Cartography and Map Reading (GeES 2042)

Unit 1: Basics of Cartography

Definitions. Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics,
and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that
communicate spatial information effectively. Cartography is the art, science and technology of
making maps. Cartography is much more than that; it is the study and even the use of maps.
ESRI’s online dictionary defines cartography as … “the art and science of expressing graphically,
usually through maps, the natural and social features of the earth”.
Cartography means ‘the conveying of spatial information by means of maps. It is not only the
manufacturing of maps. With the advent of computers and GIS (Geographical Information Systems)
new definition: ‘the information transfer that is centered about a spatial database which can be
considered in itself a multifaceted model of geographic reality’.

Cartography as an art: Skill, Taste, aesthetics.

Cartography as a Science: Accumulation and accepted knowledge that is systematized and
formulated wrt general truths and general laws.
Cartography as a technology: Expertise, Equipment, Tools employed.

Advantages of computers in cartography

 Integration of mapping Sciences - Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry, Surveying
 Reduction of tedium of Production
 Computer Networks
 Flexibility in design- experimental maps
 Updates/Easier revision (minor)
 Popularity of computer graphics- vizn
 Less training required to make maps
Disadvantages of computers in cartography
 Those not trained in Cartography making maps!
 Cost of digital data
 Decline of traditional Cartography
 Because data is digital- dubious data unchallenged
 Need for higher training- databases, operating systems and programming

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Origin and development of cartography
Cartography developed in response to theoretical developments, technological changes and society's
information needs. Nobody knows when the first map was made. Principles of cartography were
understood as early as 2500 when Babylonians drew maps on clay tablets. Mesopotamians used clay
tablets to produce maps at several scales.
Cartography, or map-making, has been an integral part of the human history for a long time, possibly
up to 8,000 years. From cave paintings to ancient maps of Babylon, Greece, and Asia, through the
Age of Exploration, and on into the 21st century, people have created and used maps as essential tools
to help them define, explain, and navigate their way through the world. Maps began as two-
dimensional drawings but can also adopt three-dimensional shapes (globes, models) and be stored in
purely numerical forms.
1. The Babylonian Maps
 Ancient Babylonians had a relatively advanced culture and had a well-defined measurement
system. They used a sexigesimal number system and divided the circle into 360 degrees.
 Prepared the Gasur Map (2300 BC) that contains mountains, water course, place names. They
also prepared the “World Map” (600 BC) with a small-scale map of the known world.
2. The Egyptian Maps
 Egyptians were advanced in the fields of mathematics, agriculture, quarrying, medicine, art, and
architecture. They used papyrus and wood instead of clay to prepare maps. Survey maps were
perhaps the most common Egyptian maps. Annual flooding of the Nile necessitated accurate maps
to re-establish boundaries. The also used maps were used for taxation purposes.
 Egyptians were also prepared the Turin Papyrus (Map of the Gold Mines) (1300 BC) maps which
is a topographic map located between the Nile & Red Sea that had only two legends.
3. The Greek Maps
The Greek culture and scholarship spans thousands of years. Greek literature has an unbroken history
of nearly 3,000 years. The Greek maps reflect a gradual transition from theoretical to practical
cartography (from idealized concepts of the shape of the known world and “climata,” to map
projections and coordinate geometry).
Some of the Greek maps are:
– Achilles Shield (800 BC) prepared encircling ocean (again).
– Anaximander’s World Map (6th BC) - considered to be the first world map drawn to scale.

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– Dicaearchus’ World Map (3rd BC) - is the first meridian and parallel (diaphragma)
– Eratosthenes’ World Map (220 BC) - The father of scientific cartography, and first to calculate
Earth’s circumference.

Figure 1. Eratosthenes’ World Map

– Ptolemy’s Regional Maps (150 CE) - Larger scale maps of smaller regions.
4. Roman Maps
Example of the Roman maps is Peutinger Road Map (335 CE) - 22 ft long, 1 ft wide.
5. Chinese Maps
Some of the Greek maps are:
– Stone map of China (1140 BC) - Highly accurate representations of rivers and locations.
– Silk map of China (1470 BC) - used to demonstrate the new Confucian dynasty’s “cosmic legitimacy”
– Paper map of China (1800s) - Used for bureaucratic control of the empire, beginning in the 7th
BC. Prepared for the Yellow River (Hwang Ho).
6. Japanese Maps
• Clouds used to compress distance or time.
7. Maps of the Middle Ages
Some Maps of the Middle Ages are:
 Al-Gharaib’s World Map (1481) - Reflects religious views of the 10th century Islam. The map was
centered on Mecca.
 “T-O” Mappaemundi – is a religious maps devised and promoted by the early Christian Church.
“O” is the known world with encircling ocean, and “T” divides the continents.
8. Maps of the Renaissance
 Roselli’s World Map (1508) – is the first “whole world” map. Mythical southern continent (disc. 1820).
9. Maps of the 17th-19th Centuries

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• Hondius’ World Map (1630) – is the quintessential renaissance map.
• van Kuelen’s World Map (1720) – was prepared based on Mercator’s projection
10. Early Thematic Maps
 Thematic mapping is only about 300 years old. Developed primarily in Europe used in
conjunction with new statistical tools to describe the physical world (trade winds, magnetic
declination, topography, etc.) and the social world (population, disease, ethnicities, etc.).
• Minard’s Emigration Flow Map (1862) – contained four attributes: magnitude, location, direction,
and nationalities/racial groups.
• Duchatelet’s Prostitute Map (1836) – is a choropleth map illustrating concentrations of prostitutes
in Paris.

Figure 2. Duchatelet’s Prostitute Map

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Unit 2: Coordinate Systems and Map Projections
Global coordinate and national coordinate systems are used to specify geographical locations. To
learn about these coordinate systems, you must first learn about the shape and size of the earth.
Representing the shape of the Earth with all the variation of its complex surface topography (e.g.
mountains and valleys) would be an impossible task.
What is the shape of the earth?
There were different answers at different times for this question. Some people have maintained that
the earth is flat or even disc-shaped which was advocated by Homer. However, other people
perceived the earth as being round or spherical. Pythagoras (sixth century B.C.) and Aristotle (384-
322 B.C) are known to have decided that the earth was round or spherical. Aristotle based his
conclusions on the following arguments. They are: 1) A round object has attraction towards its center
2) The earth has circular shadow during eclipses on the moon. 3) The constellations you observe at
the northern and southern hemisphere are different. 4) Sailing ships always disappear from view hull
first and mast last.
Around 1670, Isaac Newton proposed that there would be a slight bulging of the earth at the equator
due to the greater centrifugal force generated by the earth’s rotation. It is the force of gravity which
is largely responsible for the present shape of the earth. The force of gravity is directed towards the
center of the earth. But the centrifugal force pushes outward from the axis of the rotation of the earth.
As this force increases with distance from the axis of rotation, it is more effective at and near the equator.
The sphere bulges at the equator and would produce a slight flattening at the poles. Newton predicted
the polar flattening to be about 1/300th of the equatorial radius.
The amount of polar flattening (oblateness) is given by the ratio f = (a-b)/a
Where: a is the equatorial radius
b is the polar radius
Calculate the polar flattening, if a = 6378.5km and b = 6357 km
The shape of the earth with slight bulge at the equator and
flattening at the poles is referred to as oblate spheroid or oblate
Ellipsoid (figure 3).
Geoid: the geoid is shaped by the Earth's gravity field. It is an equipotential surface of the gravity
field, indicating that the gravity potential is constant and the direction of gravity is perpendicular at
every point on this surface. The geoid is the best global approximation of the mean sea level (MSL)
which is used as a reference in calculating elevations of features.

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Which shape of the earth can one use for mapping?
Cartographers and GIS experts use these three approximations to the earth’s true shape in different
ways. The spherical model is the reference surface for small-scale maps of countries, continents,
and larger areas. This is because the difference between sphere and ellipsoid is negligible when
mapping large areas in a general manner on page-size maps. In addition, the spherical and ellipsoid
mathematical equations for a particular map projection give essentially the same results for small-
scale maps.
With large-scale maps, one cannot ignore the irregularities of the earth’s surface. With detailed,
large-scale maps of small areas, such as topographic maps and nautical charts, the differences
between distance between two points on the spherical and ellipsoidal models of the earth can be
significant. We need to consider the earth’s oblateness. Therefore, use the ellipsoid as the reference
surface for these large-scale maps.
The geoid is the reference surface for ground surveyed horizontal and vertical positions.
 Sphere (round): for maps of all or most of the earth without much detail. No problem for small
scale maps of Earth–a sphere is sufficient.
 Elipsoid: for maps of smaller areas of the earth and where there is greater detail.
 Geoid: For very detailed or local maps, or maps of elevation.

The Size of the Earth

Eratosthenes (276 -194 BC) calculated the equatorial circumference to be 46,250 km, remarkably
close to today’s measurement of 40,072 km. Another Greek mathematician, Poseidonius (130-51
B.C.) measured the earth’s equatorial circumference to be 38, 622 km.
How did Eratosthenes calculate the circumference of the earth, which is closer to present
calculations? Eratosthenes ingenious method of measuring the earth employed simple geometrical
calculations (Fig. 3). In fact, the method is still used today. Erathosthenes noticed on the day of the
summer solstice that the noon sun shone directly down a well at Syene near the present day Aswan
in Southern Egypt. However, the sun was not directly overhead at Alexandria but rather cast a shadow
that was 70 12’ of the vertical. Applying geometrical principles, he knew that the deviations of the
sun’s rays from the vertical would subtend an angle of 70 12’ at the center of the earth. This angle is
1/50 of the whole circumference of the earth (3600). The only remaining measurement needed to
complete the calculations was the distance between Alexandria and Syene. This was estimated to be
925 km. He multiplied this figure by 50. He got a total circumference of 46,250 km. This is only

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about 15% too large from today’s measurement (40,072 km). His method was sound, but his
measurements and assumptions were somewhat in error.
Three assumptions on Eratosthenes’ part led to error in the results:
i Alexandria and Syene are not on the same meridian. Syene’s latitude is 2405’30’’.
ii It is not at the Tropic of Cancer, where the sun’s rays are perfectly vertical at the summer solstice.
iii Finally, the actual distance between Alexandria and Syene is 729 km.
Regardless of these sources of error, Eratosthenes made remarkably accurate calculations.

Figure 5. Erathosthenes’ Method of Measuring the Size of the Earth

We can calculate the area of the earth by taking take the sphere as a reference using the formula 4Πr2. Where
r is the mean radius of the earth. Example r = 6371 km then, calculate area of the Earth.

Coordinate Systems
Features on spherical surfaces are not easy to measure. Features on planes are easy to measure and
calculate distance, angle and area. Coordinate systems provide a measurement framework. A
coordinate system is a grid used to identify locations on a page or screen that are equivalent to grid
locations on the globe. The coordinates are (x, y) pairs that are based on some universal origin point
for reference. The most commonly used coordinate system today is the latitude, longitude, and height
system. The Prime Meridian and the Equator are the reference planes used to define latitude and
longitude. Lat/long system measures angles on spherical surfaces. Latitude and longitude refer to
degree, minutes and seconds of arc from reference lines that run East-West (latitude; equator) or
North-South (longitude; prime meridian).
A coordinate system is a reference system used to measure horizontal and vertical distance on a map.
It is usually defined by a map projection (Map projection is mapping of 3D earth surface to plane).
Map projections require a point of reference on the Earth’s surface. Most often this is the center or

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origin of the projection. A coordinate system enables every location on the earth to be specified by a
set of coordinates of known location on a grid. Geospatial data is represented in the form of co-
ordinates. The two main types of coordinate systems are “Geographic Coordinate System” and the
“Cartesian/Plane Coordinate Systems”.

a) Geographic/Spherical Coordinate Systems

A GCS uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define locations on the earth. A point is
referenced by its longitude and latitude values measured from the earth’s center to a point on the
earth’s surface. In the spherical system, horizontal lines, or east–west lines, are lines of equal latitude,
or parallels. Vertical lines, or north–south lines, are lines of equal longitude, or meridians. These form
a Gridded network called Graticule. The line of latitude midway between the poles is called the
equator. The line of zero longitude is called the prime meridian and passes through Greenwich,
England and Accra in Ghana. A point is referenced by its longitude and latitude values. Longitude
and latitude are angles measured from the earth’s center to a point on the earth’s surface. The angles
often are measured in degrees (or in grads).

A reference system using latitude and longitude to define the location of points on the surface of a
sphere/spheroid/geoid. Lat/lon good for locating positions on surface of a globe. Lat/lon not efficient
for measuring distances and areas! Latitude and longitude are not uniform units of measure.
 One degree of longitude at equator = 111.321 km (WGS-84)
 One degree of longitude at 60°latitude = 55.802 km (WGS-84)
 1o of longitude at the equator  1o of longitude near the poles
1 degree of latitude, and of longitude at the equator, is 60° * 1.852 km = 111.12 km.
However, the GIS require Decimal Degree (DD). Therefore, we have to transfer geographic
coordinates into decimal degrees using the following formula:
Decimal degrees = Degrees + Minutes/60 + Seconds/3600
Advantage: one system for the entire earth, more-or-less conforms to the shape of the earth, so no systematic distortions.
Disadvantage: spherical not planimetric, must use spherical trigonometry to measure areas and distances, must project
onto flat maps where the grid lines are curved.
b) Cartesian/Plane Coordinate Systems
This is secondary (derived) coordinate system. A projected coordinate system is defined on a flat,
two-dimensional surface. The plane coordinates (eastings/northings) are measures of length defining
the absolute or relative position of a point. It is derived from geographic coordinates by means of

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mathematical projections (transformations) to convert from 3D to 2D. In a PCS, locations are
identified by x,y coordinates on a grid, with the origin at the center of the grid. The two values are
called the x-coordinate and y-coordinate. In the projected coordinate system the unit of measurement
is in meters and divisions of meters.

Figure 7.

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

The UTM is a global map projection system. UTM projection is specialized application of the
Transverse Mercator projection in which it uses a transverse cylinder, secant to the reference surface
to represent the surface of the earth in a grid based system method of specifying location. It is
generally used all over the world. It is an international metric coordinate system that covers the entire
earth. It has the advantage of being mathematically consistent and well defined for the entire earth.
The UTM has the following properties:
i. The most western edge of UTM is zone 1 and the most eastern edge is zone 60. Each zone has 60
longitudinal extent. That means zone 1 extends from 1800 W to 1740 W. Ethiopia is largely in zone 37.
ii. The latitudinal interval is 80 latitude. The latitudinal extent is from 840 N to 800 S.
iii. The rows of quadrilaterals are assigned letters C to X consecutively (With I and O omitted) beginning at
800 S latitude. Row X which extends from 720 N to 840 N to cover all land areas in the northern hemisphere
is having a latitudinal extent of 120.
To avoid too much distortion, in UTM the world is divided into 60 equal zones that are all 6 degrees
wide in longitude. The UTM zones are numbered 1 to 60, zone 1 at 180 degrees West longitude and
progressing East and reach zone 60 at 180 degrees East longitude as shown below.

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Figure 8. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system

Map Projection
Map projection is a mathematical means of transferring information from a model of the Earth, which
represents a three-dimensional curved surface, to a two-dimensional medium (paper or a computer screen).
Map projections are transformations of geographic co-ordinates (latitude, longitude) into the Cartesian (x, y)
co-ordinate space of the map. A map projection is a method for mapping spatial patterns on a curved surface
(the Earth’s surface) to a flat surface.
Transformation from one plane coordinate system to another is referred to as re-projection. Map projection
define the spatial relationship between locations on earth and their relative locations on a flat map. Map
projection cause the distortion of one or more map properties (scale, distance, direction, shape).
In a three-dimensional coordinate reference system, another axis, normally labeled Z, is added. It is also at
right angles to the X and Y axes. The Z axis provides the third dimension. Every point that is expressed in
spherical coordinates can be expressed as an X Y Z coordinate.

Properties of map projections

 Conformal projections
o Preserve local shape → grid of intersecting lines of latitude/longitude on globe are perpendicular
(preserve angles).
 Equal-area projections
o Preserve area of features → angle and/or scale may be distorted.
 Equidistant projections
o Preserve distances between certain points; scale is not maintained correctly on an entire map.
 True-direction projections
o True-direction or azimutal projections map great-circles through the center point as straight lines.

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Types of map projections (3 types)
Many types of map projections are being used for map making. They are basically classified into four
groups in accordance with the Map Projection Theory or the types of surfaces that are tangent with
the globe. The four categories are:
 Cylindrical projection
 Conic projection
 Planar, Azimuthal or Zenithal projection
1. Cylindrical Projection
This type of projection uses a cylinder as a tangent surface that wraps around a globe, or to intersect
the globe at certain positions. If the cylinder is unrolled into a flat sheet, the parallels and meridians
will be straight lines that create the right angles where they intersect each other. The projection
displays directions and shapes correctly. The area close to tangent points will be more accurate. The
more distant it is from tangent points, the more distortion will be shown. This type of projection is
typically used to map the world in particular areas between 80 degrees north and 80 degrees south
latitudes. The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid coordinate system was developed using
this type of projection. It is widely used because direction is not distorted and can be used for
navigation. Area and shape are distorted (Look how big Greenland appears compared to Australia).
2. Conic projection
This type of projection uses a conic surface to touch the globe when light is cast. When the cone is
unrolled, the meridians will be in semicircle like the ribs of a fan. The tangent areas of conic projection
can be classified as central conical projection or tangent cone, secant conical projection, and
polyconic projection.
3. Planar, Azimuthal or Zenithal projection
This type of map projection allows a flat sheet to touch with the globe, with the light being cast from
certain positions, including the centre of the Earth, opposite to the tangent area, and from infinite
distance.

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Rules of thumb
 Errors and distortions increase from the origin of the projection towards its edges
 In tropical areas → cylindrical projections
 In temperate latitudes → conic projections
 Polar regions → planar (azimuthal) projections

Regardless of what type of map you make (using whatever projection you choose) the representation
of the Earth will be distorted in at least 1 (or more) aspects.
No map can show all 4 things without distortion, and no map is able to preserve all of the
characteristics equally, regardless of the type.
In any projection there is no distortion on the line where the globe touches the cone, plane or cylinder
(i.e., there’s always at least one true set of coordinate lines.
Many diverse factors may influence the choice of map projection:
 Purpose of the map
 The position and the extent of the area to be mapped
 The projections major property
 The amount and arrangement of distortion
 Scale of the map

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Unit 3: Map Reading
Definition: Map reading is the act of interpreting or understanding the geographic information
portrayed on a map. By map reading, the reader should be able to develop a mental map of the real-
world information by processing the symbolized information shown on the map. Map is a reduced,
selective, symbolized representation of an area on a flat piece of paper or similar material as if that
area is viewed vertically from above. It is very important to define or indicate the relationship in size
between the map and the corresponding geographical reality it represents. Map is selective because
a map is smaller than the corresponding area it represents. Hence, there is no sufficient space to
accommodate all the features that exist on the corresponding map.
Why do we say a map is symbolized representation? A feature on the surface of the earth is
represented by a symbol on a map. The legend or key of the map helps us to read what feature is
represented by what symbol.
A map provides orthogonal (view from vertically above). What does this mean? All maps represent
features on the map as if you are looking them from vertically above. Vertical view from above only
enables us to see the two dimensions-length and width. Map is a representation of the three
dimensional features of the earth on the two dimensional flat map.
Uses of Maps
Maps are very useful to the study and practice of geography. The geographer uses maps as a major
mode of communication, together with words and numbers. Maps provide us with a structure for
storing geographic knowledge and experience. Without them, we could find it difficult, if not
impossible, to orient ourselves in larger environments. Moreover, maps give us a means not only for
storing geographic information, but also for analyzing, comparing, generalizing or abstracting
information (data).
A map extends our normal range of observation. It brings large areas such as countries, continents or
the whole earth at one glance. In this way, the map helps to overcome this limited range of observation
of human beings.
The map provides accurate information concerning the location of the place either in absolute
location or in relative location. It also gives information related to distance between two places.
A detailed map of a small region, depicting its landforms, drainage, vegetation, settlement patterns,
roads, geology, or a host of other detailed distribution, communicates the relationship necessary to
plan and carry on many types of work.

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Less detailed maps of large area showing flood plain hazards, soil erosion, land use, population
character, climates, income and so on are indispensable to the understanding of the problems and
potentialities of an area. Highly abstract maps of the whole earth indicate generalizations and
relationships of broad earth patterns with which we may study the course of the past, present, and
future events.
A map also supplies knowledge concerning the relationships of the physical, biotic, and cultural
attributes within the given area, such as the relationship between topography, climate, vegetation and
distribution of population. In addition, historical sites, transportation routes, and natural features of
interest shown on the map are useful for tourists. They also play great roles in military operations.
They show details of the topography, locating strategic military bases, identifying strong enemy
holdings, and so on. In addition, government, planning agencies, engineers, soil scientists, geologists,
astronauts and various other professionals use maps in their daily activities. We can, therefore, say
that maps have become one of the most powerful and effective means of communication.
Types of maps
Many maps are in use today. In order to make your understanding easy, and save time it is essential
to classify them. This is possible based on certain criteria. Thus, we can classify them based on scale,
function, and subject matter.
i. Types of maps based on scale
Based on scale, there are three types of maps: a) Small scale maps b) Medium scale maps c) Large
scale maps.
There is no consensus on the quantitative limits of the terms small, medium, and large scale.
Nevertheless, maps with scales of 1:50 000 or greater are large scale maps. The term large refers to
the relative sizes at which objects are represented on the map. They show greater details of reality as
shown in the topographical map of Ethiopia. Maps with scales ranging from 1:50 000 to 1: 250 000
are medium scale maps. Maps with scales less than 1: 250 000 are small scale maps. Maps with small
scale represent large area but give less detain information.
ii. Types of maps based on function
We can recognize three main classes of maps based on function: a) General Reference Maps or
General Purpose Maps b) Thematic Maps or Special Purpose Maps c) Charts.
General reference maps: these are maps whose objective to show the locations of a variety of
different features, such as relief, natural vegetation, water bodies, coastlines roads, houses, and
railways. Large-scale general reference maps of land areas are called topographical maps. Small-scale
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general reference maps are typified by the maps of countries, districts, and continents in atlases. Such
maps show similar features to those on large – scale general reference maps. However, small-scale
maps are greatly reduced and generalized; and they cannot attain the detail and positional accuracy
of large-scale maps.
Thematic maps: these are maps designed to demonstrate the distribution of a single feature, or the
relationship among several features. A thematic map is a map that focuses on a particular theme or
special topic. They are typified by maps of precipitation, temperature, population, atmospheric
pressure, and average annual income.
What makes a thematic or general reference map is not the numbers of features they represent. Maps
showing soils, rocks, or population density can be classed as general reference map if the objective
is to show the locations of these features. On the other hand, map of the same features may be called
thematic maps if they focus attention on the structure of the distribution. Thematic map maps are
different from the general reference maps because they do not just show features like rivers, cities,
political subdivisions, elevation, and highways. If these items appear on a thematic map, they are
background information and are used as reference points to enhance the map's theme.
Charts: are maps especially designed to serve the needs of the sea navigators, or pilots are called
charts. One distinction between maps and charts is that maps are to be looked at, while charts are to
be worked on. On charts navigators plot their courses, determine positions, mark bearings, and so on.
iii. Types of maps based on subject matter
There is no limit to the number of classes of maps that can be created by grouping them according to
their dominant subject matter. Thus, there are soil maps, geological maps, climatic maps, population
maps, economic maps, statistical maps, cadastral maps, plans, and so on.

Measurement of distance and area from map and scale

What are the instruments used for the measurement of distance? Instruments used for measurement
of distance are pair of dividers to measure straight line distance; straight edge of paper; variety of
compasses; scale of the map is also important.
a) Distances measurement and calculation
 Measurement of distances along a straight line
 Measurement of distances along curved or bending lines.
 Measurement of field distances

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 Distances along a winding road or river must be broken down into a series of short straight line
measurement, from bend to bend. Distances measured in this method are roads, railways, rivers and
boundaries of any countries. Very common instruments used are a piece of strong cotton or thread.
More commonly a straight edge of a piece of paper could be used and practically more applicable.
Field Distances: As discussed before, field distances account for the ups and downs of the earth’s
surface. Field distance like that of straight line distance cannot be obtained with this simple
measurement but it needs some combined calculation.
Necessary conditions for the calculation of field distances are:
i) The map distance /measurement distance/ between two points concerned (MD)
ii) The difference in altitude between the two points (AD) altitude difference can be obtained with the
help of contour maps. Of course, it is not the right place to define contours, but to give some hint
…..Contour is an imaginary line joining all points which have the same altitude with fixed height
interval above sea level. In this regard you will learn more about contour in detail in the next unit.
For the time being remember only that a contour line helps us to get the altitude of a place.
According to Pythagoras theorem field distance is equal to:
FD2 = MD2 + AD2
Example: Calculate the field distance between A and B

View on the contour map

Illustration how to calculate the field
distance between A and B
Steps:
1. Calculate the horizontal distance (MD)
2. Find the difference in altitude before A and B.
3. Use the formula and calculate the field distance between two points
Solution:
Paper distance  Scale
MD 
100,000

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 6.5  50,000
MD   3.5 km
100,000
Altitude Difference (AD) = 2900 – 2500 = 400 m or 0.4 km (the unit is meter, because most of the
time contour is given in meter).
Therefore, FD2 = MD2 + AD2 = 3.252 + 0.42 = 10.7225
Field Distance (FD) = 3.27 km
Measurement of areas on maps
Area is the direct function of distance. A map reader may be asked to find the area of two different
types of piece of land: Areas with regular shapes and areas with irregular shapes.
Regular shaped figures: these include squares, rectangles, triangles, circles, etc. From geometry you
should know the formulae for calculating the area of these figures when you know the necessary facts
about them (Sides, base, height, etc). These facts are obtained through measurements on the map.
Areas of irregular shape: most areas to be measured from maps are irregular in shape. To find the
area of irregular shapes, the first thing to do is to divide the irregular shape into regular shapes that
you can recognize such as triangles, rectangles, circles, squares and so forth. An instrument known
as planimeter will help you to measure the area of irregular shape figures on the map. Some common
methods to measure areas of irregular shapes are:
i) The geometrical figures method: drawing regular shaped figures approximately covers the area wanted.
Not that the regular shaped figures can be drawn in such a way (by approximation) that draw geometrical
figures by balancing areas left outside and areas included out of the boundary of irregular shapes.
ii) The strip method: By now it is possible to cover the area of irregular shape with strips of known width.
In other way round, use strips of equal width instead of squares in the succeeding example. To obtain the
total area, add together the lengths of all the strips and multiply by the width of one strip.
iii) Counting the square method: The area of an irregular shape can be found by transferring the area on the
millimeter or centimeter or by covering the area with squares of a known size. Cover the area with small
squares of known size and count full squares, half squares, quarter squares. Then change in to cm2
based on the area of a single square using the given scale.

Measurement of irregular shapes

17
Unit 4: Data Sources and Level of Measurement
Sources of Spatial Data
The data for cartographic analysis can be derived from various sources. A wide variety of data
sources exist for both spatial and attribute data. Two types of data, spatial and attribute, are used
geospatial analysis and cartographic mapping. The data input process is the operation of encoding
both types of data into the spatial database formats. A wide variety of data sources exist for both
spatial and attribute data. The most common general sources for spatial data for cartography are:
 hard copy maps;
 aerial photographs;
 remotely-sensed imagery;
 point data samples from surveys; and
 existing digital data files.

Geographic data measurement scales (categorizing geographical data)

Precise and objective methods of measurement are very vital if spatial patterns are to be recognized
with adequate degree of accuracy and devoid of any subjectivity. The primary task of the geographer
is, therefore, to measure and record spatially distributed phenomena over any defined area. Since
modern geography aims at precision, measurement of geographical data is important because
precision can only be achieved through measurement.
What is measurement? Dent (1999) defines in the following ways. “Measurement is the assignment
of numerals to things so as to represent facts and conventions about them. The description of data in
terms of numbers generally according to a set of rules and allows accurate objective and
communicable descriptions that can be readily manipulate in thinking”. Thus, measurement is an
attempt to structure observations about reality. By doing this, levels of measurements are grouped in
to four scales, depending on the mathematical attributes of the observed facts.
Stevens (1946) outlined a system of four levels of measurement meant to enable social scientists to
systematically measure and analyze phenomena that cannot simply be counted. The levels are
important to specialists in geographic information because they provide guidance about the proper
use of different statistical, analytical, and cartographic operations. The Stevens' original four levels
of measurement are: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio which are listed in increasing order of
sophistication of measurement. Methods of cartographic symbolization are chosen especially for

18
representing geographic phenomena or data at this level of measurement. In general, geographic data
is categorized in to 4 levels of measurements.
Nominal: Has name or class only
Ordinal: Has rank only
Interval: Has value on arbitrary scale (e.g. Fahrenheit)
Ratio: Has value on scale with absolute zero value (e.g. Kelvin)
Table: Measurement Levels
Measurement level Description Examples
Simple categories; cannot rank Colors; land use types; computer
Categorical Nominal
categories components
Distinct categories; can
Categorical Ordinal Road classes; flavor preferences
rank categores in order
Continuous scale; measure Temperature; longitude, compass
Numerical Interval
with numbers; real zero direction
Continuous scale; measure
Numerical Ratio Distance; weight; bank balance
with numbers; real zero

a) Nominal Level
The term nominal simply means to relate to the word “name.” Simply put, nominal level data are data
that are denoted with different names (e.g., forest, water, cultivated, wetlands), or categories. Data
produced by assigning observations into unranked categories are nominal level measurements. For
example, one can classify the land cover at a certain location as woods, scrub, orchard, vineyard, or
mangrove. Nominal Data are simplest data level, no real quantitative analysis possible.
 Point: labels at locations
 Lines: Network shown with symbols
 Areas: Classes shown by color and pattern

Types of symbols used in nominal scale

19
b) Ordinal Level
Like the nominal level of measurement, ordinal scaling assigns observations to discrete categories.
Ordinal categories, involves ranking, or ordered – as the name implies. The categories are not based
upon a numerical value (just an indication of an order or importance), ordinal data are also considered
to be categorical (or qualitative). Examples of ordinal data often seen on reference maps include
political boundaries that are classified hierarchically (national, state, county, etc.) and transportation
routes (primary highway, secondary highway, light-duty road, unimproved road).
 Point: Use symbols size, shape and color
 Line: Different symbols, line weights, colors
 Area: Color, pattern. Legends often high, medium, low or similar

Symbols used to show point, line and area under ordinal scale

c) Interval Level
Unlike nominal- and ordinal-level data, which are categorical (qualitative) in nature, interval level
data are numerical (quantitative). Examples of interval level data include temperature and year.
With interval level data, the zero point is arbitrary on the measurement scale. For instance, zero
degrees Fahrenheit and zero degrees Celsius are different temperatures. Interval data are numerical
data, but on an arbitrary scale. This data often reflect “counts” e.g. total population.
 Point: Proportional symbol, usually geometric object, varies in size, sometimes classed
 Line: Flow map, line width proportional to value
 Area: Prism map, shaded map, choropleth

Examples of differentiation of points, line, and areal features on an

interval scale of measurement
20
d) Ratio Level
Similar to interval level data, ratio level data are also numerical (quantitative). Examples of ratio
level data include distance and area (e.g., acreage). The zero is not arbitrary for ratio level data. For
example, zero meters and zero feet mean exactly the same thing, unlike zero degrees Fahrenheit and
zero degrees Celsius (both temperatures). Ratio level data also differs from interval level data in the
mathematical operations that can be performed with the data. An implication of this difference is that
a quantity of 20 measured at the ratio scale is twice the value of 10 (20 meters is twice the distance
of 10 meters), a relation that does not hold true for quantities measured at the interval level (20 degrees
is not twice as warm as 10 degrees). Ratio data can be physical absolute (e.g. wind speed) or ratio of
two numbers (people per square mile).
 Point: Compound point symbol with encoded data
 Line: Vectors, isolines
 Area: Choropleth and other methods, e.g. Choropleth (population density by country 2010)

21
Unit 5: Graphical Representation and Analysis of Geographical Data
Maps communicate information about the world by using symbols to represent specific ideas or
concepts. The relationship between a map symbol and the information that symbol represents must
be clear and easily interpreted. The symbol design process requires first an understanding of the
underlying nature of the data to be mapped (e.g., its spatial dimensions and level of measurement),
then the selection of symbols that suggest those data attributes. Cartographers developed the visual
variable system, a graphic vocabulary, to express these relationships on maps. Map readers respond
to the visual variable system in predictable ways, enabling mapmakers to design map symbols for
most types of information with a high degree of reliability.
Map symbolization
Map symbolization is the characters, letters or similar graphic representations (of points, lines,
polygon, icons and text) used on a map to indicate an object or characteristic in the real world (‘real’
features). The reduced representation of a map is rendered useless without the symbols displayed in
its key. In cartography, the principles of cognition are also important since they explain why certain
map symbols work. Symbols are legible (‘practical’) and harmonious (‘pretty’). They can be iconic,
geometric or abstract. Symbols can have several different dimensions (properties or characteristics)
which encode meaning thereby they can have quantitative or qualitative meaning. Hence, symbol
selection is creative aspect of design, wide choice and few firm rules.
Spatial dimension
Data collected to represent phenomena can be grouped into four basic spatial dimensions: point (zero-
dimensional), linear (one-dimensional), areal (two-dimensional), and volumetric (three-dimensional).
These spatial properties neatly overlap with the graphic primitives used to create most graphical
symbols: points, lines, and polygons.
The visual variable system
Presented here are six common visual variables: size, shape, color hue, color value, color saturation,
orientation. Color is separated into three visual variables based on the human perception of color.
While this list is not exhaustive, the majority of symbols fall within one or two of these classes.

22
Figure 2. Common visual variables for point, line, and area phenomena.

Table. Visual variables defined.

Choosing your map type

23
1. Nominal or Chorochromatic Maps-mapping qualitative data
To represent the distribution of Qualitative data or nominal (point, line, area) phenomena such as
administrative units, soils, regions and ethnic groups, landscape types, etc.
Suitable visual variables:
 shape, size, orientation
 colour hue, colour value, colour saturation, pattern
 and location of course

 Colour selection: hue is the primary variable, not value /saturation

 Impression of non-area related phenomena may be wrong
 because it is influenced by the size of the areas (e.g. dominant language spoken: related to people)
In general, when data are available at a nominal (qualitative) scale of measurement, we can symbolize
them with differentiating visual variables. Here the visual variables of shape are used to form mimetic
(pictorial) symbols. If the map were printed in color, the visual variable of hue would also be a good
choice for symbol differentiation.
2. Mapping Quantitative Data
There are four ways of representing statistical data on the map. They are Isolines, dot maps, shading
(choropleth) maps and flow maps.
2.1 Isoline maps
One of the most widely used of statistical representation. Other terms used for this method are
isopleths, isarithm and isometric lines. The word isos is a Greek word which means equal. For
specialized purposes special terms are used such as isotherms (equal temperature), isobar (equal

24
pressure), isohyets (rainfall), isoneph (cloudiness), and isobaths (ocean depths), etc. Contour lines,
which like the fore going are also isolines retain the name by which they have long been known. Thus,
The Isoline maps are the lines which join all places with points of the same or equal value. These
lines join places with the same or equal characteristics.

Preparation of Isarithm map

2.2 Choropleth (Shading) maps

The term is derived from Greek words- choros area or space and plethos: multitude or number – as a
reminded that such maps quantitative areal maps, the basis of which is a relationship between
quantities and area. Although the commonest form of chorpleth map is one showing density (of
population), it can also be used for other aspects of ratios, for averages and percentages.
Choropleth maps are extremely popular, probably the most common thematic map in use today. One
reason they're popular is that much of our geodata is reported by enumeration units, such as census
data, and so we are accustomed to thinking of the world as divided into spatial units like census tracts,
counties, and provinces.
2.3 Proportional symbols
Portray a statistic as a symbol that is scaled in proportion to the quantity in question. These symbols
are placed near the center of the aggregation area. Absolute ratio data (for points/areas) are
represented by point symbols that are proportional to data values (1D: bars, 2D: circles, squares, 3D:
spheres, cubes …)
2.4 Dot maps
One of the simplest and most widely used types of distribution maps are the dot maps. In construction
a dot map so many problems faced both in preparation and drawing stages. Thus, attention must be
given for 4 problems that will present themselves.
a. The numerical value of the dot

25
b. The size of the dot
c. Dot location, and
d. How to draw dots on uniform size

2.5 Flow maps

Flow maps are a mix of maps and flow charts, that "show the movement of objects from one location
to another, such as the number of people in a migration, the amount of goods being traded, or the
number of packets in a network". A form of statistical representation which primarily concerned with
changes in location. Flow maps denote the direction a phenomenon is being moved from one location
to another. The direction of flow is indicated by a line, the amount by width of the line and the
character usually by coloring or shading of various types. Quantities transported along routes between
origin and destination are represented by lines of proportional widths (ratio data).
2.6 Cartogram
A cartogram is a map. But a cartogram is a unique type of map because it combines statistical
information with geographic location. Cartograms take some measurable variable: total population,
age of inhabitants, electoral votes, GDP, etc., and then manipulate a place’s area to be sized
accordingly.
Marginal and Border Information on Maps
Before using any map with which you are not familiar, the first essential is to have a good look at the
information contained in the margins, the "margins" being the area of paper surrounding the map.
The margins give much information essential to the full understanding and use of the map, and
deserve more attention than is frequently paid to them.
Element/Components of Maps
Elements/components of map refer to the terms used to describe the various information provided
with a map. Different types of maps (general or specific purpose) may have different types of map
components, but all of them may have three basic map components.
1. All maps use graphical symbols to give positional information.
2. All maps have key/legend to explain the symbols that are used
3. All maps include auxiliary information such as date, projection etc
Generally, marginal information includes: Title, legend, scale, direction, grid references, date of
publications, projection type, datum, authority, sheet number, location information, its extent in
degrees and minutes, etc.

26
Map production is the process of arranging map elements on a sheet of paper in a way that, even
without many words, the ‘average person’ (general users) can understand what it is all about. Maps
are usually produced for presentations and reports where the audience or reader is a politician, citizen
or a learner with no professional background in GIS. Because of this, a map has to be effective in
communicating spatial information. Common elements of a map are the title, map body, legend, north
arrow, scale bar, acknowledgement, and map border.
Other elements that might be added are e.g. a graticule, or name of the map projection. Together,
these elements help the map reader to interpret the information shown on the map. The map body is,
of course, the most important part of the map because it contains the map information. The other
elements support the communication process and help the map reader to orientate himself and
understand the map topic. For example, the title describes the subject matter and the legend relates
map symbols to the mapped data.
a. Title of the map
The map title is very important because it is usually the first thing a reader will look at on a map. It
can be compared with a title in a newspaper. It should be short but give the reader a first idea of what
the map is about. Title should be straight to the point and is suitable for all audiences. Avoid acronyms
at all cost.
Using all capitals is acceptable in a title; however, consider a small-cap style for a slightly more
readable look. Some argue that all capitals is never okay because people cannot easily decipher the
letter codes as they read when the letters are all the same height. As the argument goes, lowercase
letters are read easily because of the different heights of various letters, resulting in specific shapes
for each word. These shapes allow a reader to scan a word rather than look at it letter by letter.
b. Map Border
The map border is a line that defines exactly the edges of the area shown on the map. When printing
a map with a graticule (which we describe further down), you often find the coordinate information
of the graticule lines along the border lines.
c. Map Legend
A map is a simplified representation of the real world and map symbols are used to represent real
objects. Without symbols, we wouldn't understand maps. To ensure that a person can correctly read
a map, a map legend is used to provide a key to all the symbols used on the map. It is like a dictionary
that allows you to understand the meaning of what the map shows. A map legend is usually shown as

27
a little box in a corner of the map. It contains icons, each of which will represent a type of feature.
For example, a house icon will show you how to identify houses on the map.
Legends need to be within or nearby the map element with which they are associated. Legends can
be placed outside of the map element, in the margin. When placed inside the map element it ought
not to obscure the underlying data and is often therefore placed in areas that are not important to the
map’s purpose such as on the ocean for a terrestrially focused map or on the land for a marine centered
map. In such instances a background box is often needed to provide uniform background color on
which to set the text.
d. North arrow
A north arrow (sometimes also called a compass rose) is a figure displaying the main directions,
North, South, East and West. On a map it is used to indicate the direction of North.
e. Scale
The scale of a map is the value of a single unit of distance on the map, representing distance in the
real world. The values are shown in map units (meters, feet or degrees). Most of the time, Scale Bar
is used in maps for that they represent in all conditions.
f. Graticule
Graticules are latitude and longitude lines that run along the surface of the map. The lines can be used
as a reference. As an example, the lines of a graticule can represent the earth's parallels of latitude
and meridians of longitude.
g. Map projection
The projection of the main map element is sometimes reported in the layout margin as part of the
metadata for the layout. It allows the reader to see quickly, if one map can be compared with another.
However, if the viewer is not knowledgeable about projections, the same information could be
described on the map in a more direct way by simply stating the limitations of the map (e.g., “Not for
use as an area measuring tool”).
Generally a map should be:
• Correct (in its coordinate system)
• Readable
• Balanced
 The body of the map should be the dominant element.
 Try to avoid large open spaces
 Be flexible in where you place elements
• Attractive
• Good color (avoid bright colors)

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Relief representation and cross-section
The surface of the earth is characterized by a variety of relief features. Altitude or elevation refers to
the height of the land surface above some arbitrary datum. In many maps, altitude is expressed as the
height (in metres) of the land above mean sea-level. Relief refers to the difference in height between
the highest and lowest land surface in a locality. Thus a high plateau may have a high altitude but a
low relief. Similarly, coastal mountains may achieve only a modest altitude but may have great relief.

There are different methods of showing relief on maps. The methods include pictorial representation,
hachuring, contour lines, hill shading, layer colouring and tinting, spot heights and trigonometric
stations. Contours. The relief features of a place are usually shown on topographical maps using
contour lines.
1. Perspective pictorial maps: These are pictorial representations of landforms. As a landscape
artist might depict it, was a feature of many early maps. Mountains were painted onto the map
and valleys drawn to accommodate rivers. In areas of simple topography, the technique can
provide an effective general picture of 'the lay of the land'. There are three types of perspective
pictorial maps namely block diagrams, oblique regional views, and schematic maps.
i. Block diagrams
Block diagrams are pictorial representation of relief as if you are viewing a block of the earth’s crust
from an oblique vantage point. It is a reduced replica of reality, which is remarkably graphic. They
show structural relations of subsurface formations. They are usually restricted to small segment of
the earth.

Block diagram
ii. Physiographic diagram
From block diagrams and oblique views other map types have come. They are called schematic maps.
These maps combine the perspective view of undulations of the land and the planimetric (two-
dimensional) precision of conventional maps. On schematic maps, the pictorial treatment of the
29
landform is highly symbolic. One type of schematic map is physiographic diagram. On such maps,
cartographers attempt to relate landforms to their geology and geomorphology. They do so by varying
value (darkness) and texture.
2. Morphometric Maps
Morphometric maps are maps that give structural information about the landform. This information
includes average elevations, slope categories, relative relief, degrees of dissection, and so on. This
information is correlated with variations in human activity and may be used as background data in
place of the simple elevations shown on general reference maps.
3. Terrain unit maps
Terrain representation is the manner by which elevation data are visualized. The terrain unit method
uses descriptive terms to give map users an idea of an area’s landform. The terrain unit may be
mountain, hills, or plains. They may be also residual, topographic descriptions such as maturely
dissected hill land. Terrain unit methods are essentially forms of dasymetric mapping. The lines
bounding the area symbols have no meaning other than being zones of change. Hachures, contours,
layer tinting and hill shading are used to represent terrain unit.
Hachures
Hachures are short lines drawn close together to represent an area’s landform. Each line is drawn in
the direction of greatest slope. They are drawn at right angles to the contours. The widths of these
hachures are proportional to the steepness of the slopes on which they lie. The steeper the slope,
thicker is the line. Besides, on steep slopes the hachures are closely spaced (and sometimes thicker)
and are placed further apart as the slope lessens to more gentle inclines. The sense of down or up is
not shown. Thus, on same map, it is difficult to tell whether a blank area is a flat, upland or lowland.
Hachures tell us nothing quantitative about altitude or relief.

Modern Methods of Relief Representation

Contouring is the most precise and modern way to give elevation information to map-readers.
Contours are lines connecting points of equal elevation. They are isarithms. Generally, contours are
not visible on the land. They are traces that result from passing parallel, equally spaced, horizontal
surfaces through the three-dimensional land surface and projecting these traces orthogonally to the
map surface. The elevation of points used in the drawing of contour lines is measured with respect to
datum. Datum in this case is the mean sea level. Mean sea level is the average of high and low tides
at a location over a 19 years period. Contours present a less dramatic visualization of the landform

30
surface than hill shading. Nevertheless, they provide an immense amount of information to the skilled
map analyst and interpreter. For analytical purposes, therefore, contouring is by far the most useful
way of portraying the landform.
Contours
 Contour lines indicate height or elevation of the land above sea level
 Contours are lines joining points of equal value. This value on topographic maps is height (or
elevation/altitude) above mean sea level (MSL)
 Each successive contour represents an increase or decrease in constant value. Often every 5th
contour will be in bold to help identification
 Contours are normally associated with changes in height, but they can represent any parameter
(e.g. thickness, pressure, rainfall). They can also be called iso-lines (e.g. isopachs, isobars,
isohyets)
 Contours never cross and will at some point close, although this may be off the map. It is possible,
however, that they may touch where the slope is precipitous, as at a near-vertical cliff.
Topographic contours that close in concentric patterns delineate hills or depressions
 Contours are drawn perpendicular to the maximum slope, with the spacing between contours
indicating the steepness of the slope
 Each contour must close so that it is continuous, with neither beginning nor end. This condition
may be met on one map or on adjoining sheets, depending on the map scale, contour interval, and
the scale of roughness of the land.
 Valleys generally are shown by 'V'-shaped contours with the 'V' always pointing upstream and
upslope.
 Ridges are shown by 'V'- or 'U'-shaped contours with the 'V' or 'U' always pointing downslope.
Contour Intervals
The usefulness of contours depends on their vertical spacing. Yet the choice of contour interval is not
an easy task. Cartographers must play detail against space available to show contours on the map. As
contour interval is increased, more surface detail is lost between contours. Sometimes, because of
small scale or lack of data, contour intervals must be excessive. In such cases, contours can only
approximate the surface form. In these cases, it may be better to use other methods of presentation,
such as hill shading. If you do come across a small-scale contour map, you should be suspicious of
its accuracy. Avoid using such maps for detailed interpretation and analyses.
• The vertical distance between two adjacent contour lines
31
• The same for all the contour lines on the map
• Depends on the scale of the map
Drawing of contour lines
Note that the spot heights are transferred to the map and marked in their proper positions according
to scale.

 Contour patterns can be used to recognize distinctive landforms such as ridges, valleys and hills
 Contours may appear as black or coloured lines on maps, and are often supported by colour
shading to give an impression of relief
 Cross-sections provide a useful way of visualizing the shape of the land surface, but care needs
to be taken in their construction, particularly in terms of vertical exaggeration
Other properties of contour lines
1. Numbering of contours: Contour lines are numbered towards which altitude increases.
2. Contour lines do not branch.
3. Contour lines do not normally cross one another.
4. Contour lines can be drawn with a difference in thickness. This is to make the reading of contour
lines easier, especially when the vertical interval is very small. The contour lines come very close
together when relief is steep.
Complementary methods of relief representation
Such features are shown on a contour map through the use of several complementary methods.
• Benchmarks: They represent precise heights along highways or railways. Benchmarks are shown
on stones, bricks or bronze plates, on walls of buildings and other convenient places.
• Spot heights: They are accurate altitudes for individual points of mountaintops, along roads, on
valley bottoms, etc.

32
• Trigonometrical points or stations: In the preparation of topographical maps, distances are
rarely measured in the field. Instead, angular measurements are made between points occupying
the corners in the network of triangles and the distances between these points are then calculated
with the help of trigonometry.
• Heights of lake levels: As the surface of a lake provides a large area of land completely horizontal
in nature, topographic maps give information about the average altitude of the lake surface by
printing the number below the name of the lake.
• Altitudes of runways, towns, and others: Important altitudes of runways, towns and cities are
written on maps after their names.
• Layer shading and tinting: are used in combination with generalized contours to represent relief
on small-scale maps where it is impossible to show individual relief features. Layer shading is
designed for use on monochromatic (shades between black and white) maps while tinting can be
used on coloured maps. In both cases the elevation range on the map is divided into a limited
number of classes, assigned a shade or tint, and mapped as such.
• Hill shading: It records the shadows that might fall over an area if it were illuminated by a light
in the northwest. Thus the southeast sides of hills, which are away from the light, are darkened,
the tops of hills and lower slopes are only lightly shaded, and plains are fully illuminated
(unshaded). Automated hill shading requires elevation data in the form of a digital elevation
(terrain) model. Digital elevation models may be generated by interpolation from contour maps.
When high quality photographic source materials are available, digital elevation data can be
extracted automatically.
SLOPES, GRADIENT & CROSS-SECTIONS
Gradient refers to the rate of change of altitude of a slope. It also refers to the angle of a slope and
used to gauge how steep or gentle the slope is. The gradient between two places is often expressed as
a ratio. It is the ratio of a vertical distance to a horizontal distance covered between two points of
reference. It can be described as:
How to calculate the gradient between two places?
 Calculate the vertical distance by finding the difference in height between the two points
 The vertical distance will be in metres as heights are given in metres.
 The difference in height between two points is measured from the following:
o Trigonometrical stations
o Benchmarks
33
 o Spot heights
o Transport network by contours, trigonometrical stations, spot heights,
benchmarks (e.g. railway, wide tarred, narrow tarred, gravel road)
o Any features by contours, trigonometrical stations, spot heights, benchmarks
 Calculate the horizontal distance by finding the straight-line distance between two points unless
the two points are along the same track, railway or river.
 The horizontal distance is the actual ground distance on ground and not measurement on map.
 It must be measured in metres.
 Use the following formula to calculate the gradient.
Difference in altitude between two points
Gradient 
Map distance between the same two points
Height
Simply Gradient 
Distance
This shows that the gradient depends on the combined effect of the distance traveled in the horizontal
plane and the vertical plane simultaneously.
It can be expressed as:
Difference in altitude
in a simple ratio 
Map distance
Difference in altitude
in percent   100
Map distance
Difference in altitude
in degree   60
Map distance
Example: Compare the following gradients 1: 5 and 1: 50

 A gradient of 1: 5 is steeper than the gradient of 1:50.

Because A gradient of 1:5 has to cover less distance on the actual ground for 1unit increase in
height. Thus, it is steeper.
 A gradient of 1: 50 is gentler than the gradient of 1:5.
Reason: A gradient of 1:50 has to cover more distance on the actual ground for 1unit increase in
height. Thus, it is gentler.

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Cross-Sections (Profile) and contours
When you want to study slopes in detail, drawing of sections will be of great help. A section or profile
is drawn along a straight line between two points. A cross-section shows the shape of a feature (such
as a mountain) viewed from the side. Cross-sections are constructed using the contour lines on
topographic maps.

In cross-sections, the proportions between horizontal and vertical distances are shown. In order to
calculate vertical exaggeration, divide the real world units of horizontal scale by the real world units
of vertical scale. Make sure same units are used in numerator and denominator of the division.

Vertical exaggeration formula: VE = (real world units of horizontal scale) / (real world units of
vertical scale).
As an example for a 1:50000 topo map, we can set the horizontal scale (x axis) of the profile the same
as the map. Labeling 1 cm units on x axis: 1cm on map = 50000cm in real world = 500m in real
world. If we decide to use the same value for our vertical scale (1cm = 500m for y axis), then there
will be a vertical exaggeration (VE) of (500m / 500m) = 1x or no vertical exaggeration.
Changing our y axis scale so that 1cm would represent 250m then we would have 500m/250m = 2x
(read 2 times) vertical exaggeration.

Top profile:
Horizontal scale: 6.95cm = 1.5km; 1cm = 1.5/6.95 = 0.216km = 216m; 1cm = 216m
Vertical scale: 1.1cm = 100m; 1cm = 100/1.1 = 90.9m; 1cm = 90.9m
VE = 216/90.9 = 2.4x
Bottom profile:
Horizontal scale: 10.7cm = 0.5km; 1cm = 0.5/10.7 = 0.047km = 47m; 1cm = 47m
Vertical scale: 1.25cm = 75m; 1cm = 75/1.25 = 60m; 1cm = 60m
VE = 47m / 60m = 0.78x
A value of 1x for VE means that there is no vertical exaggeration and the vertical and horizontal
scales are equal.

35