11/5/2024

REVIEW

KINDS OF SENTENCES
Classification based on the meaning
1. STATEMENTS (affirmative and negative sentences)
e.g. - Volunteering fosters a sense of community and belonging.
- They didn’t let each other face challenges alone.

2. QUESTIONS (interrogative sentences)

e.g. - Does life exist on Mars?(yes/no question)
- Don’t you believe in ghosts? (negative question)
- Why is it important to save money? (Information/ Wh-question)
- Tom has completed the project, hasn’t he? (tag question)

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3. COMMANDS (imperative sentences)

[a] Request e.g. - Help me with this work.
- Don’t interrupt me, please.
[b] Invitation e.g. - Have a cup of tea.
- Take a seat, please.
[c] Instruction e.g. - Take this medicine every four hours.
[d] Condition e.g. - Study hard, and you’ll pass your exam.
(If you study hard, you’ll pass ...)
- Let’s get up early, or we’ll be late for school.
(If we don’t get up early, we’ll be late ...)

4. EXCLAMATIONS (exclamatory sentences)

[a] HOW e.g. - How beautiful the flowers are!
- How quickly he runs!.
- How much lazier he is now!
- How nice (your gift is)!

[b] WHAT e.g. - What beautiful flowers Mom’s bought!

- What a quick runner (he is)!
- What a girl!
(elliptical exclamation, S & V are understood)

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Exercise: Turn the following into Exclamatory sentences.

1. He drives carefully.
2. Alice is a willing helper.
3. That’s an interesting idea of yours.
4. You’re so thoughful about this.

Classification based on the structure

1. SIMPLE SENTENCES (consist of only ONE clause)
e.g. - I didn’t know the matter.
- He was badly in need of your help.

2. COMPOUND SENTENCES (consist of TWO/more clauses joined by co-ordinating

conjunctions AND, BUT, OR, NOR, SO)
e.g. - A man came here and he wanted to see you.
- I didn’t know the matter nor did I care.
- I couldn’t help him so he went away, but you should help him or
he will fall in danger.

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3. COMPLEX SENTENCES (consist of only ONE main clause + ONE/more subordinate

clauses joined by subordinating conjunctions, e.g. because, although, before/after...)
e.g. - I enjoy reading because it expands my knowledge.
- He’ll fall in danger unless you help him.

4. MIXED SENTENCES (Compound-Complex sentences consist of TWO/more

main clauses)
e.g. - A man came here so that he might see you, but you had gone
downtown so he went away.

MC1 <--- so that...... , but MC2 so MC3

e.g. - I couldn’t help him because I didn’t know the matter, but, in case
he comes back you should help him.

MC1 <--- because...... , but in case...... MC2

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NOUN CLAUSES
Study the following sentences:
• Time heals all wounds. (NOUN subject)
• The time of his arrival is unknown. (NOUN PHRASE subject)

• When he will arrive is unknown. (NOUN CLAUSE subject)

• I don’t know when he will arrive . (NOUN CLAUSE object of a verb)
• I have no news about when he will arrive . (NOUN CLAUSE object of a prep)
• My wonder is when he will arrive . (NOUN CLAUSE subject complement)
• My hope that when he will arrive in time reassures me.
(NOUN CLAUSE apposition to a noun = Modifier)

Defintion

A NOUN CLAUSE is one that does the work of a noun to be

SUBJECT, OBJECT, COMPLEMENT or MODIFIER in a sentence.

Formation

A NOUN CLAUSE is introduced by connectives

that, if/whether, what, who, when, where... + S + V ....

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1. NOUN CLAUSE SUBJECT

• How the prisoner escape is a complete mystery.
 It is a complete mystery how the prisoner escape.
Formal SC N Clause: Real subject
subject

• Whether he will agree is doubtful.

It is doubtful whether he will agree (or not).
Formal SC N Clause: Real subject
subject

• That the enemy will use the military force against us is illegal.
It’s illegal that the enemy will use the military force against us.

The empty suject “it” is preferred in some constructions.

• It happened that we lost our way in the forest.

• It is said (that) money is the root of all evil.
• It was a pity (that) you couldn’t come to the party.

In grammar, end-weight is the principle by which

longer structures tend to occur later in a sentence
than shorter structures.

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2. NOUN CLAUSE OBJECT of A VERB

S-V Object
We saw (that) the plan would succeed.
NOUN
He CLAUSE OBJECT
wonders if his friends are willing to help him.
The President examined what his advisors reported.

S-V iO dO
They told the manager that they could work
overtime.
Can you remind me what I should do next?
We explained to everyone present why the delay was inevitable.

Compare:
V O OC
• We consider your behavior wrong.

 We consider it wrong that you disobeyed your father

Formal object N Clause: Real object many times.

• I think it a pity that you didn’t try harder.

Formal object N Clause: Real object

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3. NOUN CLAUSE OBJECT of A PREPOSITION

prep + noun clause

He is responsible for what he says.
You should pay attention to how he will account for his absence.

There were no complaints that the dining-room was too hot.

except

4. NOUN CLAUSE SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

S V SC
The trouble is that we don’t have much time left.
The question is how we’re going to get some more money.

The important thing is what you do, not what you say.

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5. NOUN CLAUSE APPOSITIVE

• The idea that you can do the work without thinking is really
foolish.
• He expressed a hope that you would soon be well again.
• She told me her plan that she would write a story of her life.
• Is there any proof that the document was his?
• My other problem - namely, whether I should invite Barnwell -
was solved when I received news of his illness.
• Many questions - such as how the guests should be seated -
remained unanswered.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Study the following sentences:

• The police arrested the guilty man. (ADJECTIVE)

• The police arrested the man guilty of murder. (ADJ. PHRASE)
• The police arrested the man who had murdered his neighbor.
(ADJ. CLAUSE)

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Defintion
AN ADJECTIVE CLAUSE is a subordinate one used in the same
way as an adjective to modify a Noun or Noun-equivalent.

Formation

ADJ CLAUSES are introduced by relative pronouns or relative adverbs.

* Relative pronouns: WHO(M), WHICH, THAT, WHOSE ...

* Relative adverbs: WHERE, WHEN, WHY

Subject Object Possessive

PERSON who who(m)

that whose
THING
which which of which

* that can be used to replace who(m), or which in a defining relative clause

* who(m), which, that can be left out when it functions as an object in a
defining relative clause

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The man is my uncle. You talked to him yesterday.

 The man who/whom/that/ø you talked to yesterday is my uncle.
 The man to whom you talked yesterday is my uncle.

They live in a house. The garden of the house is beautifully maintained.

 They live in the house whose garden is beautifully maintained
the garden of which

WHOM : for people

preposition +

WHICH : for thing

Other examples:
• The teacher praises the students whose homework gets goodmarks.
• I’ve read the news (that/which) you told me yesterday.
• We drove out of the town by the same road as we entered by.
• There isn’t any of us who hasn’t faced challenges.
 There isn’t any of us but has faced challenges.
• The house where he grew up has become famous.
• The house (which/that) he bought last year is quite small.
• Poor Cinderella, who nobody ever gives a thought of, is ignored.

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The man is my colleague. He's wearing blue jeans.

 The man who/that is wearing blue jeans is my colleague.

defining relative clause

already defined
Shakespeare wrote 'Romeo and Juliet'. He was an English playwright.
 Shakespeare, who was an English playwright, wrote 'Romeo and Juliet'.

 Shakespeare, an English playwright, wrote 'Romeo and Juliet'.

non-defining relative clause

(A) (B)

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Defining relative clause Non-defining relative clause

- gives information that helps to - simply gives extra information

define which person, thing or place about the preceding noun they
the speaker is talking about; refer to (i.e. the noun is already
- is not separated from the rest of defined);
the sentence by commas. - is separated from the rest of the
- The meaning of the sentence is sentence by commas.
not clear without it. Therefore, it - The meaning of the sentence is
cannot be omitted. still clear without it. Therefore, it
can be omitted.

Important notes
e.g. - He said that he had never seen me before, which was not true.
- Rats ran about the attic all night, which kept her awake.
 WHICH can refer to the whole clause.

e.g. The things that you have said seems reasonable. (Adj Clause)
 What you have said seems reasonable. (N Clause)
e.g. Let me show you the place where this book is sold. (Adj Clause)
 Let me show you where this book is sold. (N Clause)
e.g. I don’t know the reason why she is crying. (Adj Clause)
 I don’t know why she is crying. (N Clause)

 An ADJ Clause modifying a N in general sense will be changed into a N Clause.

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ADVERB CLAUSES

Study the following sentences:

• She put the meat here. (ADVERB)

• She put the meat in the fridge. (ADV. PHRASE)

• She put the meat where the cat couldn’t reach. (ADV. CLAUSE)

• He spent money madly. (ADVERB)

• He spent money as if he were a billionaire. (ADVERB CLAUSE)

1. An ADV Clause of time begins with a conjunction of time:

WHEN, AS, WHILE, BEFORE, AFTER, AS SOON AS, SINCE, UNTIL, BY THE
TIME...

e.g. I’ll tell him the news as soon as I see him.

Where have you been since I last saw you?
She won’t go away till you promise to help her.

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Compare the following subordinate clauses:

1. I’d like to know when you are free. (N Clause)

2. I’d like to visit you at the weekend when you are free. (Adj Clause)
3. I’d like to visit you when you are free. (Adv Clause)

2. ADV Clauses of place are introduced by connective:

WHERE, WHEREVER...

e.g. I can’t find the key where I left it.

‘Where there is a will, there is a way.’
The doctor is willing to go wherever he is needed.

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3. ADV Clauses of purpose begin with conjunctions of purpose:

SO THAT, IN ORDER THAT, IN CASE, FOR FEAR THAT, LEST (so that... not)...

e.g. He concentrated on his study so that he could pass his exam.

I didn’t mention the news for fear that it should hurt her feelings.

4. ADV Clauses of manner begin with conjunctions of manner:

AS, AS IF, AS THOUGH...

e.g. You should do it as I told you.

She got angry with me as if I had made some big mistakes.

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5. ADV Clauses of cause (reason) are introduced by conjunction of cause:

BECAUSE, SINCE, AS, SEEING THAT, IT IS BECAUSE .... THAT ...., NOW THAT
(because ... now) ...

e.g. We negotiate not because we fear death but because we love peace.
Seeing that it is raining, you had better stay indoors.

6. ADV Clauses of result are introduced by expressions:

(SO) .... THAT ..., SO MANY/MUCH + N THAT..., SUCH A/AN Adj N THAT...

e.g. - He spoke for such a long time that people began to doze off.
- The train moved so fast that we barely saw it.
- I have so little time for amusement that I can go to the movies
once a year.

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7. ADV Clauses of contrast/concession are introduced by:

THOUGH, ALTHOUGH, EVEN THOUGH/IF, WHILE , WHETHER (...OR...), WHATEVER,
WHOEVER, HOWEVER, NO MATTER, IT DOESN’T MATTER ...

e.g. - We shouldn’t be discouraged though we have thorny problems

- Whether you are rich or poor, you should never waste your money.
- However rich people are, they always seem anxious to make more money.
- No matter where you go, drive carefully.

8. ADV Clauses of comparison are introduced by:

AS adj/adv AS , NOT SO .... AS, LESS/MORE/-ER .... THAN

e.g. - He ordered as strictly as a general (did).

- The author’s real life is more exciting than his novel (is).
- She admires you more than (she admires) him.
≠ She admires you more than he (does/ admires you) .

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Idiomatic comparisons are called SIMILES (figure of speech).

• as white as snow
• as poor as a church mouse
• as brave as a lion
• as light as a feather
• as irregular as weather
• as busy as bees
• as quick as lightning
• as slow as a snail ...

9. ADV Clauses of condition are introduced by:

IF , UNLESS =(IF ... NOT), SUPPOSE/SUPPOSING THAT, AS LONG AS,
PROVIDED (THAT), IN CASE, ON CONDITION THAT ...

e.g. - I’ll lead a peaceful life by the seaside if I retire.

- Unless you try hard, you cannot get success.

- Crying can bring relief, as long as you don't cry alone.

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Success to you in your exam!

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