Proceeding Paper

Flood Disaster Mapping Using Geospatial Techniques: A Case

Study of the 2022 Pakistan Floods †
Asif Sajjad 1, * , Jianzhong Lu 2 , Rana Waqar Aslam 2 and Muhammad Ahmad 1

1 Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University,

Islamabad 45320, Pakistan; [email protected]
2 State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing,
Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China; [email protected] (J.L.); [email protected] (R.W.A.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]
† Presented at the 7th International Electronic Conference on Water Sciences, 15–30 March 2023;
Available online: https://ecws-7.sciforum.net.

Abstract: Remote sensing images are an essential tool for mapping the amount of flood inundation
after flood events. For early flood estimation, flood mapping is a crucial component. This study
used an integration of geospatial techniques to evaluate the flood extent in District Dera Ghazi Khan,
Pakistan. The modified normalized difference water index (MNDWI) was utilized to estimate the
flood extent using Landsat data. For a thorough flood investigation, pre-flood, during, and post-flood
images were obtained. The analysis enabled us to delineate flood extent as well as flood duration.
The result showed that the flood continued for nearly 5 weeks in the study area. This proposed
geospatial technique provides a framework for the identification of inundated areas, which allows
emergency responses to be focused on newly flooded areas. Hence, the current study offers a novel
perspective on flood mapping and significantly contributes to flood monitoring.

Keywords: flood mapping; geospatial techniques; Landsat data; MNDWI; emergency response

1. Introduction
Flood disasters are frequently occurring with more severity worldwide [1,2], and
they account for more than 50% of all natural disasters that happen [3,4]. In the recent
Citation: Sajjad, A.; Lu, J.; Aslam, decade, flood disasters have caused over 0.25 million causalities and also registered a total
R.W.; Ahmad, M. Flood Disaster of about USD 4.8 billion in economic losses [5,6]. Flooding is the primary global cause of
Mapping Using Geospatial catastrophic loss and destruction, and the number of people exposed to floods is increasing
Techniques: A Case Study of the 2022 faster than the world’s population [7,8].
Pakistan Floods. Environ. Sci. Proc. South Asian countries, such as Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan, claim the highest
2023, 25, 78. https://doi.org/ number of flood-related causalities and economic losses [7,9–11]. In the recent decade,
10.3390/ECWS-7-14312 flood disasters have been common in Pakistan and have caused severe damage to all
Academic Editor: Athanasios Loukas socio-economic sectors [12–14].
Floods in Pakistan generally occur in the monsoon season because of an excessive
Published: 3 April 2023 amount of rainfall in the upstream watershed of the main rivers, the Indus and the
Chenab [15–17]. As a result, floods with high magnitudes have occurred in floodplain areas,
which ultimately resulted in a huge impact on people’s lives, property, and the overall
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
economy of the country [18,19]. Despite the fact that this catastrophic flood menace cannot
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. be entirely prevented, the effects can be lessened by employing effective remote sensing-
This article is an open access article based flood risk mapping [17,20]. The remote sensing technique is the most affordable way
distributed under the terms and to provide extensive data on all stages of a flood disaster, which may be used for flood
conditions of the Creative Commons mapping [9,13].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Therefore, the main goal of the current research is to delineate flooded areas using
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ suitable satellite-derived MNDWI water indices. Results from the water indices propose
4.0/). a step-wise approach for accurately performing flood mapping. Such an approach gives

Environ. Sci. Proc. 2023, 25, 78. https://doi.org/10.3390/ECWS-7-14312 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/environsciproc

 Environ. Sci. Proc. 2023, 25, 78 2 of 6
Environ. Sci. Proc. 2023, 25, 78 2 of 6

a step-wise approach for accurately performing flood mapping. Such an approach gives
aninsight
an insight into
into the
the flood
flood situation
situation inin this
this flooded
floodedarea
areawith
withminimum
minimuminclusion ofof
inclusion other
other
non-water classes. In addition, in case of flood disaster occurrence, such insights can
non-water classes. In addition, in case of flood disaster occurrence, such insights can assist assist
inproper
in proper decision
decision making
making for
for emergency
emergencyflood floodmanagement
managementininDistrict Dera
District Ghazi
Dera Khan.
Ghazi Khan.

StudyArea
Study Area
Tehsil Taunsa,
Tehsil Taunsa, District
District DG Khan
Khan was was chosen
chosenfor forthis
thisstudy.
study.ItsItsgeographic
geographicrange
rangeis is
between 30.4078° ◦ N and 70.5265° ◦ E (Figure 1). It encompasses the south-western
between 30.4078 N and 70.5265 E (Figure 1). It encompasses the south-western portion portion
ofPunjab
of Punjab and
and is
is bordered
bordered byby the
thePunjab
Punjabdistricts
districtsofofMuzaffargarh,
Muzaffargarh, Layyah,
Layyah,and Rajanpur.
and Rajanpur.
The entire study area covered an area of 11,294 km² 2[21]. The highest
The entire study area covered an area of 11,294 km [21]. The highest and lowest and lowest rainfalls
rainfalls
everrecorded
ever recorded were
were 5050 mm
mm inin July
July and
and22mmmmininOctober,
October,respectively.
respectively.The
Theaverage
average annual
annual
rainfallis
rainfall is 22.18
22.18 mm
mm [22].
[22]. The
The locals’
locals’primary
primaryeconomic
economicactivity
activityisisagriculture.
agriculture.InIn
the
thestudy
study
area,cotton,
area, cotton, sugarcane,
sugarcane, wheat,
wheat, rice,
rice, and
and sunflowers
sunflowersare arethe
theprimary
primarycrops
cropsgrown.
grown.

Figure1.
Figure 1. Location
Location of
of Study
Study Area.
Area.

2.2. Data
Data and
and Methodology
Methodology
The
The Landsat 8–9OLI/TIRS
Landsat 8–9 OLI/TIRS data
data were
were obtained
obtained fromfrom the United
the United StatesStates Geological
Geological Sur-
Survey (USGS)
vey (USGS) [23–25].
[23–25]. We obtained
We obtained 6 Landsat
6 Landsat images images
from 21from
July21 July
and 21 and 21 September
September 2022.
2022. Furthermore,
Furthermore, these these
imagesimages were utilized
were utilized to estimate
to estimate MNDWI MNDWI water indices
water indices for floodfor flood
map-
mapping
ping usingusing
ArcGISArcGIS 10.8 [26,27].
10.8 [26,27]. Thisfirst
This index, index, first presented
presented by Xu [28],by Xu [28],calculates
effectively effectively
calculates
inundatedinundated areas. In
areas. In essence, it essence,
employs itthe
employs
green andtheshortwave
green and infrared
shortwave infrared
bands bands
to extract
to extract the flood extent, as illustrated in
the flood extent, as illustrated in Equation (1): Equation (1):
ሺ௕௔௡ௗଷሻି(௕௔௡ௗ଺)
=
MNDWI(band3 ) − (band6) (1)
MNDWI = (௕௔௡ௗଷ)ା(௕௔௡ௗ଺) (1)
(band3) + (band6)

The MNDWI index reduces accumulated noise while highlighting the water surface
reflectance using the green band; the resulting values range from 1 to +1. The generated
Environ. Sci. Proc. 2023, 25, 78 3 of 6

Environ. Sci. Proc. 2023, 25, 78 The MNDWI index reduces accumulated noise while highlighting the water surface 3 of 6

reflectance using the green band; the resulting values range from 1 to +1. The generated
images show negative values for built-up regions and positive values for water areas, re-
images show
spectively, negativeon
depending values for built-up
how much regions
water area and positive
reflectance is highvalues
and howfor little
water areas,
built-up
respectively, depending
area reflectance is low inonthe
how much water
shortwave area reflectance
infrared band. is high and how little built-up
area reflectance is low in
Optical Landsat the which
data, shortwave infrared
provide band. information with comparatively
up-to-date
highOptical
temporalLandsat data,have
resolution which provide
been widely up-to-date
used in the information
detection ofwith comparatively
flooded high
areas [7,17,23].
temporal resolution have been widely used in the detection of flooded areas
On the other hand, the presence of clouds lowers the availability of Landsat images during [7,17,23]. On
the other hand, the presence of clouds lowers the availability of Landsat images
flooding. Certainly, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and radar satellites can pierce clouds during
flooding.
and obtain Certainly,
images in synthetic aperture
all weather radarand
situations (SAR)areand radar satellites
commonly employed canfor
pierce
floodclouds
map-
and
pingobtain
underimages in all weather situations
these circumstances [29,30]. SAR anddata
are are
commonly
normallyemployed for flood
very expensive mapping
and, in our
under these
case, the freecircumstances
SAR data were [29,30]. SAR data
not available andarethe
normally verywas
study area expensive
entirelyand, in our case,
cloud-free dur-
the free SAR data
ing the 2022 flood. were not available and the study area was entirely cloud-free during the
2022 flood.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
Spatio-TemporalFlooded
Spatio-Temporal FloodedArea
AreaMapping
Mapping
The 2022
The 2022 flood
flood extent
extent was
was identified
identified to to delineate
delineate thethe most
most inundated
inundated areasareas inin Taunsa,
Taunsa,
Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan. The results show that the cumulative
Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan. The results show that the cumulative flood inundation from flood inundation from
pre-flood to post-flood instances is as shown in Figures 2 and 3.
pre-flood to post-flood instances is as shown in Figures 2 and 3. The results also show The results also show that
the flood inundation spans an area of approximately 526 km² in
that the flood inundation spans an area of approximately 526 km in the 21 July image, the 21
2 July image, whereas
the highest
whereas the flood
highestinundation of 1462.24
flood inundation km² cankm
of 1462.24 be2 seen
can bein seen
the 31 in August image.image.
the 31 August Addi-
Additionally, the peak flood scenario remained constant until 7 September as rain and tor-
tionally, the peak flood scenario remained constant until 7 September as rain and hill hill
rent flow
torrent flow persisted from
persisted fromthethe
Suleiman
Suleiman range
rangeandandreduced
reduced flood
flood inundation
inundation to to
anan area of
area
1196 km² at2 a pace of 38 km 2/day.
2 On 14 September, the inundation
of 1196 km at a pace of 38 km /day. On 14 September, the inundation receded to about receded to about 702
km²,km
702 with a decreasing
2 , with raterate
a decreasing of 72ofkm²/day.
72 km2 /day.Lastly, the floodwaters
Lastly, the floodwaters continued to recede
continued and
to recede
the normal
and the normal stagestage
was was
seenseen
as a as
reducing trendtrend
a reducing persisting throughout
persisting throughout the month
the monthof Sep-of
tember, to the
September, point
to the thatthat
point on September
on September 21st,21st,
the the
extent of the
extent inundation
of the inundation covered
coveredonlyonly
491
km²km
491 and
2 andreturned to its
returned pre-flood
to its pre-flood stage.
stage.TheThetrend
trendofofthe
theflood
floodextent
extent during
during three floodflood
instances is presented in Figures
instances is presented in Figures 2 and 3. 2 and 3.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Temporal
Temporalflood
floodextent,
extent,peak
peakflood
floodextent,
extent,and
andduration.
duration.
 As can be seen in Figures 2 and 3, the water remained in the study area for about 5
weeks after the maximum flood peak was recorded on 31 August 2022. The floodwaters
subsided in two stages; during the peak stage, the water decreased gradually until the 7th
of September at a rate of about 38 km² per day. Up to 21 September, the floodwaters in the
moderate stage significantly decreased at a rate of 72 km² each day. The assessment of the
Environ. Sci. Proc. 2023, 25, 78 4 of 6
results, however, showed that the agricultural and built-up areas suffered a great deal due
to the massive inundation and duration of approximately 5 weeks.

1600

1400

1200

1000
Area in km² 800

600

400

200

0
2022/7/8 2022/7/18 2022/7/28 2022/8/7 2022/8/17 2022/8/27 2022/9/6 2022/9/16 2022/9/26
Dates

Figure 3. Temporal flood extent from during-flood (21 July to post-flood 21 September 2022).
Figure 3. Temporal flood extent from during-flood (21 July to post-flood 21 September 2022).
Areas that have been flooded for several days can be detected using Landsat data [15,17,25].
Our results reveal that Landsat images, together with satellite-derived MNDWI in-
Landsat data were utilized because they are also capable of accurately detecting flooded areas in
dices permit detailed flooded area delineation with reliable accuracy. A recent review pa-
built-up and agricultural areas [23,25,30]. However, to properly estimate the extent of flooding,
per, similarly, analyzed the same indices used to depict areas under flood water and re-
field research and high-resolution data are required. However, due to their high cost, radar and
garded MNDWI to be the most suitable in terms of its ability to differentiate between
SAR data are not used in the research area. To really observe the flooding scenario for this study,
turbid
a fieldwater
survey and
was mixed pixels out.
also carried [31]. Suitable satellite data are critical for flood mapping
[6,9]. TheAs can be seen in Figuresbetween
temporal relationship 2 and 3,satellite
the water characteristics
remained inwith the flood
studyoccurrence
area for about is
a vital parameter in flood mapping. For example, a low-resolution
5 weeks after the maximum flood peak was recorded on 31 August 2022. The floodwaters moderate resolution
imaging
subsided spectroradiometer (MODIS)
in two stages; during satellite
the peak (~250
stage, them), with
water its daily revisit
decreased time,until
gradually has the
been 7th
utilized during many floods to acquire 2 flood mapping, but with questionable
of September at a rate of about 38 km per day. Up to 21 September, the floodwaters in the accuracy
[9]. However,
moderate duesignificantly
stage to the lack decreased
of during-flood SAR
at a rate satellite
of 72 km2 each data,day.
such Theasassessment
Sentinel-1, of wethe
employed
results, however, showed that the agricultural and built-up areas suffered a great deal et
Landsat data with a resolution of 30 m for flood mapping [2,17,30]. Albertini due
al.to[31],
the in their recent
massive reviewand
inundation article, also concluded
duration of approximatelyLandsat5 is the most commonly used
weeks.
satelliteOurforresults
floodwater
revealspatial coverage
that Landsat detection.
images, together Despite the better spatial
with satellite-derived MNDWI resolution,
indices
Landsat satellite data are constrained and cannot obtain geospatial
permit detailed flooded area delineation with reliable accuracy. A recent review data on time, which
paper,
usually reduces
similarly, theirthe
analyzed applicability
same indices to used
flooded area areas
to depict mapping
under [27,29]. Furthermore,
flood water the
and regarded
MNDWI
MNDWI index
to beused
the achieved reliable
most suitable accuracy
in terms in terms
of its abilityoftoflooded area extraction
differentiate between turbidand
has beenand
water efficiently used in[31].
mixed pixels other studiessatellite
Suitable as well datafor detecting
are criticalareas
for under flood water
flood mapping [6,9].
[32].
The temporal relationship between satellite characteristics with flood occurrence is a vital
parameter in flood mapping. For example, a low-resolution moderate resolution imaging
4. spectroradiometer
Conclusions (MODIS) satellite (~250 m), with its daily revisit time, has been utilized
during
Tehsilmany floodsistoparticularly
Taunsa acquire flood mapping, but
vulnerable with questionable
to frequent riverine and accuracy [9]. However,
hillside torrent
due to the lack of during-flood SAR satellite data, such as Sentinel-1,
floods. Locals living along nullahs and the Indus River deal with this flood threat almost we employed Landsat
data with a resolution of 30 m for flood mapping [2,17,30]. Albertini
every year. In the study region in 2022, floods produced by a two-week-long persistent et al. [31], in their recent
review article, also concluded Landsat is the most commonly used satellite for floodwater
spatial coverage detection. Despite the better spatial resolution, Landsat satellite data
are constrained and cannot obtain geospatial data on time, which usually reduces their
applicability to flooded area mapping [27,29]. Furthermore, the MNDWI index used
achieved reliable accuracy in terms of flooded area extraction and has been efficiently used
in other studies as well for detecting areas under flood water [32].

4. Conclusions
Tehsil Taunsa is particularly vulnerable to frequent riverine and hillside torrent floods.
Locals living along nullahs and the Indus River deal with this flood threat almost every
year. In the study region in 2022, floods produced by a two-week-long persistent wet
spell occurred upstream of the Indus and in the foothills of the Suleiman range, which
resulted in flooding and had a significant impact. Standing crops that were ready to
be harvested, homes, animals, and all kinds of infrastructures were affected as a result.
Environ. Sci. Proc. 2023, 25, 78 5 of 6

These frequent floods are a severe problem that calls for effective preparation and impact
mitigation measures, particularly through effective post-flood monitoring procedures, and
particularly in Tehsil Taunsa, District D. G. Khan.
This study used remote sensing data integration and jointly employed appropriate
methods to demonstrate the flood inundation severity in Taunsa. In order to estimate the
inundated areas, Landsat images of flood instances were analyzed using the GIS-based
MNDWI index.
The flood mapping also revealed that the flood water persisted in the study region for
a month, which increased and exacerbated flood damage in the study areas. This study
found that geospatial techniques can be used to carry out advanced flood mapping, which
is important for flood management. As a result, the current study offers an alternative
perspective on mapping flood inundation utilizing free satellite data and techniques. Flood
risk mapping is the first step toward analyzing flood risk. This study can be used as
a basis for further evaluating flood risk assessment and management in the study area.
The methodology employed can be integrated with other radar datasets and the Analytic
hierarchy process (AHP) techniques to further identify the severity of future flood risk
while developing flood risk zonation.

Author Contributions: Writing—original draught, A.S.; review and editing, A.S. and J.L.; image
analysis, flood inundation maps, A.S.; validation, A.S., M.A. and R.W.A. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the first
and corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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