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Eloquent JavaScript
4th edition

Marijn Haverbeke
Copyright © 2024 by Marijn Haverbeke

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons attribution-noncommercial

license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/). All code in the
book may also be considered licensed under an MIT license (https://eloquentjavascript.
net/code/LICENSE).
The illustrations are contributed by various artists: Cover by Péchane Sumi-
e. Chapter illustrations by Madalina Tantareanu. Pixel art in Chapters 7 and
16 by Antonio Perdomo Pastor. Regular expression diagrams in Chapter 9
generated with regexper.com by Jeff Avallone. Village photograph in Chapter
11 by Fabrice Creuzot. Game concept for Chapter 16 by Thomas Palef.

You can buy a print version of this book, with an extra bonus chapter included,
printed by No Starch Press at http://a-fwd.com/com=marijhaver-20&asin-
com=1593279507.

i
Contents
Introduction 1
On programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Why language matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
What is JavaScript? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Code, and what to do with it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Overview of this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Typographic conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1 Values, Types, and Operators 10

Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Unary operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Boolean values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Empty values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Automatic type conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 Program Structure 21
Expressions and statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Bindings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Binding names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
The environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
The console.log function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Return values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Control flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Conditional execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
while and do loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Indenting Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
for loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Breaking Out of a Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

ii
 Updating bindings succinctly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Dispatching on a value with switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Capitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3 Functions 38
Defining a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Bindings and scopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Nested scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Functions as values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Declaration notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Arrow functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
The call stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Optional Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Recursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Growing functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Functions and side effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4 Data Structures: Objects and Arrays 55

The weresquirrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Data sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Mutability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
The lycanthrope’s log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Computing correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Array loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
The final analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Further arrayology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Strings and their properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Rest parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
The Math object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Destructuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Optional property access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

iii
 JSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

5 Higher-Order Functions 79
Abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Abstracting repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Higher-order functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Script data set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Filtering arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Transforming with map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Summarizing with reduce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Composability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Strings and character codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Recognizing text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

6 The Secret Life of Objects 93

Abstract Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Private Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Overriding derived properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Polymorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Getters, setters, and statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
The iterator interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
The instanceof operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

7 Project: A Robot 112

Meadowfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
The task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Persistent data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

iv
 The mail truck’s route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Pathfinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

8 Bugs and Errors 123

Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Strict mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Error propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Cleaning up after exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Selective catching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Assertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

9 Regular Expressions 138

Creating a regular expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Testing for matches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Sets of characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
International characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Repeating parts of a pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Grouping subexpressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Matches and groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
The Date class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Boundaries and look-ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Choice patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
The mechanics of matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Backtracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
The replace method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Greed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Dynamically creating RegExp objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
The search method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
The lastIndex property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Parsing an INI file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Code units and characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

v
10 Modules 161
Modular programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
ES modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
CommonJS modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Building and bundling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Module design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

11 Asynchronous Programming 173

Asynchronicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Callbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Promises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Carla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Breaking In . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Async functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
A Corvid Art Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
The event loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Asynchronous bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

12 Project: A Programming Language 193

Parsing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
The evaluator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Special forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
The environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Compilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Cheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

13 JavaScript and the Browser 206

Networks and the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
The Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
HTML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
HTML and JavaScript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

vi
 In the sandbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Compatibility and the browser wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

14 The Document Object Model 214

Document structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
The standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Moving through the tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Finding elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Changing the document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Creating nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Styling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Cascading styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Query selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Positioning and animating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

15 Handling Events 233

Event handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Events and DOM nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Event objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Default actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Key events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Pointer events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Scroll events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Focus events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Load event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Events and the event loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Timers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Debouncing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

16 Project: A Platform Game 251

The game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
The technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

vii
 Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Reading a level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Motion and collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Actor updates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Tracking keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Running the game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

17 Drawing on Canvas 273

SVG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
The canvas element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Lines and surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Drawing a pie chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Storing and clearing transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Back to the game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Choosing a graphics interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

18 HTTP and Forms 296

The protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Browsers and HTTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Fetch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
HTTP sandboxing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Appreciating HTTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Security and HTTPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Form fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Disabled fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
The form as a whole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Text fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Checkboxes and radio buttons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Select fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

viii
 File fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Storing data client-side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

19 Project: A Pixel Art Editor 317

Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
The state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
DOM building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
The canvas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
The application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Drawing tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Saving and loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Undo history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Let’s draw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Why is this so hard? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

20 Node.js 337
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
The node command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Installing with NPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
The file system module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
The HTTP module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
A file server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

21 Project: Skill-Sharing Website 354

Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Long polling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
HTTP interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
The server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
The client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Exercise Hints 373

Program Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

ix
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Data Structures: Objects and Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Higher-Order Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
The Secret Life of Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Project: A Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Bugs and Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Asynchronous Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Project: A Programming Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
The Document Object Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Handling Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Project: A Platform Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Drawing on Canvas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
HTTP and Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Project: A Pixel Art Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Node.js . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Project: Skill-Sharing Website . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

x
 “We think we are creating the system for our own purposes. We
believe we are making it in our own image... But the computer is
not really like us. It is a projection of a very slim part of ourselves:
that portion devoted to logic, order, rule, and clarity.”
—Ellen Ullman, Close to the Machine: Technophilia and its
Discontents

Introduction
This is a book about instructing computers. Computers are about as common
as screwdrivers today, but they are quite a bit more complex, and making them
do what you want them to do isn’t always easy.
If the task you have for your computer is a common, well-understood one,
such as showing you your email or acting like a calculator, you can open the
appropriate application and get to work. But for unique or open-ended tasks,
there often is no appropriate application.
That is where programming may come in. Programming is the act of con-
structing a program—a set of precise instructions telling a computer what to do.
Because computers are dumb, pedantic beasts, programming is fundamentally
tedious and frustrating.
Fortunately, if you can get over that fact—and maybe even enjoy the rigor
of thinking in terms that dumb machines can deal with—programming can be
rewarding. It allows you to do things in seconds that would take forever by
hand. It is a way to make your computer tool do things that it couldn’t do
before. On top of that, it makes for a wonderful game of puzzle solving and
abstract thinking.
Most programming is done with programming languages. A programming
language is an artificially constructed language used to instruct computers. It
is interesting that the most effective way we’ve found to communicate with a
computer borrows so heavily from the way we communicate with each other.
Like human languages, computer languages allow words and phrases to be
combined in new ways, making it possible to express ever new concepts.
At one point, language-based interfaces, such as the BASIC and DOS prompts
of the 1980s and 1990s, were the main method of interacting with computers.
For routine computer use, these have largely been replaced with visual inter-
faces, which are easier to learn but offer less freedom. But if you know where
to look, the languages are still there. One of them, JavaScript, is built into
every modern web browser—and is thus available on almost every device.
This book will try to make you familiar enough with this language to do
useful and amusing things with it.

1
On programming
Besides explaining JavaScript, I will introduce the basic principles of program-
ming. Programming, it turns out, is hard. The fundamental rules are simple
and clear, but programs built on top of these rules tend to become complex
enough to introduce their own rules and complexity. You’re building your own
maze, in a way, and you can easily get lost in it.
There will be times when reading this book feels terribly frustrating. If you
are new to programming, there will be a lot of new material to digest. Much of
this material will then be combined in ways that require you to make additional
connections.
It is up to you to make the necessary effort. When you are struggling to
follow the book, do not jump to any conclusions about your own capabilities.
You are fine—you just need to keep at it. Take a break, reread some material,
and make sure you read and understand the example programs and exercises.
Learning is hard work, but everything you learn is yours and will make further
learning easier.

When action grows unprofitable, gather information; when infor-

mation grows unprofitable, sleep.
—Ursula K. Le Guin, The Left Hand of Darkness

A program is many things. It is a piece of text typed by a programmer, it is

the directing force that makes the computer do what it does, it is data in the
computer’s memory, and at the same time it controls the actions performed
on this memory. Analogies that try to compare programs to familiar objects
tend to fall short. A superficially fitting one is to compare a program to a
machine—lots of separate parts tend to be involved, and to make the whole
thing tick, we have to consider the ways in which these parts interconnect and
contribute to the operation of the whole.
A computer is a physical machine that acts as a host for these immaterial
machines. Computers themselves can do only stupidly straightforward things.
The reason they are so useful is that they do these things at an incredibly
high speed. A program can ingeniously combine an enormous number of these
simple actions to do very complicated things.
A program is a building of thought. It is costless to build, it is weightless,
and it grows easily under our typing hands. But as a program grows, so does
its complexity. The skill of programming is the skill of building programs
that don’t confuse yourself. The best programs are those that manage to do
something interesting while still being easy to understand.

2
 Some programmers believe that this complexity is best managed by using
only a small set of well-understood techniques in their programs. They have
composed strict rules (“best practices”) prescribing the form programs should
have and carefully stay within their safe little zone.
This is not only boring, it is ineffective. New problems often require new
solutions. The field of programming is young and still developing rapidly, and
it is varied enough to have room for wildly different approaches. There are
many terrible mistakes to make in program design, and you should go ahead
and make them at least once so that you understand them. A sense of what a
good program looks like is developed with practice, not learned from a list of
rules.

Why language matters

In the beginning, at the birth of computing, there were no programming lan-
guages. Programs looked something like this:
00110001 00000000 00000000
00110001 00000001 00000001
00110011 00000001 00000010
01010001 00001011 00000010
00100010 00000010 00001000
01000011 00000001 00000000
01000001 00000001 00000001
00010000 00000010 00000000
01100010 00000000 00000000

This is a program to add the numbers from 1 to 10 together and print the
result: 1 + 2 + ... + 10 = 55. It could run on a simple hypothetical machine.
To program early computers, it was necessary to set large arrays of switches
in the right position or punch holes in strips of cardboard and feed them to
the computer. You can imagine how tedious and error-prone this procedure
was. Even writing simple programs required much cleverness and discipline.
Complex ones were nearly inconceivable.
Of course, manually entering these arcane patterns of bits (the ones and
zeros) did give the programmer a profound sense of being a mighty wizard.
And that has to be worth something in terms of job satisfaction.
Each line of the previous program contains a single instruction. It could be
written in English like this:

1. Store the number 0 in memory location 0.

3
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content Scribd suggests to you:
 XV. FEJEZET.

Egy nap Abbáziában.

Az utolsó Frideczky öregségének egyik legboldogabb napját
töltötte Senkhy János szerkesztő urral az ivándi birtokon.
Csak hétfőn reggel mentek vissza a városba. A báró a lakásáig
fuvarozta Jánost, akit megölelt, mielőtt az autóból kilépett volna:
– Gyere fel a klubba, öcsém, sokszor gyere fel, hadd legyen egy
kis örömem az életemből!
János tiz forintot adott a soffőrnek. A báró látta ezt a kocsiból és
megelégedetten morogta magának:
– Uri ember, nagyszerü uri ember! Mikor János három nap mulva
ujra felnézett a klubba, Füredy gróf ezzel fogadta:
– Na barátom, maga megbolonditotta az öreget. Csak magáról
beszél. Egy negyedórahosszat előadást tartott a miniszterelnöknek a
maga kiválóságairól. Menjen, menjen, már várja!
János ez alkalommal is megtette Frideczkynek azt a szivességet,
hogy vesztett nála egy parti sakkot és nyert is tőle egyet.
Idejét egyébiránt a legszebb semmittevéssel töltötte, egyetlen
komoly tennivalója az volt, hogy mindennap levelet kellett irnia
Adélnak, aki ehhez a mindennapi levélhez abszolut ragaszkodott.
János, aki papiroson nagyon gyatrán tudta csak kifejezni gondolatait,
érzelmeit pedig majdnem sehogysem, arra szoritkozott, hogy
életének napieseményeit irta meg Brioniba. Viszont Adél meleg és
kedves leveleket irt, szerelmeseket, mint egy szerető, érdeklődőket,
mint egy feleség, gondoskodókat, mint egy anya. Adél levelei mindig
derüsek és jókedvüek voltak, betegségről, gyógyulásról az asszony
sohasem irt egyetlen igét sem.
Julius közepén Adél letáviratozta Jánost Abbáziába. János ment.
Nagyon meglepte, hogy az asszony már Fiuméban, a
pályaudvaron várt rá. Valósággal ugy ugrott a nyakába, hogy
megcsókolja:
– De Adél! – szólt szemrehányóan a fiu – mért jött ide?
– Jánoska, ne beszélj! Te ezt nem érted. Nem tudtam parancsolni
magamnak, hogy ne jőjjek, mert nem tudtam volna megállni, hogy
mikor meglátlak az abbáziai molón, meg ne csókoljalak. Ott nem
tehettem volna, mert ott mindenki ismer. Itt megtehettem, látod,
meg is tettem.
A hajóig az asszony apróra kikérdezte Jánost, ugy mintha nem is
leveleztek volna, mintha semmitsem tudna életéről.
– De ne arról beszéljünk – mondta János a hajón, mikor már
lélegzethez jutott. – Hanem magáról. Hogy van?
– Nagyszerüen, Jánoska! Nézz meg!
A hajó orrán álltak, merő napfényben. János megnézte az
asszonyt. Az arca-bőre sötét volt és fényes, a szeme szinte villogott
ebből a sötétségből. Most is nagyon szép volt, csak a vonásai
rajzolódtak határozottabban s a szemének volt erősebb tüze.
– Igazán jól? – kérdezte János.
– De mennyire igazán!
– Hát akkor mért marad még tovább is Brioniban?
– Az kell… hogy egészen meggyógyuljak.
 – Mért nem jön fel Abbáziába és mért nem jöhetek ide én is?
– Mert… mert azt még nem szabad Jánoska… Hogy igazán,
egészen meggyógyuljak.
És az asszony szeme fátylas lett. De vigyázott magára, a köny
csak ellepte a szemét, annyira megszaporodni nem engedte, hogy
lebuggyanjon, szeme héján tulra.
Az egész nap tengerparti kószálással telt el. Az asszony ragyogott
és beszélt s csak óvatosan hintette el azokat a mondanivalóit,
amikért Jánost Abbáziába hivta.
– Jánoska – mondta ebéd után, mikor a szines ernyő alatt itták a
feketét a terraszon. – A mandátum meglesz, de nehogy elhanyagolja
az öreg Frideczkyt. A gróftól is tudom, nemcsak a maga leveleiből,
hogy milyen nagy jó barátságban vannak.
– Ugyan! – nevetett János – az csak tréfa.
– Ne, ne, ne higyje, hogy tréfa. Majd meglátja, milyen jó az öreg
Frideczkyvel jóban lenni.
– De hiszen félretolt ember, Adélka, senkise törődik az öreggel.
– Az mindegy. Maga csak maradjon a barátja, majd én
visszakerülök Pestre, akkor én is bemutattatom magamat az
öregnek.
– Maga? Minek?
– Csak. Már régóta hallom, hogy milyen érdekes ember. Még
meghal, mielőtt megismerhetném. Vagy ő, vagy én.
– Mit mond?
– Csak tréfáltam, Senkike. Ne féljen. Ő hal meg, nem én!
Délután négykor az asszony hirtelen egyebet penditett meg:
 – Hatkor indul a hajóm, megyek vissza és még akartam mondani
valamit.
– Csak nem megy el?
– De elmegyek.
– Igy?
– Hogyan igy, Jánoska?
– Még nem voltunk egy percig magunk közt.
– Nem is leszünk, Jánoska. Nincs szerelem. Most láttam magát,
az nekem elég. Ebből megélek a nyár végéig. Több nincs, többnek
nem szabad lenni.
– Adél!…
– Azt akartam mondani, hogy maga azért ne tegye tönkre a
nyarát. Azt én nem engedem.
– Hát mit csináljak? Ha maga elkerget maga mellől!
– Tudja mit… menjen a Balaton mellé, az közelebb van hozzám
is. Ha hivom, hamarabb jöhet.
– A Balaton? Hova mehet egy magános ember a Balatonon,
hiszen tudja, hogy ott sehol egy tisztességes hotel. De ha
parancsolja…
– Nem, nem parancsolom, Jánoska. Ne menjen csak ugy… legyen
a vendége valakinek.
(Adél ugy tett, mintha keresgélne, hogy kihez is küldhetné
Jánost.)
– Senki se hivott.
– Nem? Csodálom. Pedig Gotthelfék mondták nekem, milyen
szivesen lehivnák magukhoz nyárra.
 – Nem hivtak.
– Hát akkor majd hivják.
– Nem hiszem.
– Hát ha majd hivják, menjen le hozzájuk.
– Unalmas emberek.
– Nem is olyan unalmasak, Jánoska. A lányok nagyon kedvesek.
– Alig ismerem őket.
– Arra lesz elég ideje nyáron. Igérje meg, hogy elmegy, ha
hivják.
János megigérte; meg volt győződve róla, hogy Gotthelfék ugyse
hivják.
Ahogy a hajó indulásának az ideje közeledett, Adél mind
csendesebb lett, az arcát elhagyta a fény, csak a szeme tüzelt még
jobban. A szeme-sarka néha idegesen összerándult.
– Jánoska, Jánoska, szivem! – szakadt ki a száján minden ok és
összefüggés nélkül. Aztán nagyon birkózott magával, legyőzte és
rendbehozta magát s elindultak a móló felé. A sürü-melegü
alkonyatban a levegő tele volt jószagokkal, renyheséggel,
kivánkozással.
– Szép, – mondta János, ahogy a kis parkból a tenger mellé
kiértek és végignéztek a Kvarneró szemsimogató kékjén.
– Brioni még szebb – mondta az asszony. – Még szebb! Ó de
nehéz, de nehéz…! – tette hozzá és nem fejezte be a mondatát.
Tikkadt bucsu következett, csók nélkül. Adél zsebkendőt
lobogtatott a hajóról. János a kalapját lóbálta. Mikor a hajó Lovrána
felé annyira megkisebbedett, hogy a lobogó zsebkendőt már ugy
sem lehetett volna látni, csak egy matróz látta, hogy az a nagyon
szép szőke hölgy lement a hölgyszalonba, ahol még senki sem volt
ilyenkor, hosszában elnyult a piros bársony ülésen és ugy sirt, olyan
rázkódó nagy sirással sirt, hogy a szőke haj lebomlott a fejéről.
(Vége az I. kötetnek)
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