AREEN JOY HAMWAJALA AREEN JOY HAMWAJALA

Y1S1 English Language Mastered Final Notes

1. ENGLISH GRAMMAR: REVIEW ALL GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES

PART A: CONCEPTUAL REVIEW

FOUNDATIONAL REVIEW

1. ENGLISH GRAMMAR: REVIEW ALL GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES

Introduction
❖ Part of speech / Classes
➢ Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs form open classes aka content words
(has meaning on its own)
■ This forms inclusions that create/borrow new ones and accommodate
new members
➢ Conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions, and interjections are closed classes aka
non-content words
■ It is rare for new pronouns to enter the language
➢ Determiners, classified as adjectives are not regarded as separate parts of
speech
❖ Word class overlap
➢ Most words belong to more than one-word class
➢ EX. run can be either a verb or a noun
■ These are 2 different lexemes
● Lexemes are any words within the dictionary that express
different grammatical categories
◆ EX. the lexeme run can take form as runs, ran, runny,
runner, and running
❖ Changing words
➢ Word change by inflection, which is the modification of words
■ For grammatical purposes
■ Change the word class

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■ Change the meaning

● This process is known as affixation
◆ The process of adding suffixes in order to multiply it
● Prefix: multinational
● Suffix: nationality
● Infix:
1a. Word Classes or Parts of Speech
1aa. Nouns
❖ Naming words
➢ Anything we can touch, see, smell, taste, hear and hold
➢ People, places, animals, objects and ideas
■ Can also function as adjectives and verbs
❖ Proper nouns
➢ Used to name a place, person, or thing
■ It always begins with a capital letter
● EX. My name is Areen (name of a particular person)
● EX. Cyrus, China
❖ Common nouns
➢ Used to refer to a generic item, group, or place
■ They are not capitalized unless at the beginning of a sentence
● EX. I bought a pen yesterday (common object)
● EX. I am going to school (commonplace)
● EX. frog, milk
❖ Singular nouns
➢ Words used to name a single person, place, animal, or object
■ EX. A little boy is playing in the street (single person)
■ EX. That is my daughter (single person)
■ EX. Go park the red van in the garage (single object)
❖ Plural nouns
➢ Refers to several people, places animals, or things

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■ Nouns are made plural by adding an s, es, ies, or ves at the existing root
word
● Some nouns remain the same in both their singular and plural
form
◆ EX. deer
❖ Countable nouns
➢ Can be counted or measured
➢ Have both singular and plural forms
■ The plural form is formed by adding [e]s
● EX. dogs, bushes
■ Irregular forms also exist
● EX. woman/women, foot/feet
● EX. Mom asked me to buy a dozen eggs (specific because a
dozen means 12)
● EX. many, a few
❖ Uncountable nouns
➢ Cannot be counted
■ Included concrete and absolute nouns
● EX. the weather is terrible today (cannot count the weather)
❖ Collective nouns
➢ A naming word that is used to denote a group of objects, animals, or people
■ EX. a swarm of bees, a pride of lions
■ EX. committee, government, and police
● EX. a committee was … (singular)
● EX. the committee were …(plural)
■ EX. much, a little
❖ Concrete nouns
➢ Objects that are material and can be perceived by the human senses
■ EX. a book is on the table
❖ Abstract nouns
➢ Names of ideas (things you cannot see but experience)

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■ EX. freedom, justice, love, courage

➢ Also uncountable nouns
❖ Compound nouns
➢ A noun made up of two words or more
■ They can be written as one word or they can be written as two separate
words
■ They are usually made up of a noun and a verb or a noun and an
adjective
● EX. toothpaste, sunlight, haircut, bedroom, software
❖ Roles of nouns
➢ Used as a subject
■ The subject is the police to which the criminal is the object
■ The subject is typically at the beginning of the sentence, but not always
● EX. The police arrested the criminal
➢ Used as an object
■ Typically in the latter part of a sentence
● EX. Where is your book?
➢ Used as a direct object
■ To find the direct object ask yourself ‘what’
● EX. Do you want a lollipop? (What do you want – a lollipop)
● Ex. I love that blue dress (What do you love? – my blue dress)
➢ Used as an indirect object
■ To find the indirect object ask yourself ‘for whom’
● EX. Dan bought his sister a Mini Cooper (for whom did Dan
buy a Mini Cooper? — his sister)
➢ Used as a compliment
■ When a noun is used to modify or describe another noun
● EX.
➢ Used as a subject complement
■ Profession and positions
● EX. My brother is an engineer

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● EX. HH is the current President of Zambia

➢ Used as an object complement
■ Nouns that follow the noun they modify
■ Names, professions, and positions
● EX. We named our dog, Shadow
● EX. The teacher made Tabitha, the class representative
❖ Nouns as Verbs
➢ Nouns can be used as verbs with a slight change in the spelling of the original
word
■ EX. His divorce is final (noun), I am divorced (verb)
■ EX. Do you like my new dress(noun), I am dressed and ready to go
(verb)
■ EX. I have dance practice today (noun), Did you practise the song
(adjective)
❖ Nouns as Adjectives
➢ A slight change in the spelling of adding a suffix to the root word
■ EX. I have no money (noun), There has been a change in the
monetary policy of the country (adjective)
■ EX. Stacy sensed some danger (noun), This situation is dangerous
(adjective)
■ EX. My friend knows magic (noun), Disneyland was magical
(adjective)
1ab. Determiners
❖ Determiners
➢ Articles: the, a, an
■ The only definite article is ‘the’
■ The indefinite articles are ‘a’ and ‘an’
● This means one but usually without emphasis
■ ‘The Comedy of Errors’ comes before ‘A Midsummer Night’s
Dream’ because the and a are ignored and comedy alphabetizes
before midsummer

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➢ Demonstrative and interrogative words: this, that, which

➢ Possessives: my, whose
➢ Various quantifying words: all, some, many, various
➢ Numerals: one, two
1ac. Pronouns
❖ A word that takes the place of a noun in a sentence
➢ EX. Mary She killed John him
❖ Personal pronouns
➢ They are used instead of repeating a name in multiple sentences which are
close together
■ Helps to avoid repetition and ease sentence flow
■ EX. Richard (noun) bought a new laptop (noun) three months
ago. He (personal pronoun) absolutely loves it (personal
pronoun)
● He takes place of Richard and it replaces laptop
➢ Personal pronouns are categorized by person
■ 1st person
● I and we represent those speaking
■ 2nd person
● You (singular) and you (plural) represent those being addressed
■ 3rd person
● he/she/it and they represent those who are neither speaking nor
being addressed
➢ Case in grammar
■ Shows a noun’s or pronoun’s relationship with the other words in a
sentence
■ Subjective Case
● Singular: (1st) I, (2nd) you, (3rd) he/she/it
● Plural: (1st) we, (2nd) you, (3rd) they
■ Objective Case
● Singular: (1st) me, (2nd) you, (3rd) him/her/it

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● Plural: (1st) us, (2nd) your, (3rd) them

■ Possessive Determiner
● Singular: (1st) my, (2nd) your, (3rd) his/her/it’s
● Plural: (1st) our, (2nd) your, (3rd) their
■ Possessive Pronouns
● Singular: (1st) mine, (2nd) yours, (3rd) his/hers/it’s
● Plural: (1st) ours, (2nd) yours, (3rd) theirs
■ Reflexive Pronouns
● To reflect/refer back on the subject
● The singular sends in ‘self’ and the plural in ‘selves’
◆ Singular: (1st) myself, (2nd) yourself, (3rd)
himself/herself/itself
◆ Plural: (1st) ourselves, (2nd) yourselves, (3rd)
themselves

■ Demonstrative Pronouns
● Represents a thing (to show/to indicate)
◆ EX. (singular) Near in distance or time (this, these)
◆ EX. (plural) Far in distance or time (that, those)
● Typically used for things but can also be used when identifying a
person
◆ EX. This is John speaking.
◆ EX. Is that Mary?
■ Interrogative Pronouns

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● Used to ask questions and represent the things we don’t know

● Four main interrogative pronouns
◆ Who, whom, what, which
➢ Whose is a possessive pronoun but can be an
interrogative (possessive) pronoun
■ When the suffix ‘ever’ is used it makes
compounds form these pronouns;
● EX. Whoever, whatever, whichever
◆ These add emphasis, to show
confusion or surprise
■ Reciprocal Pronouns
● Reciprocal = to give or do in return
● Used when each of two or more subjects is acting the same way
towards the other
◆ A is talking to B. B is talking to A
➢ EX. A and B are talking to each other
■ The action is ‘reciprocated’
◆ The only two reciprocals are;
➢ EX. each other and one another
■ When using these reciprocals there must be
● 1. Two or more people, things, or
groups involved
● 2. Doing the same thing
■ Relative Pronouns
● The main pronouns are who (derived forms include whom and
whose), which and that
● Which, refers to things rather than persons
◆ EX. The shirt, which used to be red, is faded
● Who, refers to persons
◆ EX. The man who saw me was tall
● Whom, is used in informal registers

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◆ EX. The man whom I saw was tall

● Whose is the possessive form of who and is not restricted to
persons
◆ EX. The man whose car is missing
◆ EX. An idea whose time has come
● That is found only in restrictive relative clauses (unlike which
and who, which can be used in both restrictive and unrestrictive
clauses)
◆ It can refer to either persons or things and cannot follow
a preposition (in, at, on, of, to)
➢ EX. The song that (or which) I listened to
yesterday was a banger
➢ EX. The song to which (not to that) I listened to
yesterday was a banger
■ Indefinite Pronouns
● Does not refer to any specific person, thing, or amount
◆ It is vague and ‘not definite’
➢ EX. any/anybody/anyone/anything, all, another,
each, everybody/everyone/everything, few, many,
nobody, none, one, several, somebody
■ EX. You know me and mum’s friend, Toby
● You = subjective case
● Me = objective case
● Mum’s = possessive case
● Toby = vocative case
■ Nouns do not change their form other than the possessive case
● Ex. Lee becomes Lee’s
■ Pronouns change their form in the possessive case (he becomes his)
and the objective case (he becomes him)
➢ Refer to a specific person/persons of thing/thing
❖ Noun phrases

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➢ Phrases which function grammatically as nouns within sentences

■ As the subject or object of a verb
➢ Most commonly noun phrases have a noun as their head
➢ A noun phrase typically takes the following form:
■ Determiner + pre-modifiers + pre-modifiers +
post-modifiers/complement
● Determiners can be an article
◆ EX. the, a, an
● Pre-modifiers include adjectives and some adjective phrases
◆ EX. red (adjectives), really lovely (adjective phrases)
● Pre-modifiers can also include noun adjuncts
◆ EX. college (noun), college student (noun phrase)
● Complement or post-modifier can be;
◆ EX. (a prepositional phrase) … of London, (a relative
clause) like … which we saw yesterday) or certain
adjective
■ An example of a noun phrase that includes all of the elements is:
● EX. that rather attractive young college student to whom you
were talking
◆ That = determiner
◆ Rather attractive and young = adjectival pre-modifiers
◆ College = a noun adjunct
◆ Student = noun, serving as the head of the phrase
◆ To whom you were talking = a post-modifier (a relative
clause)
1ad. Verbs
❖ Defined as a word used to describe an action (sing), state of being (exist), or
occurrence (develop)
➢ Aka a doing word
➢ Two types of verbs
■ Action verbs: tell what something is, was, or will be doing

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● EX. Jennifer ate pizza (was) (past)

● EX. My ear hurts a lot (is) (present)
● EX. My family will visit the museum tomorrow (will be)
(future)
■ Being verbs: indicate that something exists in a form or state
● Aka state-of-being verbs and linking verbs
● The subject is being verb sentences aren't doing anything
◆ A being verb tells us what somebody/something is,
was, or will
➢ EX. The dog is covered in fleas
➢ EX. The new president will be good for the
economy
➢ EX. Where was the missing phone found?
■ Some verbs can act as either a being verb or an action verb
● To determine the difference, ask if the subject is acting as
the verb
◆ EX. The rugby team looked exhausted
➢ The state of being of the team is ‘exhausted’,
they are not performing an action
◆ EX. The curator looked at the statue
➢ The curator is doing the action of looking
❖ Verb forms
➢ Regular verbs
■ Can be conjugated into four forms
■ All verbs have an infinitive form or a base form before
conjugation
● The infinitive form always begins with a ‘to’
◆ EX. to eat, to be, to smell, to run
➢ Infinitive: to allow
➢ Present: allow(s)
➢ Past: Allowed

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➢ Present Participle: allowing

➢ Past Participle: Allowed
➢ Transitive verbs
■ The action has a definite recipient or object
● EX. Veronica raises her hand
◆ The verb is raises
◆ The hand is the object receiving the verb’s action
➢ Intransitive verbs
■ The action has no specific object on which the action is being
done
■ To recognize these verbs, ask ‘What is the object being affected
by the verb?’
● If there is no answer the verb in the sentence is
intransitive
◆ EX. Jesus wept
➢ The verb is wept
➢ There is no object receiving the action of the
word
◆ EX. John rises slowly from her seat
➢ The verb rises
➢ There is no object receiving the action of the
word
❖ Auxiliary verbs
➢ Aka helping verbs are words that are added to the primary forms to
create verb phrases
■ There are two types of auxiliary verbs
● Primary
◆ They have two important properties
➢ (1) They change to match the subject of the
sentence

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➢ (2) they can stand on their own as

independent verbs
● EX. have, do, be
◆ Do: used to express the negative, provide
emphasis, and ask questions
➢ EX. Paul doesn’t live here (negative)
➢ EX. Does Sarah know you? (question)
➢ EX. I do have three puppies for sale
(emphasis)
◆ Have: is joined with participles to create the
present form of verbs
➢ Also combined with modal verbs to express
the possibility
■ EX. I have gone to the store five
times this week
■ EX. Greg must have left the water
running
◆ Be: serves as an auxiliary verb and also as a main
verb
➢ Be is irregular as it has eight different forms
■ Be, am, is, are, was, were, being,
been
● Modal
❖ Verb tense
➢ When in time the action or being of the verb occurred
■ Regular verbs change their form into six tenses
● Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future
perfect
◆ Each tense is made up of one or a combination of
the four forms (past, present, past principle,
present participle)

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➢ The first three tenses (past, present, and

future) can also take progressive forms
➢ Present: indicates that something occurs now or at the current time
■ Present verbs take the present verb form
● EX. I sing in the choir
◆ Present progressive indicates something is in the
act of occurring now
➢ It takes the present tense ‘to be; + present
perfect form
■ EX. I am singing in the choir
➢ Past: indicates that something happened at a fixed time before the
present past
■ Past verbs take the past form
● EX. The horse ate oats some days and gained on others
◆ Past progressive indicates that something occurred
over time in the past
➢ It takes the past tense ‘to be’ + present
participle form
■ EX. The horses were eating oats
some days and gained on the other
■ EX. Lucy was waking from a
terrible nightmare
➢ Future: indicates that something will happen
■ Future verbs take ‘will’ + the present form or ‘to be’ + ‘going to’
+ present form
● EX. The surgeon will begin the operation tonight
● EX. I am going to clean the garage soon
◆ Future progressive indicates that something will
be happening over time in the future

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➢ It takes ‘will be’ + present participle or

present tense ‘to be’ + going to’ + present
participle
■ EX. The surgeon will be beginning
the operation tonight
■ EX. I am going to be cleaning the
garage soon
➢ Past perfect: indicates that something in the past occurred before
something else in the past
■ Past perfect verbs take the past tense ‘to have’ + the past
participle form
● EX. I had gone to the store to get some apples when the
shooting started
● EX. The earrings had been gold before they discolored
◆ Past perfect progressive indicates that something
had been happening in the past before something
else in the past
➢ It takes ‘had been’ + present participle
■ EX. I had been getting my milk at
the corner store before it closed
■ EX. Car sales had been increasing
until the economic crisis
➢ Present perfect: indicates that something occurred in the past and
continues to the present
■ Present perfect verbs take the present tense ‘to have’ + the past
participle form
● EX. I have worked on my home every spare minute
● EX. Stephanie has offered 1000s dollars to charity
● EX. Jade has not seen the movie Spiderman
◆ Note: the present perfect refers to a non-specific
time; when the verb occurred doesn’t matter

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➢ You can’t use present perfectly with a

specific time
■ EX. Yesterday, in 1947, at 3:00,
when I graduated, after work
◆ Present perfect progressive indicates that an
action that started in the past is still going
➢ It takes the present tense ‘to have’ + ‘been’
+ the present participle form
■ EX. I had been working on my
home every spare minute
■ EX. Stephanie has been offering
1000s of dollars to charity
■ EX. Jade has not been seeing
Jordan since they broke up
➢ Future perfect: indicates that something that occurred in the future
occurs before something else in the future
■ Present perfect verbs take will have + the past participle form or
present tense ‘to be’ + ‘going to have’ + the past participle
● EX. Josh will have set up the stage by the time we get
there
● EX. The antiques shop is going to have acquired
several pieces at the auction
◆ Future perfect progressive indicates that
something will be happening up to a particular
point in time in the future
➢ It takes the ‘will have been’ + the present
participle or the present tense ‘to be’ +
‘going to have been” + the present participle
■ EX. You will have been waiting
for hours when the train arrives

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■ EX. He is going to have been

living in Lusaka for three days when
his wife arrives
❖ Verb mood
➢ There are three verb moods
■ Indicative
● Most verbs are indicative verbs as the moods that
indicate the verb is acting o being
◆ EX. We played cricket all night
◆ EX. Chris is a cashier at a liquor store
■ Imperative
● Indicates the giving of a command
◆ EX. Call the doctor
◆ EX. Please pass the peas and carrots
◆ EX. Get your hair cut, today
■ Subjunctive
● Express something that might be
◆ Can indicate a;
➢ Hypothetical situation
■ If Charlie were to get a kidney
infection, we would go to the hospital
➢ A desire
■ I wish I were like Patson Data at
football
➢ A reality that is not a fact
■ If I were the president, I would have
health care fixed
➢ Suggestion
■ You should keep your hands on the
steering wheel
➢ A demand

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■ Dr. Miller insisted that Emily marry

him
1ae. Adjectives
❖ Defined as words that describe nouns or the quantity of nouns
➢ EX. enormous, doglike, silly, yellow, fast
➢ EX. many, few, millions, eleven
❖ Use and Position
➢ An adjective can stand in front of nouns or after the verb ‘to be’
■ Due to exceptions certain adjectives can never stand in front of
nouns
● EX. afraid, alive, alone, asleep, glad, pleased, sorry, upset,
ill, well, fine
➢ Adjectives tell the reader how much or how many of something you
talking about, which thing you want passed to you or which kind of
something you want
➢ When adjectives are used together, they should be separated via a
comma or conjunction
■ EX. I’m looking for a small, good-tempered dog to buy
■ EX. My new dog is small and good-tempered
❖ Comparison
➢ There are two ways to compare adjectives
■ With either ‘er/est’ or more/most
● There are two kinds of ‘er/est’ adjectives
◆ (1) Adjectives with only one syllable
◆ (2) Adjectives with two syllables that end in y
➢ The y changes into an i forming her/test
● More or most are put in front of the adjective
◆ The adjective does not change
❖ Irregular adjectives
➢ EX. good, better, best
➢ EX. bad, worse, worst

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➢ EX. far, farther/further, farthest/furthest

➢ EX. much/many/a lot of, more, most
➢ EX. little, less, least
❖ Order of adjectives
➢ Quantity or number
➢ Quality or opinion
➢ Size
➢ Age
➢ Shape
➢ Color
➢ Nationality or other age of origin
➢ Material
➢ Purspose or qualifier
■ Note that it is unusual to have more than three adjectives with a
noun
■ Note an adjective can also act as a complement to linking verbs
or the verb to be
● A linking verb is a verb like to feel, to seem, to taste that
describes a state of being or a sensory experience
◆ EX. The cow is happy
◆ EX. It smells gross in the bathroom
◆ EX. Driving is faster than walking
1ae. Adverbs
❖ Defined as a word that is used to change, modify, or qualify several types of
words
➢ Including adjectives, a verb, a clause, or another adverb
■ With the exception of determiners and nouns
➢ Words that provide context
❖ Uses of adverbs
➢ Describe how, where, when, in what manner, and to what extent
something is done or happens

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■ When? She always arrives early

■ How? He drives carefully
■ Where? They go everywhere together
■ In what way? She eats slowly
■ To what extent? It is hot
➢ Providing more information about how something is done is known as
the adverbial function
■ It is accomplished by using adverbial clauses, adverbial phrases,
and adverbs that stand alone
❖ Structure of adverbs
➢ Often formed by adding ‘ly’ to adjectives
■ EX. abruptly, boldly, mildly, poorly, quickly, etc
● Expectations to this rule are: everywhere, nowhere, and
upstairs
■ An adverb is used to modify an adjective and intensify the
meaning it conveys
● EX. My math teacher is incredibly patient
● EX. This movie is more scary than the first one
❖ Types of adverbs
➢ Adverbs of manner
■ Explains how an action is carried out
● Often adjectives ending with ‘ly’
◆ Some adverbs will have a slight spelling change
when forming an adverb
➢ EX. She passed the exam easily (easy)
◆ Some adverbs will have the same spelling as the
adjective
➢ EX. Julia dances well
➢ EX. The boys had worked hard
➢ Adverbs of place
■ Aka spatial adverbs, explain where an action happens

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■ They are associated with the action of the verb in a sentence,

providing context for direction, distance, and position
● EX. southeast, everywhere, up, left, close by, inside,
around, etc
■ Directions
● EX. Here comes the sun
● EX. They traveled down the hill
■ Distance
● EX. George is moving far away
■ Positions
● EX. The treasure lies underneath the sand in a box
● EX. The cat is sleeping on the bed
➢ Adverbs of frequency
■ Used to express time or how often something occurs
■ There are two main groups within adverb of frequency:
● Indefinite frequency
◆ Terms that have an unclear meaning as to how
long or how often something occurs
➢ EX. Usually, always, normally
● Definite frequency
◆ Usually placed at the end of the sentence
➢ EX. We get paid hourly
➢ EX. I buy the newspaper daily
➢ EX. The situation seems to change
monthly
➢ EX. I come here
➢ Adverbs of time
■ Similar to adverbs of frequency, but are all usually placed at the
end of a sentence but can also be placed at the start of a sentence
for emphasis on the time
● EX. I have to go now

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● EX. Frank forgot his lunch yesterday and again today

● EX. Last year was the worst year of my life
● EX. Tomorrow our fate will be sealed
➢ Adverbs of purpose
■ Aka adverbs of reason, describe why something happened
● They can come in the form of individual words; so, since,
thus, because
◆ But also clauses; so that, to
● They are used to connect sentences that wouldn’t make
sense if formed alone
◆ EX. I was sick today, thus didn’t go to work today
◆ EX. Since it’s your birthday, I will buy you a gift
❖ Order of adverbs
➢ Manner, place, frequency, time, purpose
■ EX. I run (verb) quickly (manner) down the road (place)
every morning (frequency) before school (time) because
(purpose) I might miss the bus
1ag. Prepositions
❖ Shows a relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and some other part of the
sentence
➢ EX. The comedian with red hair is my favorite
■ The preposition shows the relationship between the comedian
and the hair
➢ EX. The ceremony had special significance for them
■ Them is the pronoun/object and for is the preposition objective
case
➢ Avoid using after all or both unless it’s needed for clarity
❖ Types of prepositions
➢ Location
■ Used to indicate the location or position of an object
● EX. in, on, under, in front of, among, between

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➢ Direction
■ Used to show direction to and from a fixed point
● EX. to, from, along, over, through, across, around
➢ Time
■ Used to discuss a specific time period
● Like a date on a calendar, one of the days of the week, the
actual time something takes place
◆ EX. at, in at
➢ At: for precise time
➢ In: for months, years, centuries, and long
periods
➢ On: for days and dates
❖ Use of the prepositional phrase
➢ If the prepositional phrase modifies a noun or pronouns it is an
adjective phrase
➢ If the prepositional phrase modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb it is an
adverbial phrase
1ah. Conjunctions
❖ Defined as words that join two or more words, phrases, or clauses
➢ EX. The thief was a stripper and beaten
➢ EX. The judges or the trial lawyer
➢ EX. Working as a legal aid lawyer is satisfying but stressful every once
in a while
❖ Three types of conjunctions
➢ Coordinating conjunctions
■ Connects words used in the same way
● EX. for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
◆ Used to combine two subjects, two predicates, and
two clauses
➢ Correlative conjunctions
■ Pairs of words that connect words used in the same way

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● EX. both … and, either … or, neither … nor, whether … or,

not only …. But also
◆ Used to join subjects, objects, predicates, and
other sentence parts
➢ Subordinating conjunctions
■ Used to begin subordinating clauses or adverb clauses
● EX. after, before, so that, until, then, although, though, as
though, if, as if, as long as, as much as, as soon as, since,
while, when, where, how, because, so that, whenever,
wherever, unless
■ Some subordinating conjunctions are also prepositions
● EX. Before the sun had risen, we left for the cabin
◆ Before is the subordinating conjunction
◆ The subject of the clause is the sun, the verb is had
risen
● EX. Before sunrise, we left for the cabin
◆ Before is a preposition
1b. Negation
❖ Defined as the contradiction or denial of something
❖ A finite indicative verb is negated by placing the word not after auxiliary or other
special verbs like do, can, or be
➢ The clause ‘I go’ is negated with the appearance of the auxiliary ‘do’
■ EX. I do not go
➢ When the affirmative already used auxiliary verbs (I am going) no other
auxiliary verbs are added to negate the clause
■ EX. I am not going
❖ Most combinations of auxiliary verbs do not have contracted forms
➢ EX. don’t can’t, isn’t
■ Also the uncontracted negated form of ‘can’ is written as a single word
‘cannot’
❖ In questions, the subject can be placed after a contracted negated form

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➢ EX. Should he not pay? Or Shouldn’t he pay?

❖ Other elements, adjectives, adverbs, etc can be negated by placing not before them
➢ EX. Not the right answer
➢ EX. Not interesting
❖ When other negating words like never, nobody, etc appear in a sentence, the
negating not is removed
➢ EX. I saw nothing
➢ EX. I didn’t see anything
■ EX. I didn’t see anything (a double negative)
1c. General Components
1ca. Interjections
❖ A word or expression that occurs as an utterance on its own and expresses a
spontaneous feeling or reaction
➢ Included this like:
■ Exclamations: Ouch! Wow! Dam1
■ Greetings: hey, bye
■ Response particles: okay, oh1 m-hm, huh?
■ Hesitation markers: uh, er, umm
➢ Due to its heterogeneous (not of the same kind or type) nature, the category
of interjections overlaps categories like profanities, discourse, markers, and
fillers
❖ Interjection may be subdivided and classified in several ways and the most common
distinction is based on relation to other word categories
➢ Primary interjections
■ EX. Oops, Ouch!, Huh?
➢ Secondary interjections
■ Words from other categories that come to be used as interjects by
virtue of their meaning
● EX. Damn! Hell.
➢ Single word/phrase
■ Single-word interjections those that are phrases

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● EX. Oh! Wow!

● EX. What’s up? Excuse me? Oh dear!
➢ Function
■ Exclamations and curses are primarily about giving expression to
private feelings or emotions
● EX. Damn!
■ Response particles and hesitation markers are primarily directed at
managing the flow of social interaction
● EX. Huh?
❖ In other languages, huh! and oh! are universally understood
❖ Several interjections contain sounds or are sounds as opposed to works
➢ EX. psst, shh, tsk-tsk, ugh, whew or phew, yeah
1cb. English plurals
❖ English nouns have different forms for singular and plural
➢ Common plural forms are
■ Regular plurals
● If the word ends without an e, es or s can be added to the end
and if the word ends with e, s is added to the end
◆ EX. Kiss → Kisses
◆ EX. Phase → phases
◆ EX. Lap → laps
● Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, take a plural form
by adding es
◆ EX. Hero → heroes
➢ There are exceptions;
■ EX. zero (zeros), photo (photos), pro (pros)
● Nouns ending in y, drop the y and add ies
◆ EX. Cherry → cherries
➢ The same goes for words ending in quy, ies are
added to the end
■ EX. Soliloquy → soliloquies

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AREEN JOY HAMWAJALA AREEN JOY HAMWAJALA

■ Near-regular plurals
● Some words that end with f change to ves
◆ EX. Calf → calves
◆ EX. Proof → proves
● Some words ending with f can stay as f with an s (fs) or change
to ves
◆ EX. Elfs → elfs/elves
◆ EX. Hoove → hoofs/hooves
■ Irregular plurals
● These nouns are the same singular and plural
◆ Mainly animals
➢ EX. Buffalo, deer, duck, fish, sheep
● Apophonic plurals
◆ They are formed by changing the vowel sound, aka
mutated plurals
➢ EX. Man → men
➢ EX. Woman → women
➢ EX. Goose → geese
● Miscellaneous irregular plural
◆ EX. Person → people
➢ EX. Person → persons
➢ EX. People → peoples
1cc. Prefixes
❖ An affix which is placed before the stem of a word
➢ Pre; before
➢ Fix; attach
■ EX. Happy → unhappy
❖ Prefixes are either inflectional or derivational
➢ Inflectional; creating a new form of the word with the same meaning
➢ Derivational; creating a new word with a new semantic meaning
■ EX. Acro-, auto-, over-, self0

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❖ Prefix, meaning and example

➢ EX. a, not, asymmetric ‘not symmetric’
➢ EX. an, not/without, anaerobic ‘not requiring air to live/without air to live’
➢ EX. ati, against, anti-inflammatory ‘against inflammation’
1cd. Suffixes
❖ An affix which is placed after the stem of a word
➢ EX. Girls; s marks the plural
➢ EX. He makes; s marks the third person singular present tense
➢ EX. It closed; ed marks the past tense
❖ Suffixes are either inflectional (inflectional information) or derivational (lexical
information)
➢ Inflectional;
■ Changes the grammatical properties of a word
● EX. I was hoping the cloth wouldn’t fade, but it daded quite a bit
◆ The suffix ed inflects the root-word face to indicate past
tense
● EX. s, third person singular present
● EX. ed, t, past tense
● EX. ing, progressive/continuous
● EX. en, past participle
● EX. s, plural, en, plural (irregular)
● EX. er, comparative
● EX. est, superlative
➢ Derivational;
■ Divided in two cetergories; clas-changing derivational and
class-maintaing derivation
● EX. ise/ize, changes nouns into verbs
● EX. fy, changes nouns into verbs
● EX. less, changes nouns into adjectives
● EX. ful, changes nouns into adjectives
● EX. ity, changes nouns into adjectives

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● EX. al, changes nouns into adjectives

● EX.ness, changes adjectives into noun
● EX. ly, changes adjectives into adverbs
● EX. ment, changes verbs into nouns
● EX. tion, changes verbs into nouns
● EX. ant, changes verbs into nouns
● EX. able/ible, changes verbs into adjectives
● EX. hood, class maintaining, remains a noun
● EX. ess, class maintaining, remains a noun
● EX. ism, class maintaining, remains a noun
● EX. ist, class maintaining, remains a noun
● EX. logy/ology, class maintaining, remains a noun
● EX. ish, usually change nouns into adjectives/class maintaining,
remains an adjective
1ce. Punctuation
❖ Helps the reader understand a sentence through visual means
❖ English punctuation has two complementary aspects
➢ Phonological punctuation; linked to how the sentence can be read aloud,
particularly to pausing
➢ Grammatical punctuation; linked to the structure of a sentence
❖ Apostrophe ‘
➢ Aka inverted comma is used to mark possession
■ EX. John’s book
➢ And to mark contractions
■ EX. You’re for you are
❖ Brackets [] () {} <>
➢ Used for parenthesis, explanation, or comment
■ EX. John Smith (the elder, not his son) is …
❖ Colon :
➢ Used to start an enumeration

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■ EX. Her apartment needed a few things: a toaster, a new lamp, and a
nice rug
➢ Used between two clauses when the second clause clarifies the first
■ EX. I can barely keep my eyes open: I hardly got a wink of sleep
➢ Use between two clauses when the second clause describes the object of the
first clause
■ EX. Bob gave me a slice of the worst pizza I ever had: anchovies,
pineapples, and olive
❖ Comma ,
➢ Used to disambiguate the meaning of sentences by providing boundaries
between clauses and phrases
■ EX. Man, without his cell phone, is nothing
● Emphasisng the importance of the cell phone
■ EX. Man: without, his cell phone is nothing
● Emphasisng the importance of men
➢ Used to separate numbers/items making a list
■ EX. January 7, 1987
■ EX. My favorite colors are green, yellow, and red
❖ Dash and hyphen - – _
➢ Used as a line continuation when a word is broken across two lines
➢ To apply a prefix to a word for which there is no compound word
❖ Ellipsis …
➢ Used to mark omitted text
❖ Semicolon ;
➢ Used to separate two independent but related clauses
■ EX. My wife would like tea; I would prefer coffee
➢ Used to separate list items when the list items contain commas
■ EX. She saw three men: Jamie, who came from New Zealand; John, the
milkman’s son; and George, a gaunt kind of man
❖ Slash / | \
➢ Used to indicate alternatives

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■ EX. His/hers
➢ Used to indicate two equivalent meanings or spellings
■ EX. Grey/gray

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