Unit 1: Principles of Chemistry – Complete Revision Summary

Unit 1 of the Pearson Edexcel International GCSE Chemistry book introduces the
fundamental concepts of chemistry. It covers states of matter, atomic structure,
chemical bonding, the periodic table, chemical calculations, and electrolysis.

1.1 States of Matter

The three states of matter are solids, liquids, and gases. Their properties can be
explained using the kinetic particle theory, which describes how particles move in
different states.
State Properties
Fixed shape and volume, particles closely packed in a regular pattern,
Solid
vibrate in fixed positions.
Fixed volume but no fixed shape, particles can move past each other, takes
Liquid
the shape of its container.
No fixed shape or volume, particles move freely and spread out to fill the
Gas
space.
Changes of State
 Melting: Solid → Liquid
 Freezing: Liquid → Solid
 Boiling: Liquid → Gas
 Condensation: Gas → Liquid
 Sublimation: Solid → Gas (e.g., dry ice)
Diffusion
 Movement of particles from a high concentration to a low concentration.
 Example: Bromine gas spreads in a jar.

1.2 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

  Atoms: The smallest unit of an element.
 Elements: Pure substances made of only one type of atom (e.g., Oxygen -
O₂).
 Compounds: Formed when atoms of different elements chemically bond
(e.g., H₂O).
 Chemical symbols: Represent elements (e.g., Na for Sodium).
 Chemical formulae: Represent compounds (e.g., CO₂).

1.3 Mixtures and Separation Techniques

A mixture consists of different substances physically combined (not chemically
bonded).
Separation Methods
Method Use
Separating an insoluble solid from a liquid (e.g., sand from
Filtration
water).
Obtaining pure solid crystals from a solution (e.g., salt from
Crystallization
seawater).
Separating a liquid from a dissolved solid (e.g., water from
Simple Distillation
saltwater).
Fractional Separating two or more liquids with different boiling points
Distillation (e.g., ethanol and water).
Separating substances based on their solubility (e.g., ink
Chromatography
separation).

1.4 Atomic Structure

 Atoms consist of:
o Protons (+ charge, found in the nucleus).
 o Neutrons (no charge, found in the nucleus).
o Electrons (- charge, orbit the nucleus in energy levels).
 Atomic number = Number of protons.
 Mass number = Protons + Neutrons.
 Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons (e.g., Carbon-12 and Carbon-14).

1.5 The Periodic Table

 Elements are arranged by increasing atomic number.
 Groups (columns): Elements with similar chemical properties (e.g., Group 1
- Alkali Metals).
 Periods (rows): Indicate the number of electron shells.
 Metals are on the left; non-metals are on the right.

1.6 Chemical Bonding

Atoms bond to achieve a full outer shell.
Types of Bonding
1. Ionic Bonding
o Between metals and non-metals.
o Electrons are transferred from metal to non-metal.
o Forms ions (charged particles).
o Example: NaCl (Sodium Chloride).
2. Covalent Bonding
o Between two non-metals.
o Electrons are shared between atoms.
 o Forms molecules.
o Example: H₂O (Water).
3. Metallic Bonding
o Between metal atoms.
o Delocalized electrons create a strong bond.
o Gives metals high electrical conductivity.

1.7 Chemical Formulae, Equations, and Calculations

 Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): Weighted average mass of an atom.
 Relative Formula Mass (Mr): Sum of Ar values of atoms in a compound.
 The Mole:
o 1 mole = 6.022 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro’s number).
o Moles = Mass ÷ Mr.
Balanced Chemical Equations
 Follows the law of conservation of mass (mass before reaction = mass
after).
 Example:
2H2+O2→2H2O2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O2H2+O2→2H2O

1.8 Reacting Masses and Empirical Formula

 Empirical formula: The simplest ratio of atoms in a compound.
o Example: C₂H₆ → CH₃ (simplified form).
 Reacting masses: Using moles to calculate the mass of reactants/products.

1.9 Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the breakdown of a substance using electricity.
 Electrolytes: Ionic compounds that conduct electricity when
molten/dissolved.
 Electrodes:
o Cathode (-): Attracts positive ions (reduction).
o Anode (+): Attracts negative ions (oxidation).
Examples of Electrolysis
1. Electrolysis of Molten Lead(II) Bromide (PbBr₂)
o Products: Pb (lead metal) at cathode, Br₂ (bromine gas) at anode.
2. Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
o Involves water (H₂O dissociates into H⁺ and OH⁻ ions).
o Example: Electrolysis of brine (NaCl solution) produces:
 H₂ gas at cathode.
 Cl₂ gas at anode.
 NaOH solution remains.

Final Overview of Unit 1

This unit builds the fundamental knowledge of chemistry, including:
 Basic atomic structure and bonding.
 The periodic table and elements.
 Separation techniques and chemical calculations.
 Electrolysis and its applications.
Understanding these concepts is crucial for further topics in chemistry.
Unit 2: Inorganic Chemistry – Complete Revision Summary
Unit 2 focuses on reactivity of elements, properties of groups in the periodic
table, acids, bases, salts, and gases in the atmosphere. It builds on the principles
covered in Unit 1 and applies them to real-world chemical reactions.

2.1 The Periodic Table

 The periodic table is arranged by increasing atomic number.
 Elements are classified as metals and non-metals.
 Group number = number of electrons in the outer shell.
 Period number = number of electron shells.
 Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.
Key Trends in the Periodic Table
Down a Group (Top to
Trend Across a Period (Left to Right)
Bottom)
Decreases (more protons pull Increases (more electron
Atomic Radius
electrons closer) shells)
Decreases (harder to lose Increases (easier to lose
Reactivity (Metals)
electrons) electrons)
Reactivity (Non- Increases (easier to gain Decreases (harder to gain
metals) electrons) electrons)

2.2 Group 1: The Alkali Metals (Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, etc.)

 Soft metals that can be cut with a knife.
 Highly reactive with water and oxygen.
 Stored in oil to prevent reactions with air.
  React with water to form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Reactions of Group 1 Metals with Water
Metal+Water→Metal Hydroxide+Hydrogen Gas\text{Metal} + \text{Water} → \
text{Metal Hydroxide} + \text{Hydrogen
Gas}Metal+Water→Metal Hydroxide+Hydrogen Gas
Example:
Sodium+Water→Sodium Hydroxide+Hydrogen\text{Sodium} + \text{Water} → \
text{Sodium Hydroxide} + \
text{Hydrogen}Sodium+Water→Sodium Hydroxide+Hydrogen
2Na+2H2O→2NaOH+H22Na + 2H_2O → 2NaOH + H_22Na+2H2O→2NaOH+H2
Reactivity Trend in Group 1
 Increases down the group because the outer electron is further from the
nucleus, making it easier to lose.
 Lithium reacts gently, Sodium reacts vigorously, and Potassium reacts
explosively with water.

2.3 Group 7: The Halogens (Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Astatine)

 Non-metals that exist as diatomic molecules (e.g., Cl₂).
 Reactivity decreases down the group.
 Form salts called halides when reacting with metals.
Physical Properties of Halogens
Element Color State at Room Temperature
Fluorine (F₂) Pale yellow Gas
Chlorine (Cl₂) Green Gas
Bromine (Br₂) Red-brown Liquid
Iodine (I₂) Dark grey Solid
Displacement Reactions of Halogens
 A more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen from a
compound.
Chlorine+Potassium Bromide→Potassium Chloride+Bromine\text{Chlorine} + \
text{Potassium Bromide} → \text{Potassium Chloride} + \
text{Bromine}Chlorine+Potassium Bromide→Potassium Chloride+Bromine
Cl2+2KBr→2KCl+Br2Cl_2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br_2Cl2+2KBr→2KCl+Br2
 Chlorine (more reactive) displaces bromine from potassium bromide.

2.4 Gases in the Atmosphere

Composition of Air
Gas Percentage in Air
Nitrogen (N₂) 78%
Oxygen (O₂) 21%
Argon (Ar) 0.9%
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) 0.04%
Oxygen Experiments
 Oxygen can be prepared by decomposing hydrogen peroxide using
manganese dioxide as a catalyst.
2H2O2→2H2O+O22H_2O_2 → 2H_2O + O_22H2O2→2H2O+O2
 Oxygen supports combustion:
o Burning Magnesium: Produces white MgO.
o Burning Sulfur: Produces acidic SO₂.
o Burning Carbon: Produces CO₂.

2.5 Reactivity of Metals

  Metals react with acids, oxygen, and water.
 More reactive metals react faster.
Reactivity Series of Metals
Metal Reactivity
Potassium (K) Most reactive
Sodium (Na) Very reactive
Calcium (Ca) Reacts with water
Magnesium (Mg) Reacts slowly with acids
Zinc (Zn) Moderate
Iron (Fe) Rusts in water
Copper (Cu) Very unreactive
Gold (Au) Least reactive
Reaction of Metals with Acids
Metal+Acid→Salt+Hydrogen\text{Metal} + \text{Acid} → \text{Salt} + \
text{Hydrogen}Metal+Acid→Salt+Hydrogen
Example:
Mg+2HCl→MgCl2+H2Mg + 2HCl → MgCl_2 + H_2Mg+2HCl→MgCl2+H2

2.6 Acids, Bases, and Salts

pH Scale
 Acids (pH 1-6): Release H⁺ ions (e.g., HCl).
 Neutral (pH 7): Water.
 Alkalis (pH 8-14): Release OH⁻ ions (e.g., NaOH).
Neutralization Reaction
Acid+Base→Salt+Water\text{Acid} + \text{Base} → \text{Salt} + \
text{Water}Acid+Base→Salt+Water
Example:
HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2OHCl + NaOH → NaCl + H_2OHCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2O
Soluble and Insoluble Salts
 Soluble: Nitrates, most sulfates, most chlorides.
 Insoluble: Silver chloride, lead sulfate.

2.7 Tests for Ions and Gases

Tests for Common Gases
Gas Test Result
Hydrogen (H₂) Lit splint Squeaky pop
Oxygen (O₂) Glowing splint Relights
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) Limewater Turns milky
Chlorine (Cl₂) Damp litmus paper Turns white (bleached)
Tests for Ions
 Flame Test (for Metal Ions)
o Lithium (Li⁺) – Red flame
o Sodium (Na⁺) – Yellow flame
o Potassium (K⁺) – Lilac flame
o Calcium (Ca²⁺) – Orange-red flame
o Copper (Cu²⁺) – Green flame
 Test for Carbonates: Add HCl → Produces CO₂ (bubbles in limewater).
 Test for Sulfates: Add BaCl₂ and HCl → White precipitate.
 Test for Halides: Add silver nitrate (AgNO₃) →
 o Chloride: White precipitate.
o Bromide: Cream precipitate.
o Iodide: Yellow precipitate.

Final Overview of Unit 2

This unit explores how elements and compounds react, covering:
✅ Group trends and reactivity.
✅ Chemical properties of acids, bases, and salts.
✅ Gas tests and metal reactivity series.
Unit 3: Physical Chemistry – Complete Revision Summary
Unit 3 focuses on the energy changes in reactions, rates of reaction, equilibria,
and electrochemistry. These concepts help in understanding how and why
reactions happen and how we can control them.

3.1 Energetics
Chemical reactions involve energy changes, which are measured in kilojoules per
mole (kJ/mol). Energy changes occur when bonds are broken or formed.
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
Energy
Type Definition Examples
Change (ΔH)
Energy is released to Negative (-
Exothermic Combustion, Neutralization
surroundings ΔH)
Energy is absorbed from Thermal decomposition,
Endothermic Positive (+ΔH)
surroundings Photosynthesis
 Exothermic reactions: Temperature increases (e.g., burning fuel).
 Endothermic reactions: Temperature decreases (e.g., dissolving ammonium
chloride).
Energy Level Diagrams
 Exothermic: Reactants have more energy than products.
 Endothermic: Reactants have less energy than products.
Bond Energy Calculations
Energy is required to break bonds and released when new bonds form.
ΔH=Total energy needed to break bonds−Total energy released when new bonds f
orm\Delta H = \text{Total energy needed to break bonds} - \text{Total energy
released when new bonds
form}ΔH=Total energy needed to break bonds−Total energy released when new bo
nds form
3.2 Rates of Reaction
The rate of a reaction is the speed at which reactants are converted to products.
Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction
Effect on
Factor Why?
Rate
Particles move faster, more collisions, higher
Temperature Increases
energy.
More particles in the same volume, more
Concentration Increases
collisions.
Smaller pieces have more exposed area for
Surface Area Increases
reactions.
Catalyst Increases Lowers activation energy without being used up.
Particles are closer together, more frequent
Pressure (Gases) Increases
collisions.
Measuring Rate of Reaction
 Gas volume produced (e.g., collecting CO₂ in a gas syringe).
 Mass loss over time (if a gas is released).
 Color change (disappearing cross method) (e.g., sodium thiosulfate + HCl).
Collision Theory
 Particles must collide to react.
 More frequent and energetic collisions = faster reaction.

3.3 Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium

Some reactions are reversible, meaning they can go both forward and backward.
A + B⇌C + D\text{A + B} \rightleftharpoons \text{C + D}A + B⇌C + D
  Forward reaction: Reactants → Products.
 Backward reaction: Products → Reactants.
Dynamic Equilibrium
 Occurs in a closed system where the rate of forward reaction = rate of
reverse reaction.
 Concentrations of reactants and products remain constant but not
necessarily equal.
Le Chatelier’s Principle
If the conditions of an equilibrium system change, the system shifts to oppose the
change.
Factor Effect on Equilibrium
Increase Temperature Shifts to the endothermic direction.
Decrease Temperature Shifts to the exothermic direction.
Increase Pressure Shifts to side with fewer gas molecules.
Decrease Pressure Shifts to side with more gas molecules.
Increase Concentration of Reactants Shifts to right (produces more products).
Increase Concentration of Products Shifts to left (produces more reactants).
Example: Haber Process (Ammonia Production)
N2+3H2⇌2NH3ΔH=−92 kJ/molN_2 + 3H_2 \rightleftharpoons 2NH_3 \quad \
Delta H = -92 \text{ kJ/mol}N2+3H2⇌2NH3ΔH=−92 kJ/mol
 High pressure (200 atm) favors ammonia formation (fewer gas molecules).
 Moderate temperature (450°C) balances speed and yield.
 Iron catalyst speeds up reaction but doesn’t change equilibrium position.

3.4 Electrochemistry (Redox Reactions and Electrolysis)

Electrochemistry studies electron transfer in reactions.
Oxidation and Reduction
Process Definition Example
Oxidation Loss of electrons or gain of oxygen Mg → Mg²⁺ + 2e⁻
Reduction Gain of electrons or loss of oxygen Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Cu
Redox Reactions: Oxidation and reduction happen together (e.g., rusting of iron).

3.5 Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the process of breaking down a compound using electricity.
Key Terms in Electrolysis
 Electrolyte: Ionic substance that conducts electricity when molten or
dissolved.
 Anode (+ electrode): Attracts negative ions (anions) → Oxidation occurs.
 Cathode (- electrode): Attracts positive ions (cations) → Reduction occurs.
Electrolysis of Molten Compounds
Example: Electrolysis of Molten Lead(II) Bromide (PbBr₂)
 At Cathode (-): Pb²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Pb (lead metal forms).
 At Anode (+): 2Br⁻ → Br₂ + 2e⁻ (bromine gas released).
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
 Water ionizes: H2O⇌H++OH−H_2O \rightleftharpoons H^+ + OH^-H2
O⇌H++OH−
 At Cathode (-):
o If metal is more reactive than hydrogen, H₂ is produced.
o If metal is less reactive than hydrogen, metal is deposited.
 At Anode (+):
 o If solution contains halide ions (Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻), halogen gas is produced.
o If no halides, oxygen (O₂) is released.
Electrolysis of Brine (NaCl Solution)
 Products:
o H₂ at cathode (-)
o Cl₂ at anode (+)
o NaOH remains in solution
2NaCl+2H2O→2NaOH+H2+Cl22NaCl + 2H_2O → 2NaOH + H_2 + Cl_22NaCl+2H2
O→2NaOH+H2+Cl2

Industrial Applications of Electrolysis

Process Use
Coating metal objects with a thin metal
Electroplating
layer.
Purification of Copper Removing impurities from crude copper.
Extraction of Aluminium (Hall- Aluminium obtained from bauxite ore
Héroult Process) using electrolysis.

Final Overview of Unit 3

This unit focuses on energy changes, reaction rates, equilibrium, and electrolysis,
which are key in industrial applications.
✅ Exothermic vs. Endothermic reactions
✅ Factors affecting reaction rate
✅ Le Chatelier’s principle in equilibria
✅ Oxidation, reduction, and redox reactions
✅ Electrolysis and its industrial uses
Unit 4: Organic Chemistry – Complete Revision Summary
Unit 4 focuses on carbon-based compounds, including hydrocarbons, functional
groups, homologous series, and organic reactions. Organic chemistry is essential
for understanding fuels, plastics, medicines, and biological molecules.

4.1 Introduction to Organic Chemistry

 Organic compounds contain carbon.
 Carbon forms four covalent bonds, allowing a vast variety of molecules.
 Hydrocarbons: Compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen.
 Organic compounds are classified into homologous series, groups of
compounds with similar chemical properties and a general formula.

4.2 Hydrocarbons: Alkanes and Alkenes

Alkanes (Saturated Hydrocarbons)
 General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂.
 Contain only single covalent bonds.
 Saturated (no double bonds, cannot undergo addition reactions).
 Found in crude oil and natural gas.
Properties of Alkanes
Alkane Molecular Formula Boiling Point Trend
Methane CH₄ Lowest
Ethane C₂H₆ Increases
Propane C₃H₈ Higher
Alkane Molecular Formula Boiling Point Trend
Butane C₄H₁₀ Even Higher
 Boiling point increases with chain length.
 Insoluble in water.
 Burn in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water.
Combustion of Alkanes
Alkane+O2→CO2+H2O\text{Alkane} + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂OAlkane+O2→CO2+H2O
Example:
CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2OCH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂OCH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O
Incomplete combustion (limited oxygen) produces carbon monoxide (CO), a toxic
gas.

Alkenes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons)

 General formula: CₙH₂ₙ.
 Contain at least one C=C double bond.
 More reactive than alkanes due to the double bond.
 Undergo addition reactions (e.g., with bromine water).
Bromine Water Test for Alkenes
 Alkane: No reaction (stays orange).
 Alkene: Decolorizes bromine water (orange → colorless).

4.3 Crude Oil and Fractional Distillation

Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons formed from ancient marine organisms.
Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil
Separates crude oil into useful fractions based on boiling points.
Fraction Uses
Refinery gases Cooking gas
Gasoline (Petrol) Car fuel
Kerosene Jet fuel
Diesel Truck fuel
Lubricating oils Waxes and polishes
Bitumen Road surfacing
 Smaller molecules (e.g., petrol) have lower boiling points and are collected
at the top.
 Larger molecules (e.g., bitumen) have high boiling points and are collected
at the bottom.

4.4 Cracking of Hydrocarbons

 Cracking breaks down long-chain hydrocarbons into shorter, more useful
molecules.
 Produces alkanes and alkenes.
 Requires high temperature (600-700°C) and a catalyst (e.g., silica or
alumina).
Example of Cracking
C10H22→C6H14+C4H8C₁₀H₂₂ → C₆H₁₄ + C₄H₈C10H22→C6H14+C4H8
 Produces a shorter alkane (used as fuel) and an alkene (used in making
plastics).

4.5 Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids

Alcohols (-OH Functional Group)
 General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₁OH.
  Common alcohols:
o Methanol (CH₃OH)
o Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) (used in alcoholic drinks, solvents, and fuels).
Production of Ethanol
1. Fermentation
o Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide
o Conditions: Yeast, 30°C, anaerobic (no oxygen)
C6H12O6→2C2H5OH+2CO2C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₂H₅OH + 2CO₂C6H12O6→2C2H5
OH+2CO2
2. Hydration of Ethene
o Ethene + Steam → Ethanol
o Conditions: Phosphoric acid catalyst, 300°C, high pressure
C2H4+H2O→C2H5OHC₂H₄ + H₂O → C₂H₅OHC2H4+H2O→C2H5OH

Carboxylic Acids (-COOH Functional Group)

 General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₁COOH.
 Weak acids that react with metals, carbonates, and bases.
 Ethanoic acid (CH₃COOH) is found in vinegar.
Reactions of Carboxylic Acids
1. With Metals:
Acid+Metal→Salt+H2\text{Acid} + \text{Metal} → \text{Salt} +
H₂Acid+Metal→Salt+H2
Example:
2CH3COOH+Mg→(CH3COO)2Mg+H22CH₃COOH + Mg → (CH₃COO)₂Mg + H₂2CH3
COOH+Mg→(CH3COO)2Mg+H2
 2. With Carbonates:
Acid+Carbonate→Salt+CO2+H2O\text{Acid} + \text{Carbonate} → \text{Salt} + CO₂
+ H₂OAcid+Carbonate→Salt+CO2+H2O
Example:
2CH3COOH+Na2CO3→2CH3COONa+CO2+H2O2CH₃COOH + Na₂CO₃ →
2CH₃COONa + CO₂ + H₂O2CH3COOH+Na2CO3→2CH3COONa+CO2+H2O

4.6 Polymers: Addition and Condensation Polymerization

Polymers are long-chain molecules made from small repeating units
(monomers).
Addition Polymerization (From Alkenes)
 Alkenes undergo addition polymerization to form plastics.
 Example:
o Ethene → Polyethene
o Propene → Polypropene
nC2H4→(−C2H4−)nnC₂H₄ → (-C₂H₄-)ₙnC2H4→(−C2H4−)n
Common Polymers:
 Polyethene (plastic bags).
 PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) (pipes).
 PTFE (Teflon) (non-stick pans).
Condensation Polymerization
 Two different monomers react to form a polymer and a small molecule
(water or HCl).
 Example: Nylon and Polyester production.

Final Overview of Unit 4

This unit explains the fundamentals of organic chemistry, including:
✅ Hydrocarbons (alkanes & alkenes).
✅ Fractional distillation and cracking.
✅ Alcohols, carboxylic acids, and their reactions.
✅ Polymerization and plastics.