reflux the contents of the flask for 2 hours. Cool to room temperature and dilute
to 200 ml with DM water.

14. Add 2-3 drops Ferroin indicator and titrate against Std 0.1 N Ferrous ammonium
sulphate.

15. The endpoint is the change of colour from emerald green to reddish brown.

16. Carryout blank using 20 mL DM water instead of sample under the same
conditions.

Calculate the COD as,

COD, ppm = {(A-B) x N x 8000}/ Volume of sample taken

Where,

A = ml of FAS used in blank titration.

 Pipette out 20 mL of sample in to a 250 mL round bottom flask / boiling tube of
Kjelopous COD digestion apparatus. (If COD is high, use less volume of sample
and dilute to 20 mL with DM water).

Pipette out 10 mL of Std. 0.25N Potassium dichromate solution. Add 1 g of

Mercuric sulphate and 1 g of Silver sulphate.

Add some glass beads to avoid bumping.

Add 30 mL Con. Sulphuric acid in small portions with continuous swirling of the
flask.

Mix the contents of the flask thoroughly.

Reflux the contents of the flask for 2 hours. Cool to room temperature and dilute
to 200 ml with DM water.

Add 2-3 drops Ferroin indicator and titrate against Std 0.1 N Ferrous ammonium
sulphate.

The endpoint is the change of colour from emerald green to reddish brown.

Carryout blank using 20 mL DM water instead of sample under the same

conditions.

Calculate the COD as,

COD, ppm = {(A-B) x N x 8000}/ Volume of sample taken

Where,

A = ml of FAS used in blank titration.

B = ml of FAS used in sample titration.

N = Normality of FAS.

Total Hardness

Pipette out 25 mL of the sample, add 5 mL of Ammonia buffer and 4-5 drops of
EBT indicator. Titrate against Std. 0.02 N EDTA. End point is the colour change from
wine red to blue.
Calcium

Pipette out 25 mL of the sample, add 5 mL of 8 N Potassium hydroxide and 0.5 g

of Patton and Reeders indicator. Titrate against Std. 0.02N EDTA. End point is the colour
change from red to blue.

Calcium as CaCO3, ppm = TV x 40

Magnesium as CaCO3, ppm= Total hardness –

Calcium

PERCENT SODIUM

Apparatus & Regents

1. Flame photometer.

2. 50 ml glass beakers.

3. Stock sodium solution (100 ppm as Na)

Dissolve 2.5413 g of Sodium chloride (dried at 105+2 °C) in DM water

and dilute to 1000 mL in a volumetric flask. From this stock solution prepare
standards of 10 to 100 ppm Sodium solutions to prepare calibration curve.

4. Stock Potassium solution (1000 ppm as K)

Dissolve 1.9067 g Potassium chloride (dried at 105+2 °C) in DM water

and dilute to 1000 mL in a volumetric flask. From this stock solution. prepare
standards of 10 to 100 ppmPotassium solutions to prepare calibration curve.

Preparation of Calibration Curve

Start the flame photometer as per instruction manual. Select Sodium filter,
aspirate DM water and set Zero using Blank knob. Aspirate different standard
Sodium solutions ranging from 100 to 10 ppm, setting 100 ppm to read signal as
100 in Flame photometer using coarse and fine setting knobs. Plot the signals in Y
axis versus Sodium ppm in X axis. Follow similar procedure for Potassium
calibration curve after selecting Potassium filter.
TOTAL RESIDUAL CHLORINE

Apparatus and Reagents

1. 50mL burette.

2. 100 mL measuring cylinder.

3. 250 mL conical flask.

4. 10% Potassium Iodide.

5. 0.025N Sodium thiosulfate.

6. Starch indicator.

7. 20% Acetic acid.

8. Sodium acetate.

Measure 200 mL of effluent sample in 500 mL conical flask. Add about 0.5 g of
Sodium acetate followed by 10 mL of Acetic acid to get a pH of 4 -5. Add 10 mL of 10%
Potassium iodide and titrate immediately the liberated Iodine against 0.025 N Sodium
thiosulfate using starch indicator. End point is the disappearance of blue color which
should persist for 30 seconds. Note the titre valve (TV).

Total residual Chlorine as Cl, ppm =TV x 4.4375

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
 4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The result of the separation of the effluent water from the TNPL is given below,

Table 4: Percentage of Feed Water, Accept Water and Reject Water

Effluent Water / Feed Water Accept Water Reject Water

100 % 45 % 55 %

PERCENTAGE OF WATER
Fig() Percentage of water

The effluent water is used as a feed for the project work. This effluent water is analyzed
qualitatively using the standard water quality parameter. The results of the qualitative
screening of the effluent water is given below,

Table 5: Result of the Qualitative Screening of the Effluent Water for sample-1

Effluent /

S. No. Water Parameters

Feed Water

01. pH 7

02. Colour Light Brown

03. Total Dissolved Solids 5518 mg/L

04. Total Dissolved Solids (Inorganic) 4525 mg/L

05. Dissolved Oxygen 0.3 mg/L

06. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD at 20º) 850 mg/L

07. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 2361 mg/L

08. Total Hardness CaCO3 100 mg/L

09. Calcium hardness as CaCO3 60 mg/L

10. Magnesium hardness as CaCO3 40 mg/L

11. Chloride as Cl 1787 mg/L

Table 5: Result of the Qualitative Screening of the Accept Water for sample-1

S. No. Water Parameters Accepted

Water

01. pH 8.5

02. Colour Light Brown

03. Total Dissolved Solids 203 mg/L

04. Total Dissolved Solids (Inorganic) 158 mg/L

05. Dissolved Oxygen 5.7 mg/L

06. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD at 20º) 424 mg/L

07. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 23 mg/L

08. Total Hardness CaCO3 10 mg/L

09. Calcium hardness as CaCO3 0 mg/L

10. Magnesium hardness as CaCO3 10 mg/L

11. Chloride as Cl 50 mg/L

Table 5: Result of the Qualitative Screening of the Reject Water for sample-1

S. No. Water Parameters

rejected Water

01. pH 8.4

02. Colour Light Brown

03. Total Dissolved Solids 19985 mg/L

04. Total Dissolved Solids (Inorganic) 15610 mg/L

05. Dissolved Oxygen 0 mg/L

06. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD at 20º) 1624 mg/L

07. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 5837 mg/L

08. Total Hardness CaCO3 90 mg/L

09. Calcium hardness as CaCO3 60 mg/L

10. Magnesium hardness as CaCO3 30 mg/L

11. Chloride as Cl 4141 mg/L

CONCLUSION
 CONCLUSION

The research done on TNPL effluent water emphasizes how crucial wastewater treatment
constitutes. Pollution poses a threat to human health and the environment if it is not
properly addressed. The wastewater treatment project at TNPL, Kagithapuram, Karur
District, emphasizes the importance of these procedures, especially in view of the global
decline in water quality that is being compounded by pollution and industrial waste.
Analysis of the wastewater collected from the TNPL paper unit showed parameters that
were higher than expected, indicating that the water needed to be treated before use. The
effluent water was divided into accepted and rejected water by electrolysis using
polyelectrolytes. After undergoing qualitative screening, the approved water was found to
be in line with the norms. Following treatment, the rejected water was transformed into
pure water, whose quality was compared to that of the acceptable water and determined
to be equivalent. This highlights the need of efficient wastewater treatment in order to
protect water resources for future generations and validates the possibility of reusing pure
water in industrial processes.
REFERENCES
REFERENCES

1. Singh, N. B.; Nagpal, Garima; Agrawal, Sonal; Rachna (2018-08-01). "Water

purification by using Adsorbents: A Review". Environmental Technology &

Innovation. 11: 187–240. doi:10.1016/j.eti.2018.05.006. ISSN 2352-1864. S2CID

103693107.

2. ^ "Linda Lawton – 11th International Conference on Toxic Cyanobacteria".

Retrieved 2021-06-25.

3. ^ "Chlorine". Drinking water inspectorate. Retrieved 2 March 2023.

4. ^ "wastewatertreatment | Process, History, Importance, Systems, & Technologies".

Encyclopedia Britannica. October 29, 2020. Retrieved 2020-11-04.

5. ^ Metcalf & Eddy Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse (4th ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill. 2003. ISBN 0-07-112250-8.

6. ^ Takman, Maria; Svahn, Ola; Paul, Catherine; Cimbritz, Michael; Blomqvist,

Stefan;

Struckmann Poulsen, Jan; Lund Nielsen, Jeppe; Davidsson, Åsa (2023-10-15).

"Assessing the potential of a membrane bioreactor and granular activated carbon
process for wastewater reuse – A full-scale WWTP operated over one year in Scania,

Sweden". Science of the Total Environment. 95: 165185. Bibcode:

2023ScTEn.895p5185T. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165185. ISSN 0 048-9697.
PMID 37385512. S2CID 259296091.

7. ^ "PM to open South Asia's largest single STP in Dhaka on

Thursday". www.dhakatribune.com. 2023-07-12. Retrieved 2023-07-14.

8. ^ Tchobanoglous, George; Burton, Franklin L.; Stensel, H. David (2003). Metcalf &
Eddy Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN
978-0-07-112250-4.
9. ^ Jothirani, R.; Kumar, P. Senthil; Saravanan, A.; Narayan, Abishek S.; Dutta,
Abhishek (2016-07-25). "Ultrasonic modified corn pith for the sequestration of dye
from aqueous solution". Journal of Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry. 39: 162– 175. doi:10.1016/j.jiec.2016.05.024. ISSN 1226-086X.

10. ^ Jump up to:a b c Saravanan, A.; Senthil Kumar, P.; Jeevanantham, S.; Karishma, S.;
Tajsabreen, B.; Yaashikaa, P. R.; Reshma, B. (2021-10-01). "Effective
water/wastewater treatment methodologies for toxic pollutants removal: Processes
and applications towards sustainable development". Chemosphere. 280:

130595. Bibcode:2021Chmsp.280m0595S. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130595. IS

SN 0045-6535. PMID 33940449.

11. ^ Gottfried, A.; Shepard, A. D.; Hardiman, K.; Walsh, M. E. (2008-11-01). "Impact
of recycling filter backwash water on organic removal in coagulation–sedimentation

12. ^ Samal, Sneha (2020-04-15). "Effect of shape and size of filler particle on the

aggregation and sedimentation behavior of the polymer composite". Powder

Technology. 366: 43–51. doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2020.02.054. ISSN 0032-5910. S2CID

213499533.

13. ^ Ahmad, Arslan; Rutten, Sam; de Waal, Luuk; Vollaard, Peter; van Genuchten,
Case; Bruning, Harry; Cornelissen, Emile; van der Wal, Albert (2020-06-15).
"Mechanisms of arsenate removal and membrane fouling in ferric based
coprecipitation–low pressure membrane filtration systems". Separation and
Purification Technology. 241: 116644. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2020.116644.
hdl:1854/LU-8699161. ISSN 1383-

5866. S2CID 214445348.

14. ^ Nyström, Fredrik; Nordqvist, Kerstin; Herrmann, Inga; Hedström, Annelie;

Viklander, Maria (2020-09-01). "Removal of metals and hydrocarbons from
stormwater using coagulation and flocculation". Water Research. 182:
115919. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2020.115919. ISSN 0043-
 1354. PMID 32622122. S2CID 219414366.

15. ^ Wang, Lawrence K.; Vaccari, David A.; Li, Yan; Shammas,
Nazih K. (2005), "Chemical Precipitation", Physicochemical Treatment Processes,
Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, pp. 141–197, doi:10.1385/1-59259-820-x:141, ISBN
978-1-58829-165-3, retrieved 2021-11-12

16. ^ Wang, Lawrence K.; Fahey, Edward M.; Wu, Zucheng (2005), Wang, Lawrence
K.; Hung, Yung-Tse; Shammas, Nazih K. (eds.), "Dissolved Air

Flotation", Physicochemical Treatment Processes, Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, pp. 431–
500, doi:10.1385/1-59259-820-x:431, ISBN 978-1-58829-165-3, retrieved 2021-11-
12

17. ^ Chadha, Utkarsh; Selvaraj, Senthil Kumaran; Vishak Thanu, S.; Cholapadath,
Vishnu; Abraham, Ashesh Mathew; Zaiyan, Mohammed; Manikandan, M;
Paramasivam, Velmurugan (6 January 2022). "A review of the function of using
carbon nanomaterials in membrane filtration for contaminant removal from
wastewater". Materials Research

Express. 9 (1): 012003. Bibcode:2022MRE.....9a2003C. doi:10.1088/2053-

1591/ac48b8. S2CID 245810763.

18. Kurniawan, Tonni Agustiono; Chan, Gilbert Y. S.; Lo, Wai-Hung; Babel, Sandhya
(2006-05-01). "Physico–chemical treatment techniques for wastewater laden with heavy

metals". Chemical Engineering Journal. 118 (1): 83–

98. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2006.01.015. ISSN 1385-8947.

19. ^ Vigneswaran, Saravanamuthu; Ngo, Huu Hao; Chaudhary, Durgananda Singh; Hung,

Yung-Tse (2005), "Physicochemical Treatment Processes for Water Reuse",

Physicochemical Treatment Processes, Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, pp. 635– 676,
doi:10.1385/1-59259-820-x:635, ISBN 978-1-58829-165-3, retrieved 2021-11-12
20. ^ Rengaraj, S; Yeon, Kyeong-Ho; Moon, Seung-Hyeon (October 2001). "Removal of
chromium from water and wastewater by ion exchange resins". Journal of Hazardous

Materials. 87 (1–3): 273–287. doi:10.1016/s0304-3894(01)00291-6. ISSN 0304-3894.

PMID 11566415.

21. ^ Singh, N. B.; Nagpal, Garima; Agrawal, Sonal; Rachna (2018-08-01). "Water

purification by using Adsorbents: A Review". Environmental Technology & Innovation.

11: 187–240. doi:10.1016/j.eti.2018.05.006. ISSN 2352-1864. S2CID 103693107.

22. ^ BABEL, Sandhya; KURNIAWAN, Tonni Agustiono (2003). "A Research Study on
Cr(VI) Removal from Contaminated Wastewater Using Natural Zeolite". Journal of
Ion

Exchange. 14 (Supplement): 289–

292. Bibcode:2003JIEx...14S.289B. doi:10.5182/jaie.14.supplement_289. ISSN 1884-

3360.

23. ^ Sirotkin, A.; Koshkina, L. Yu.; Ippolitov, K. G. (2001). "The BAC-process for
treatment of waste water Containing non-ionogenic synthetic surfactants". Water
Research. 35 (13): 3265–3271. doi:10.1016/s0043-1354(01)00029-x. PMID
11487125.
b
24. ^ Jump up to:a Mezohegyi, Gergo; van der Zee, Frank P.; Font, Josep; Fortuny,
Agustí;

Fabregat, Azael (2012-07-15). "Towards advanced aqueous dye removal processes: A

short review on the versatile role of activated carbon". Journal of Environmental

Management. 102: 148–164. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.02.021. ISSN 0301-4797.

PMID 22459012.

25. ^ GracePavithra, Kirubanandam; Jaikumar, V.; Kumar, P. Senthil; SundarRajan,

PanneerSelvam (2019-08-10). "A review on cleaner strategies for chromium
industrial

wastewater: Present research and future perspective". Journal of Cleaner Production. 228:
580–593. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.117. ISSN 0959-6526. S2CID 159345994.

26. ^ Gray, Nick (2017-01-31). Water Technology (3 ed.). London: CRC Press.
doi:10.1201/9781315276106. ISBN 978-1-315-27610-6.

27. ^ "Legislation: The Directive overview". Environment. Brussels: European

Commission. 2019-12-31.

28. ^ Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, Fourth Edition; World Health Organization;
2011

29. ^ "Environmental quality standards for surface water".

30. ^ What is the purpose of drinking water quality guidelines/regulations?. Canada:

Safe Drinking Water Foundation. Pdf. Archived 2011-10-06 at the Wayback Machine

31. ^ "Household Water Treatment Guide". Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation
Technology, Canada. March 2008.

32. ^ "Sand as a low-cost support for titanium dioxide photocatalysts". Materials Views.
Wiley VCH.

33. ^ Lindsten, Don C. (September 1984). "Technology transfer: Water purification, U.S.

Army to the civilian community". The Journal of Technology Transfer. 9 (1): 57– 59.
doi:10.1007/BF02189057. S2CID 154344107.

34. ^ "Energy Costs of Water in California". large.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2017-05-07.

35. ^ Bhalotra, Sonia R.; Diaz-Cayeros, Alberto; Miller, Grant; Miranda, Alfonso;
Venkataramani, Atheendar S. (2021). "Urban Water Disinfection and Mortality
Decline in Lower-Income Countries". American Economic Journal: Economic Policy.
13 (4): 490–520. doi:10.1257/pol.20180764. ISSN 1945-7731. S2CID 236955246.

36. ^ R.E. Avery, S. Lamb, C.A. Powell and A.H. Tuthill. "Stainless Steels for Potable
Water Treatment Plants". Nickel Institute.