24BETCK105F-WASTE MANAGEMENT

MODULE-5
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT:
Identification and classification of hazardous waste, hazardous waste treatment, E-waste generation, E-waste
management process, flow chart C&D Waste management and treatment
Case study –report making on bengaluru city as a case study for solid waste management E waste management
and hazardous waste management

HAZARDOUS WASTE: IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

Hazardous wastes refer to wastes that may, or tend to, cause adverse health effects on the ecosystem and
human beings. These wastes pose present or potential risks to human health or living organisms, due to the
fact that they:

 are non-degradable or persistent in nature;

 can be biologically magnified;
 are highly toxic and even lethal at very low concentrations.

The above list relates only to the intrinsic hazard of the waste, under uncontrolled release, to the
environment, regardless of quantity or pathways to humans or other critical organisms (i.e., plants and
animals). The criteria used to determine the nature of hazard include toxicity, phytotoxicity, genetic activity
and bioconcentration. The threat to public health and the environment of a given hazardous waste is
dependent on the quantity and characteristics of the waste involved. Wastes are secondary materials, which
are generally classified into six categories as inherently waste: like materials, spent materials, sludges,
byproducts, commercial chemical products and scrap metals. Solid wastes form a subset of all secondary
materials and hazardous wastes form a subset of solid waste. However, note that certain secondary
materials are not regulated as wastes, as they are recycled and reused.
Identification:

By using either or both of the following criteria, we can identify as to whether or not a waste is hazardous:

(i) The list provided by government agencies declaring that substance as hazardous.
(ii) Characteristics such as ignitibility, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity of the substance.
 24BETCK105F-WASTE MANAGEMENT

For both F-lists and K-lists, these wastes are identified by an EPA-assigned code. They characterize the wastes
depending on if they contain any of the following codes: Toxic Waste (T), Acute Hazardous Waste (H),
Ignitable Waste (I), Corrosive Waste (C ), Reactive Waste (R ), Toxicity Characteristic Waste (E).

Hazardous waste is classified into six broad categories.

Hazardous waste includes a lot more compounds or chemicals either as single or in combinations. The waste
categories are detailed below

Radioactive wastes: Substances that emit ionizing radiation is called as radioactive substances and the waste
generated from these substances are termed as radioactive wastes. Although they are categorized as a separate
group still they are studied as hazardous waste due to the harmful effects they cause to living beings. They
also persist in the environment for a long period of time. Half life determines their persistence in the
environment.

Biomedical wastes: Toxicity and infectivity are the two important characteristics of biomedical wastes.
The toxic nature of biomedical waste place them under hazardous waste category. Biomedical waste is
generated from hospitals, health centres and research facilities.

Chemicals: Chemicals can be organic, synthetic, metals, acidic or basic or salts. They are hazardous when
they cause toxicity. A waste stream containing these wastes at levels equal to or greater than threshold values,
such streams should be considered hazardous.

Flammable wastes: Once again dual grouping is done for this particular waste. Flammable substances can
be a gas, liquid or solid. Organic sludges, plasticizers, solvents are some of the examples of flammable wastes.
These wastes are hazardous and needs special management.

Explosives: Similar to flammables, they also need special management method. They are produced from
ordnance manufacturing and generated from industrial gases.

Household hazardous wastes: In our everyday life we generate a lot of hazardous substances which
is disposed off as commingled waste. They are disposed along with municipal solid waste. Some of the
hazardous waste generated from households include oil paints, nail polish, latex, paints, batteries, cleaning
chemicals, e waste, pesticides, chlorinated and non chlorinated solvents and many more.

Hazardous waste can be treatment

Hazardous waste can be treated by chemical, thermal, biological, and physical methods. Chemical methods
 24BETCK105F-WASTE MANAGEMENT

include ion exchange, precipitation, oxidation and reduction, and neutralization. Among thermal methods is
high-temperature incineration, which not only can detoxify certain organic wastes but also can destroy them

Special types of thermal equipment are used for burning waste in either solid, liquid, or sludge form. These
include the fluidized-bed incinerator, multiple-hearth furnace, rotary kiln, and liquid-injection incinerator. One
problem posed by hazardous-waste incineration is the potential for air pollution

Biological treatment of certain organic wastes, such as those from the petroleum industry, is also an option.
One method used to treat hazardous waste biologically is called landfarming. In this technique the waste is
carefully mixed with surface soil on a suitable tract of land. Microbes that can metabolize the waste may be
added, along with nutrients. In some cases a genetically engineered species of bacteria is used. Food or forage
crops are not grown on the same site. Microbes can also be used for stabilizing hazardous wastes on previously
contaminated sites; in that case the process is called bioremediation.

The chemical, thermal, and biological treatment methods outlined above change the molecular form of the
waste material. Physical treatment, on the other hand, concentrates, solidifies, or reduces the volume of the
waste. Physical processes include evaporation, sedimentation, flotation, and filtration. Yet another process is
solidification, which is achieved by encapsulating the waste in concrete, asphalt, or plastic. Encapsulation
produces a solid mass of material that is resistant to leaching. Waste can also be mixed with lime, fly ash, and
water to form a solid, cement like product.

Physical and chemical treatment

Physical and chemical treatments are an essential part of most hazardous waste treatment operations, and
the treatments include the following (Freeman, 1988):

(i) Filtration and separation: Filtration is a method for separating solid particles from a liquid using a
porous medium. The driving force in filtration is a pressure gradient, caused by gravity, centrifugal force,
vacuum, or pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. The application of filtration for treatment of
hazardous waste fall into the following categories:
Clarification, in which suspended solid particles less than 100 ppm (parts per million) concentration are
removed from an aqueous stream. This is usually accomplished by depth filtration and cross-flow filtration
and the primary aim is to produce a clear aqueous effluent, which can either be discharged directly, or further
processed. The suspended solids are concentrated in a reject stream.
Dewatering of slurries of typically 1% to 30 % solids by weight. Here, the aim is to concentrate the solids
into a phase or solid form for disposal or further treatment. This is usually accomplished by cake filtration.
The filtration treatment, for example, can be used for neutralisation of strong acid with lime or limestone,
or precipitation of dissolved heavy metals as carbonates or sulphides followed by settling and thickening of
the resulting precipitated solids as slurry. The slurry can be dewatered by cake filtration and the effluent from
the settling step can be filtered by depth filtration prior to discharge.
(ii) Chemical precipitation:
This is a process by which the soluble substance is converted to an insoluble form either by a chemical
reaction or by change in the composition of the solvent to diminish the solubility of the substance in it.
Settling and/or filtration can then remove the precipitated solids. In the treatment of hazardous waste, the
process has a wide applicability in the removal of toxic metal from aqueous wastes by converting them to
an insoluble form. This includes wastes containing arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead,
mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium and zinc. The sources of wastes containing metals are metal
plating and polishing,
inorganic pigment, mining and the electronic industries. Hazardous wastes containing metals are also
generated from cleanup of uncontrolled hazardous waste sites, e.g., leachate or contaminated ground water.

(iii) Chemical oxidation and reduction (redox):

In these reactions, the oxidation state of one reactant is raised, while that of the other reactant is lowered.
When electrons are removed from an ion, atom, or molecule, the substance is oxidised and when electrons
 24BETCK105F-WASTE MANAGEMENT

are added to a substance, it is reduced. Such reactions are used in treatment of metal-bearing wastes,
sulphides, cyanides and chromium and in the treatment of many organic wastes such as phenols, pesticides
and sulphur containing compounds. Since these treatment processes involve chemical reactions, both
reactants are generally in solution. However, in some cases, a solution reacts with a slightly soluble solid or
gas.

There are many chemicals, which are oxidising agents; but relatively few of them are used for waste
treatment. Some of the commonly used oxidizing agents are sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide,
calcium hypochlorite, potassium permanganate and ozone. Reducing agents are used to treat wastes
containing hexavalent chromium, mercury, organometallic compounds and chelated metals. Some of the
compounds used as reducing agents are sulphur dioxide, sodium borohydride, etc. In general, chemical
treatment costs are highly influenced by the chemical cost. This oxidation and reduction treatment tends to be
more suitable for low concentration (i.e., less than 1%) in wastes.

(iv) Solidification and stabilisation: In hazardous waste management, solidification and stabilisation (S/S)
is a term normally used to designate a technology employing activities to reduce the mobility of pollutants,
thereby making the waste acceptable under current land disposal requirements. Solidification and
stabilisation are treatment processes designed to improve waste handling and physical characteristics,
decrease surface area across which pollutants can transfer or leach, limit the solubility or detoxify the
hazardous constituent. To understand this technology, it is important for us to understand the following
terms:

 Solidification: This refers to a process in which materials are added to the waste to produce a solid.
It may or may not involve a chemical bonding between the toxic contaminant and the additive.

 Stabilisation: This refers to a process by which a waste is converted to a more chemically stable
form. Subsuming solidification, stabilisation represents the use of a chemical reaction to transform
the toxic component to a new, non-toxic compound or substance.

 Chemical fixation: This implies the transformation of toxic contaminants to a new non-toxic
compound. The term has been misused to describe processes, which do not involve chemical bonding
of the contaminant to the binder.

 Encapsulation: This is a process involving the complete coating or enclosure of a toxic particle or
waste agglomerate with a new substance (e.g., S/S additive or binder). The encapsulation of the
individual particles is known as micro-encapsulation, while that of an agglomeration of waste
particles or micro-encapsulated materials is known as macro-encapsulation.

In S/S method, some wastes can be mixed with filling and binding agents to obtain a dischargeable product.
This rather simple treatment can only be used for waste with chemical properties suitable for landfilling.
With regard to wastes with physical properties, it changes only the physical properties, but is unsuitable for
landfilling. The most important application of this technology, however, is the solidification of metal-
containing waste. S/S technology could potentially be an important alternative technology with a major use
being to treat wastes in order to make them acceptable for land disposal. Lower permeability, lower
contaminant leaching rate and such similar characteristics may make hazardous wastes acceptable for land
disposal after stabilisation.

(V) Evaporation: Evaporation is defined as the conversion of a liquid from a solution or slurry into vapour.
All evaporation systems require the transfer of sufficient heat from a heating medium to the process fluid to
vaporise the volatile solvent. Evaporation is used in the treatment of hazardous waste and the process
equipment is quite flexible and can handle waste in various forms – aqueous, slurries, sludges and tars.
Evaporation is commonly used
 24BETCK105F-WASTE MANAGEMENT

as a pre-treatment method to decrease quantities of material for final treatment. It is also used in cases where
no other treatment method was found to be practical, such as in the concentration of trinitrotoluene (TNT)
for subsequent incineration.

(i) Ozonation: Ozone is a relatively unstable gas consisting of three oxygen atoms per molecule (O3)
and is one of the strongest oxidising agents known. It can be substituted for conventional oxidants
such as chlorine, hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate. Ozone and UV radiations have
been used to detoxify industrial organic wastes, containing aromatic and aliphatic polychlorinated
compounds, ketones and alcohols.

1. Thermal treatment:

The two main thermal treatments used with regard to hazardous wastes are:

(i) Incineration: Incineration can be regarded as either a pre-treatment of hazardous waste, prior to
final disposal or as a means of valorising waste by recovering energy. It includes both the burning
of mixed solid waste or burning of selected parts of the waste stream as a fuel. The concept of
treating hazardous waste is similar to that of municipal solid waste.

(ii) Pyrolysis: This is defined as the chemical decomposition or change brought about by heating in
the absence of oxygen. This is a thermal process for transformation of solid and liquid
carbonaceous materials into gaseous components and the solid residue containing fixed carbon
and ash. The application of pyrolysis to hazardous waste treatment leads to a two-step process
for disposal. In the first step, wastes are heated separating the volatile contents (e.g., combustible
gases, water vapour, etc.) from non-volatile char and ash. In the second step volatile components
are burned under proper conditions to assure incineration of all hazardous components.

To elaborate, pyrolysis is applicable to hazardous waste treatment, as it provides a recise control of the
combustion process. The first step of pyrolysis treatment is endothermic and generally done at 425 to 760 C.
The heating chamber is called the pyrolyser. Hazardous organic compounds can be volatilised at this low
temperature, leaving a clean residue. In the second step, the volatiles are burned in a fume incinerator to
achieve destruction efficiency of more than 99%. Separating the process into two very controllable steps
allows precise temperature control and makes it possible to build simpler equipment. The pyrolysis
process can be applied to solids, sludges and liquid wastes. Wastes with the
following characteristics are especially amenable to pyrolysis:

Sludge material that is either too viscous, too abrasive or varies too much in consistency to be atomised in
an incinerator.
Wastes such as plastic, which undergo partial or complete phase changes during thermal processing.
High-residue materials such as high-ash liquid and sludges, with light, easily entrained solids that will
generally require substantial stack gas clean up.
Materials containing salts and metals, which melt and volatilise at normal incineration temperatures.
Materials like sodium chloride (NaCl), zinc (Zn) and lead (Pb), when incinerated may cause refractory
spalling and fouling of the heat- exchanger surface.

2. Biological treatment
i. Land treatment: This is a waste treatment and disposal process, where a waste is mixed with or
incorporated into the surface soil and is degraded, transformed or immobilised through proper management.
The other terminologies used commonly include land cultivation, land farming, land
application and sludge spreading. Compared to other land disposal options (e.g., landfill and surface
impoundments), land treatment has lower longterm monitoring, maintenance and potential clean up
liabilities and because of this, it has received considerable attention as an ultimate disposal method. It is a
dynamic, management-intensive process involving waste, site, soil, climate and biological activity as a
system to degrade and immobilise waste constituents.
 24BETCK105F-WASTE MANAGEMENT

In land treatment, the organic fraction must be biodegradable at reasonable rates to minimise environmental
problems associated with migration of hazardous waste constituents. The various factors involved in the
operation of the system are as follows:

 Waste characteristics: Biodegradable wastes are suitable for land treatment. Radioactive
wastes, highly volatile, reactive, flammable liquids and inorganic wastes such as heavy
metals, acids and bases, cyanides and ammonia are not considered for land treatment. Land
treatability of organic compound often follows a predictable pattern for similar type of
compounds. Chemical structure, molecular weight, water solubility and vapour pressure are
few of the characteristics that determine the ease of biodegradation.

 Soil characteristics: The rate of biodegradation and leaching of waste applied, the
availability of nutrients and toxicants to microorganisms and the fate of hazardous waste
constituents are determined largely by application rate as well as the soil’s chemical and
physical characteristics or reaction. Principal soil characteristics affecting land treatment
processes are pH, salinity, aeration, moisture holding capacity, soil temperature, etc. Some
of the characteristics can be improved through soil amendments (e.g., nutrients, lime, etc.),
tillage or through adjustments of loading rate, frequency, etc., at the time of waste
application.

 Microorganisms: Soil normally contains a large number of diverse microorganisms,

consisting of several groups that are predominantly aerobic in well-drained soil. The types
and population of microorganisms present in the waste-amended soil depend on the soil
moisture content, available oxygen, nutrient composition and other characteristics. The key
groups of the microorganisms present in the surface soil are bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi,
algae and protozoa. In addition to these groups, other micro and macro fauna, such as
nematodes and insects are often present.

ii. Enzymatic systems: Enzymes are complex proteins ubiquitous in nature. These proteins, composed
of amino acids, are linked together via peptide bonds. Enzymes capable of transforming hazardous waste
chemicals to non-toxic products can be harvested from microorganisms grown in mass culture. Such crude
enzyme extracts derived from microorganisms have been shown to convert pesticides into less toxic and
persistent products. The reaction of detoxifying enzymes are not limited to intracellular conditions but have
been demonstrated through the use of immobilised enzyme extracts on several liquid waste streams. The
factors of moisture, temperature, aeration, soil structure, organic matter content, seasonal variation and the
availability of soil nutrients influence the presence and abundance of enzymes.

iii. Composting: The principles involved in composting organic hazardous wastes are the same as those
in the composting of all organic materials though with moderate modifications. The microbiology of
hazardous wastes differs from that of composting in the use of inoculums. The reaction is that certain types of
hazardous waste molecules can be degraded by only one or a very few microbial species, which may not be
widely distributed or abundant in nature. The factors important in composting of hazardous wastes are those
that govern all biological reactions. The principal physical parameters are the shape and dimensions of the
particles of the material to be composted and the
 24BETCK105F-WASTE MANAGEMENT

environmental factors of interest in an operation are temperature, pH, available oxygen,

moisture, and nutrient availability.

iv. Aerobic and anaerobic treatment: Hazardous materials are present in low to high
concentration in wastewaters, leachate and soil. These wastes are characterised by high
organic content (e.g., up to 40,000 mg/l total organic carbon), low and high pH (2 to 12),
elevated salt levels (sometimes, over 5%), and presence of heavy metals and hazardous
organics. Hazardous wastes can be treated using either aerobic or anaerobic treatment
methods.

In aerobic treatment, under proper conditions, microorganisms grow. They need a carbon and
energy source, which many hazardous wastes satisfy,nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus
and trace metals and a source of oxygen. Some organisms can use oxidised inorganic
compounds (e.g. nitrate) as a substitute for oxygen. Care is to be taken such that all the
required nutrients and substances are supplied in sufficient quantities. Temperature and pH
must be controlled as needed and the substances that are toxic to the organisms (e.g., heavy
metals) must be removed.

Anaerobic treatment is a sequential biologically destructive process in which hydrocarbons

are converted, in the absence of free oxygen, from complex to simpler molecules, and
ultimately to carbon dioxide and methane. The process is mediated through enzyme catalysis
and depends on maintaining a balance of population within a specific set of environmental
conditions. Hazardous waste streams often consist of hydrocarbons leading to higher
concentrations of chemical oxygen demand (COD). Depending upon the nature of waste, the
organic constituents may be derived from a single proce ss stream or from a mixture of
streams.

The treatability of the waste depends upon the susceptibility of the hydrocarbon content to
anaerobic biological degradation, and on the ability of the organisms to resist detrimental
effect of biologically recalcitrant and toxic organic and inorganic chemicals. The metabolic
interactions among the various groups of organisms are essential for the successful and
complete mineralization of the organic molecules. Various parameters such as the influent
quality, the biological activity of the reactor and the quality of the reactor environment are
monitored to maintain efficient operating conditions within the reactor.

E-Waste Generation

in the financial year 2022, more than 1.6 million metric tons of e-waste was generated in India.
The volume was more than doubled in comparison with 2018. During 2022, India had
collectively collected and processed 527 thousand metric tons of e-waste

Electronic waste is emerging as a serious public health and environmental issue in

India.] India is the "Third largest electronic waste producer in the world"; approximately 2
million tons of e-waste are generated annually and an undisclosed amount of e-waste is
imported from other countries around the world.

Annually, computer devices account for nearly 70% of e-waste, 12% comes from the telecom
sector, 8% from medical equipment and 7% from electric equipment. The government, public
sector companies, and private sector companies generate nearly 75% of electronic waste, with
the contribution of individual household being only 16%
RNSIT,Benagaluru
 24BETCK105F-WASTE MANAGEMENT

E Waste management process flow chart

Construction and Demolition waste management and treatment

This waste stream includes materials like concrete, bricks, wood, metal, tiles, and
plastic, which, if not managed properly, can lead to environmental degradation,
pollution, and loss of valuable landfill space.

 This waste stream is composed of a variety of materials, including concrete,

bricks, wood, metal, glass, and plastics, as well as more hazardous materials
like asbestos and lead-based paints.

RNSIT,Benagaluru
 24BETCK105F-WASTE MANAGEMENT

 Reduce: Minimizing waste at the source involves designing buildings with fewer
materials and using prefabricated components to cut down on off-cuts and excess.
 Reuse: Many materials like doors, windows, and fixtures can be reused in other
construction projects, reducing the need for new materials.
 Recycle: Materials such as concrete, bricks, and metals can be recycled. Concrete, for
example, can be crushed and reused as aggregate for new construction projects.
 Recovery: Energy can be recovered from certain waste materials through processes
like incineration or anaerobic digestion.
 Disposal: The last resort for C&D waste that cannot be reused, recycled, or recovered
should be disposed of in environmentally safe landfills.

Application

o Applies to everyone who generates construction and demolition waste.

 Duties of waste Generators
o Every waste generator shall segregate construction and demolition waste and
deposit at collection centre or handover it to the authorised processing facilities
o Shall ensure that there is no littering or deposition so as to prevent obstruction
to the traffic or the public or drains.
o Large generators (who generate more than 20 tons or more in one day or 300
tons per project in a month) shall submit waste management plan and get
appropriate approvals from the local authority before starting construction or
demolition or remodelling work,
o Large generators shall have environment management plan to address the likely
environmental issues from construction, demolition, storage, transportation
process and disposal / reuse of C & D Waste.
o Large generators shall segregate the waste into four streams such as concrete,
soil, steel, wood and plastics, bricks and mortar,
o Large generators shall pay relevant charges for collection, transportation,
processing and disposal as notified by the concerned authorities;
 Duties of Service providers and Contractors
o The service providers shall prepare a comprehensive waste management plan
for waste generated within their jurisdiction, within six months from the date of
notification of these rules,
o Shall remove all construction and demolition waste in consultation with the
concerned local authority on their own or through any agency
 Duties of State Government and Local Authorities
o The Secretary, UDD in the State Government shall prepare their policy with
respect to management of construction and demolition of waste within one
year from date of final notification of these rules.
o The concerned department in the State Government dealing with land shall
provide suitable sites for setting up of the storage, processing and recycling
facilities for construction and demolition waste with one-and-a-half years from
date of final notification of these rules.
o The Town and Country planning Department shall incorporate the site in the
approved land use plan so that there is no disturbance to the processing facility
on a long term basis.
o Shall procure and utilize 10-20% materials made from construction and
demolition waste in municipal and Government contracts.

RNSIT,Benagaluru
 24BETCK105F-WASTE MANAGEMENT

o Local Authority shall place appropriate containers for collection of waste,

removal at regular intervals, transportation to appropriate sites for processing
and disposal.
o LA shall seek detailed plan or undertaking from large generator of construction
and demolition waste and sanction the waste management plan;
o Seek assistance from concerned authorities for safe disposal of construction and
demolition waste contaminated with industrial hazardous or toxic material or
nuclear waste if any;
o LA shall give appropriate incentives to generator for salvaging, processing and
or recycling preferably in-situ;
o LA shall establish a data base and update once in a year,
o Million plus cities (based on 2011 census of India), shall commission the
processing and disposal facility within one-and-a-half years from date of final
notification of these rules
o 0.5 to 1 million cities, shall commission the processing and disposal facility
within two years from date of final notification of these rules
o for other cities (< 0.5 million populations), shall commission the processing and
disposal facility within three years from date of final notification of these rules
 Duties of Central Pollution Control Board, State Pollution Control Board or
Pollution Control Committee
o The Central Pollution Control Board shall prepare operational guidelines related
to environmental management of construction and demolition waste.
o SPCB shall grant authorization to construction and demolition waste processing
facility
o Monitor the implementation of these rules by the concerned local bodies
o Submit annual report to the Central Pollution Control Board and the State
Government.
 Standards for products of construction and demolition waste
o The Bureau of Indian Standards need to prepare code of practices and standards
for products of construction and demolition waste
o Indian Roads Congress need to prepare standards and practices pertaining to
products of construction and demolition waste in roads construction.
 Duties of Central Ministries
o The Ministry of Urban Development, and the Ministry of Rural Development,
Ministry of Panchayat Raj, shall facilitate local bodies in compliance of these
rules;
o The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change shall review
implementation of these rules as and when required.
 Facility for processing / recycling facility
o The operator of the facility shall obtain authorization from State Pollution
Control Board or Pollution Control Committee.
o The processing / recycling site shall be away from habitation clusters, forest
areas, water bodies, monuments, National Parks, Wetlands and places of
important cultural, historical or religious interest.
o The processing/recycling facility exceeding five Tones per day capacity, shall
maintain a buffer zone of no development around the facility.

RNSIT,Benagaluru