PHYSICS

INVESTIGATOR
Y
PROJECT
2024-25
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

MADE BY: ISHAAN TOMAR

CLASS: 11TH ‘A’
SUBMITTED TO: KAMLESH RAI
(PHYSICS TEACHER)

INDEX

 Acknowledgment

 Certificate

 pressure

 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

 DANIEL BERNOULLI

 INTRODUCTION TO BERNOULLI’S
THEOREM

 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

 EXPERIMENT

 APPLICATIONS

 CONCLUSION

 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The completion of my project depends on the cooperation, coordination

and combined efforts of rendered sources of time, material, knowledge
and energy. Hence I felt proud in taking this opportunity to thank and
acknowledge the efforts of all those people who directly or indirectly
helped in successful completion of this project of min, a deep sense of
obligation and gratitude is owned towards my physics teacher, Mr.
Kamlesh Rai who has the guiding spirit behind the completion of this
project and encouraged me whole heartedly during my venture. I would
also like to thank our Physics laboratory assistant in carrying out the
related practical work. I would also thank my family for corporation with
me and guiding me right path. I am grateful to my classmates and friends
for their unconditional support and motivation during this major project.

It is a great opportunity for me to extend my heartiest felt gratitude to

each and every one who helped me throughout the course of this major
project in anyway.

Teacher’s Sign.
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the matter and ideas for this project has been
gathered independently by my student, Aryavardhan Singh Chauhan of
class XI A Ramshree India International School; and is presented under my
supervision.

This is also to clarify that this major Physics Project entitled to “Effect of
detergent on surface tension” is an authenticated record of the student’s
own work carried out by him under my guidance and supervision.

This is also to clarify that this project has not been submitted to other
institutes of education.

Mr. Kamlesh Rai

Physics Teacher

Physics Department

Teacher’s Sign
 PRESSURE
 Pressure, in the physical sciences, is the
perpendicular force per unit area, or
the stress at a point within a confined fluid.

 In SI units, pressure is measured in pascals; one

pascal equals one newton per square meter.

 Absolute pressure of a gas or liquid is the total

pressure it exerts, including the effect of
atmospheric pressure. An absolute pressure of
zero corresponds to empty space or a
complete vacuum.

 Pressure is a scalar quantity.

 EQUATION OF
CONTINUITY
 According to the equation of continuity Av =
constant. Where A =cross-sectional area and
v=velocity with which the fluid flows.
 It means that if any liquid is flowing in
streamline flow in a pipe of non-uniform cross-
section area, then rate of flow of liquid across
any cross-section remains constant.
Consider a fluid flowing through a tube of varying
thickness.
Let the cross-sectional area at one end (I) = A 1 and
cross-sectional area of other end (II) = A 2.

The velocity and density of the fluid at one end

(I)=v1, ρ1 respectively, velocity and density of fluid
at other end (II)= v2, ρ2
Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of
time ∆t, across left cross-sectional is Area (I)
=A1xv1x∆t
Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of
time ∆t, across right cross-sectional Area (II) = A 2x
v2x∆t
Fluid inside is incompressible (volume of fluid does
not change by applying pressure) that is density
remains same. {ρ1=ρ2 .... (equation 1)}
Along (I) mass=ρ1 A1 v1∆t and along second point
(II) ,
mass = ρ2A2 v2∆t
By using equation (1), we can conclude that
A1 v1 = A2 v2.This is the equation of continuity.
From Equation of continuity we can say
that Av=constant.
This equation is also termed as “Conservation of
mass of incompressible fluids”.
DANIEL BERNOULLI

Daniel Bernoulli (8 February 1700 – 17 March 1782)

was a Swiss mathematician and physicist and was
one of the many prominent mathematicians in
the Bernoulli family. He is particularly remembered
for his applications of mathematics to mechanics,
especially fluid mechanics, and for his pioneering
work in probability and statistics. His name is
commemorated in the Bernoulli's principle, a
particular example of the conservation of energy,
which describes the mathematics of the mechanism
underlying the operation of two important
technologies of the 20th century: the carburetor and
the airplane wing.
Together Bernoulli and Euler tried to discover more
about the flow of fluids. It was known that a moving
body exchanges its kinetic energy for potential
energy when it gains height. Daniel realised that in a
similar way, a moving fluid exchanges its specific
kinetic energy for pressure, the former being the
kinetic energy per unit volume.
 INTRODUCTION TO
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an
increase in the speed of a fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a
decrease in the fluid's potential energy. The
principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli, as
mentioned before, who published it in his
book Hydrodynamical in 1738. Although Bernoulli
deduced that pressure decreases when the flow
speed increases, it was Leonhard Euler who
derived Bernoulli's equation in its usual form in
1752. The principle is only applicable for isentropic
flows: when the effects of irreversible
processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic
processes (e.g. heat radiation) are small and can be
neglected.
Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types
of fluid flow, resulting in various forms of Bernoulli's
equation; there are different forms of Bernoulli's
equation for different types of flow. The simple form
of Bernoulli's equation is valid for incompressible
flows (e.g. most liquid flows and gases moving at
low Mach number). More advanced forms may be
applied to compressible flows at higher Mach
numbers.
 Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the
principle of conservation of energy. This states that,
in a steady flow, the sum of all forms of energy in a
fluid along a streamline is the same at all points on
that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic
energy, potential energy and internal
energy remains constant. Thus an increase in the
speed of the fluid – implying an increase in its kinetic
energy (dynamic pressure) – occurs with a
simultaneous decrease in (the sum of) its potential
energy (including the static pressure) and internal
energy. If the fluid is flowing out of a reservoir, the
sum of all forms of energy is the same on all
streamlines because in a reservoir the energy per
unit volume (the sum of pressure and gravitational
potential ρ g h) is the same everywhere.

Bernoulli's principle can also be derived directly

from Isaac Newton's Second Law of Motion. If a small
volume of fluid is flowing horizontally from a region
of high pressure to a region of low pressure, then
there is more pressure behind than in front. This
gives a net force on the volume, accelerating it
along the streamline.
Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their
own weight. If a fluid is flowing horizontally and
along a section of a streamline, where the speed
increases it can only be because the fluid on that
section has moved from a region of higher pressure
to a region of lower pressure; and if its speed
decreases, it can only be because it has moved from
a region of lower pressure to a region of higher
pressure. Consequently, within a fluid flowing
horizontally, the highest speed occurs where the
pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs
where the pressure is highest.

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
The equation is given as,
P + 1/2(ρ v2) + ρgh = 0
Where P is pressure, ρ is the density of the fluid, v is
its velocity, g is the acceleration due to gravity and h
is the height of the fluid from the ground.

DERIVATION
 Finding the Work Done
First, we will calculate the work done (W1) on the fluid in the region BC.
Work done is

W1 = P1A1 (v1∆t) = P1∆V

Moreover, if we consider the equation of continuity, the same volume of

fluid will pass through BC and DE. Therefore, work done by the fluid on the
right-hand side of the pipe or DE region is

W2 = P2A2 (v2∆t) = P2∆V

Thus, we can consider the work done on the fluid as – P2∆V. Therefore, the
total work done on the fluid is

W1 – W2 = (P1 − P2) ∆V

The total work done helps to convert the gravitational potential energy and
kinetic energy of the fluid. Now, consider the fluid density as ρ and the mass
passing through the pipe as ∆m in the ∆t interval of time.

Hence, ∆m = ρA1 v1∆t = ρ∆V

Change in Gravitational Potential and Kinetic Energy

Now, we have to calculate the change in gravitational potential energy ∆U.

Similarly, the change in ∆K or kinetic energy can be written as

Calculation of Bernoulli’s Equation

Applying work-energy theorem in the volume of the fluid, the equation will
be
 Dividing each term by ∆V, we will obtain the equation

Rearranging the equation will yield

The above equation is the Bernoulli’s equation. However, the 1 and 2 of

both the sides of the equation denotes two different points along the pipe.
Thus, the general equation can be written as

EXPERIMENT
This experiment is aimed at investigating the validity
of Bernoulli’s equation when applied to a steady flow
of water in tapered duct and to measure the flow
rate of steady flow rates. Based on Bernoulli’s
theorem relates the pressure, velocity, and elevation
in a moving fluid the compressibility and viscosity
(internal friction) of which are negligible and the flow
of which is steady, or laminar.
For this experiment, by using the FM 24 Bernoulli’s
Apparatus Test Equipment is to demonstrate the
Bernoulli’s theorem. The experiment was conducted
in order to find the time taken to collect 3L of water,
the volumetric flow rates of the water, the pressure
difference at all manometer tube at different cross
section. The time to collect 0.003 m3 water is
recorded based on the different flow rate for each
experiment.
 The combination of venture meter complete with
manometer tube and hydraulic bench were used.
During the experiment, water is fed through a hose
connector and the flow rate can be adjusted at the
flow regulator valve at the outlet of the test section.
The venture can be demonstrated as a means of
flow measurement and the discharge coefficient can
be determined the results show the reading of each
manometer tubes increase when the pressure
difference increases. From the reading of height can
be calculated the data by applied the Bernoulli
equation to fin the velocity of the fluid moving.

The pressure level and velocity reading for part A to

E of the tube is recorded. From Bernoulli theory, the
relation between the increase and decrease in the
pressure value is inversely proportional to its
velocity. Bernoulli's Principle tells that as the fluid
flows more quickly through the narrow sections, the
pressure actually decreases rather than increases.
Thus, it proves the validity of Bernoulli’s theorem.
 APPLICATIONS
In modern everyday life there are many observations that
can be successfully explained by application of Bernoulli's
principle, even though no real fluid is entirely inviscid and a
small viscosity often has a large effect on the flow.

 An injector on a steam locomotive (or static boiler).

 A De Laval nozzle utilizes Bernoulli's principle to create

a force by turning pressure energy generated by the
combustion of propellants into velocity. This then
generates thrust by way of Newton's third law of motion.

 The pilot tube and static port on an aircraft are used to

determine the airspeed of the aircraft. These two devices
are connected to the airspeed indicator, which
determines the dynamic pressure of the airflow past the
aircraft. Dynamic pressure is the difference
between stagnation pressure and static pressure.
Bernoulli's principle is used to calibrate the airspeed
indicator so that it displays the indicated
airspeed appropriate to the dynamic pressure.

 Bernoulli's principle can be used to calculate the lift force

on an airfoil, if the behaviour of the fluid flow in the
vicinity of the foil is known. For example, if the air
flowing past the top surface of an aircraft wing is moving
faster than the air flowing past the bottom surface, then
Bernoulli's principle implies that the pressure on the
surfaces of the wing will be lower above than below. This
pressure difference results in an upwards lifting
force. Whenever the distribution of speed past the top
and bottom surfaces of a wing is known, the lift forces
can be calculated (to a good approximation) using
Bernoulli's equations – established by Bernoulli over a
century before the first man-made wings were used for
the purpose of flight. Bernoulli's principle does not
explain why the air flows faster past the top of the wing
and slower past the underside.
 The Bernoulli grip relies on this principle to create a non-
contact adhesive force between a surface and the
gripper.

 The carburettor used in many reciprocating engines

contains a venturi to create a region of low pressure to
draw fuel into the carburettor and mix it thoroughly with
the incoming air. The low pressure in the throat of a
venturi can be explained by Bernoulli's principle; in the
narrow throat, the air is moving at its fastest speed and
therefore it is at its lowest pressure.
 The flow speed of a fluid can be measured using a device
such as a Venturi meter or an orifice plate, which can be
placed into a pipeline to reduce the diameter of the flow.
For a horizontal device, the continuity equation shows
that for an incompressible fluid, the reduction in
diameter will cause an increase in the fluid flow speed.
Subsequently, Bernoulli's principle then shows that there
must be a decrease in the pressure in the reduced
diameter region. This phenomenon is known as
the Venturi effect.

 The maximum possible drain rate for a tank with a hole

or tap at the base can be calculated directly from
Bernoulli's equation, and is found to be proportional to
the square root of the height of the fluid in the tank. This
 is Torricelli's law, showing that Torricelli's law is
compatible with Bernoulli's principle. Viscosity lowers
this drain rate. This is reflected in the discharge
coefficient, which is a function of the Reynolds number
and the shape of the orifice.

CONCLUSION

Bernoulli's law states that if a non-viscous fluid is

flowing along a pipe of varying cross section, then
the pressure is lower at constrictions where the
velocity is higher, and the pressure is higher where
the pipe opens out and the fluid stagnate. Many
people find this situation paradoxical when they first
encounter it (higher velocity, lower pressure).
Venturi meter, atomizer and filter pump Bernoulli’s
principle is used in venturi meter to find the rate of
flow of a liquid. It is used in a carburetor to mix air
and petrol vapour in an internal combustion engine.
Bernoulli’s principle is used in an atomizer and filter
pump. Wings of Aeroplane Wings of an areoplane
are made tapering. The upper surface is made
convex and the lower surface is made concave. Due
to this shape of the wing, the air currents at the top
have a large velocity than at the bottom.
Consequently the pressure above the surface of the
wing is less as compared to the lower surface of the
wing. This difference of pressure is helpful in giving
a vertical lift to the plane.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 www.sciencefare.com
 www.mycbseguide.com
 PHYSICS NCERT CLASS XI
 www.sciencebuddies.org
 www.sciencefun.org