Chapter 1 - Introduction to evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration process
Units
Factors affecting evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration concepts
Determining evapotranspiration

This chapter explains the concepts of and the differences between reference crop
evapotranspiration (ETo) and crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) and
various management and environmental conditions (ETc adj). It also examines the factors that
affect evapotranspiration, the units in which it is normally expressed and the way in which it can
be determined.

Evapotranspiration process

Evaporation
Transpiration
Evapotranspiration (ET)

The combination of two separate processes whereby water is lost on the one hand from the soil
surface by evaporation and on the other hand from the crop by transpiration is referred to as
evapotranspiration (ET).

Evaporation

Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to water vapour (vaporization) and
removed from the evaporating surface (vapour removal). Water evaporates from a variety of
surfaces, such as lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet vegetation.

Energy is required to change the state of the molecules of water from liquid to vapour. Direct
solar radiation and, to a lesser extent, the ambient temperature of the air provide this energy.
The driving force to remove water vapour from the evaporating surface is the difference
between the water vapour pressure at the evaporating surface and that of the surrounding
atmosphere. As evaporation proceeds, the surrounding air becomes gradually saturated and the
process will slow down and might stop if the wet air is not transferred to the atmosphere. The
replacement of the saturated air with drier air depends greatly on wind speed. Hence, solar
radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind speed are climatological parameters to
consider when assessing the evaporation process.

Where the evaporating surface is the soil surface, the degree of shading of the crop canopy and
the amount of water available at the evaporating surface are other factors that affect the
evaporation process. Frequent rains, irrigation and water transported upwards in a soil from a
shallow water table wet the soil surface. Where the soil is able to supply water fast enough to
satisfy the evaporation demand, the evaporation from the soil is determined only by the
meteorological conditions. However, where the interval between rains and irrigation becomes
large and the ability of the soil to conduct moisture to pear the surface is small, the water
content in the topsoil drops and the soil surface dries out. Under these circumstances the limited
availability of water exerts a controlling influence on soil evaporation. In the absence of any
supply of water to the soil surface, evaporation decreases rapidly and may cease almost
completely within a few days.

FIGURE 1. Schematic representation of a stoma

FIGURE 2. The partitioning of evapotranspiration into evaporation and transpiration over

the growing period for an annual field crop

Transpiration

Transpiration consists of the vaporization of liquid water contained in plant tissues and the
vapour removal to the atmosphere. Crops predominately lose their water through stomata.
These are small openings on the plant leaf through which gases and water vapour pass (Figure
1). The water, together with some nutrients, is taken up by the roots and transported through the
plant. The vaporization occurs within the leaf, namely in the intercellular spaces, and the vapour
exchange with the atmosphere is controlled by the stomatal aperture. Nearly all water taken up
is lost by transpiration and only a tiny fraction is used within the plant.

Transpiration, like direct evaporation, depends on the energy supply, vapour pressure gradient
and wind. Hence, radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind terms should be considered
when assessing transpiration. The soil water content and the ability of the soil to conduct water
to the roots also determine the transpiration rate, as do waterlogging and soil water salinity. The
transpiration rate is also influenced by crop characteristics, environmental aspects and
cultivation practices. Different kinds of plants may have different transpiration rates. Not only the
type of crop, but also the crop development, environment and management should be
considered when assessing transpiration.

Evapotranspiration (ET)

Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of distinguishing
between the two processes. Apart from the water availability in the topsoil, the evaporation from
a cropped soil is mainly determined by the fraction of the solar radiation reaching the soil
surface. This fraction decreases over the growing period as the crop develops and the crop
canopy shades more and more of the ground area. When the crop is small, water is
predominately lost by soil evaporation, but once the crop is well developed and completely
covers the soil, transpiration becomes the main process. In Figure 2 the partitioning of
evapotranspiration into evaporation and transpiration is plotted in correspondence to leaf area
per unit surface of soil below it. At sowing nearly 100% of ET comes from evaporation, while at
full crop cover more than 90% of ET comes from transpiration.

Units
The evapotranspiration rate is normally expressed in millimetres (mm) per unit time. The rate
expresses the amount of water lost from a cropped surface in units of water depth. The time unit
can be an hour, day, decade, month or even an entire growing period or year.

As one hectare has a surface of 10000 m2 and 1 mm is equal to 0.001 m, a loss of 1 mm of

water corresponds to a loss of 10 m3 of water per hectare. In other words, 1 mm day-1 is
equivalent to 10 m3 ha-1 day-l.

Water depths can also be expressed in terms of energy received per unit area. The energy
refers to the energy or heat required to vaporize free water. This energy, known as the latent
heat of vaporization (), is a function of the water temperature. For example, at 20°C,  is about
2.45 MJ kg-1. In other words, 2.45 MJ are needed to vaporize 1 kg or 0.001 m3 of water. Hence,
an energy input of 2.45 MJ per m2 is able to vaporize 0.001 m or 1 mm of water, and therefore 1
mm of water is equivalent to 2.45 MJ m-2. The evapotranspiration rate expressed in units of MJ
m-2 day-1 is represented by  ET, the latent heat flux.

Table 1 summarizes the units used to express the evapotranspiration rate and the conversion
factors.

TABLE 1. Conversion factors for evapotranspiration

depth volume per unit area energy per unit area *

mm day-1 m3 ha-1 day-1 l s-1 ha-1 MJ m-2 day-1

1 mm day-1 1 10 0.116 2.45

1 m3 ha-1 day-1 0.1 1 0.012 0.245
1 l s-1 ha-1 8.640 86.40 1 21.17
1 MJ m-2 day-1 0.408 4.082 0.047 1
* For water with a density of 1000 kg m-3 and at 20°C.

EXAMPLE 1. Converting evaporation from one unit to another

On a summer day, net solar energy received at a lake reaches 15 MJ per square metre per day. If 80% of
the energy is used to vaporize water, how large could the depth of evaporation be?
From Table 1: 1 MJ m-2 day-1 = 0.408 mm day-1
Therefore: 0.8 x 15 MJ m day = 0.8 x 15 x 0.408 mm d =
-2 -1 -1
4.9 mm day-1
The evaporation rate could be 4.9 mm/day

FIGURE 3. Factors affecting evapotranspiration with reference to related ET concepts

Factors affecting evapotranspiration

Weather parameters
Crop factors
Management and environmental conditions

Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental aspects are factors
affecting evaporation and transpiration. The related ET concepts presented in Figure 3 are
discussed in the section on evapotranspiration concepts.

Weather parameters

The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are radiation, air temperature,
humidity and wind speed. Several procedures have been developed to assess the evaporation
rate from these parameters. The evaporation power of the atmosphere is expressed by the
reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo). The reference crop evapotranspiration represents the
evapotranspiration from a standardized vegetated surface. The ETo is described in detail later in
this Chapter and in Chapters 2 and 4.

Crop factors

The crop type, variety and development stage should be considered when assessing the
evapotranspiration from crops grown in large, well-managed fields. Differences in resistance to
transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection, ground cover and crop rooting
characteristics result in different ET levels in different types of crops under identical
environmental conditions. Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) refers to the
evaporating demand from crops that are grown in large fields under optimum soil water,
excellent management and environmental conditions, and achieve full production under the
given climatic conditions.

Management and environmental conditions

Factors such as soil salinity, poor land fertility, limited application of fertilizers, the presence of
hard or impenetrable soil horizons, the absence of control of diseases and pests and poor soil
management may limit the crop development and reduce the evapotranspiration. Other factors
to be considered when assessing ET are ground cover, plant density and the soil water content.
The effect of soil water content on ET is conditioned primarily by the magnitude of the water
deficit and the type of soil. On the other hand, too much water will result in waterlogging which
might damage the root and limit root water uptake by inhibiting respiration.

When assessing the ET rate, additional consideration should be given to the range of
management practices that act on the climatic and crop factors affecting the ET process.
Cultivation practices and the type of irrigation method can alter the microclimate, affect the crop
characteristics or affect the wetting of the soil and crop surface. A windbreak reduces wind
velocities and decreases the ET rate of the field directly beyond the barrier. The effect can be
significant especially in windy, warm and dry conditions although evapotranspiration from the
trees themselves may offset any reduction in the field. Soil evaporation in a young orchard,
where trees are widely spaced, can be reduced by using a well-designed drip or trickle irrigation
system. The drippers apply water directly to the soil near trees, thereby leaving the major part of
the soil surface dry, and limiting the evaporation losses. The use of mulches, especially when
the crop is small, is another way of substantially reducing soil evaporation. Anti-transpirants,
such as stomata-closing, film-forming or reflecting material, reduce the water losses from the
crop and hence the transpiration rate.

FIGURE 4. Reference (ETo), crop evapotranspiration under standard (ETc) and non-
standard conditions (ETc adj)
Where field conditions differ from the standard conditions, correction factors are required to
adjust ETc. The adjustment reflects the effect on crop evapotranspiration of the environmental
and management conditions in the field.

Evapotranspiration concepts

Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo)

Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc)
Crop evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions (ETc adj)

Distinctions are made (Figure 4) between reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo), crop
evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) and crop evapotranspiration under non-
standard conditions (ETc adj). ETo is a climatic parameter expressing the evaporation power of
the atmosphere. ETc refers to the evapotranspiration from excellently managed, large, well-
watered fields that achieve full production under the given climatic conditions. Due to sub-
optimal crop management and environmental constraints that affect crop growth and limit
evapotranspiration, ETc under non-standard conditions generally requires a correction.

Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo)

The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the reference
crop evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration and is denoted as ETo. The reference
surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop with specific characteristics. The use of other
denominations such as potential ET is strongly discouraged due to ambiguities in their
definitions.

The concept of the reference evapotranspiration was introduced to study the evaporative
demand of the atmosphere independently of crop type, crop development and management
practices. As water is abundantly available at the reference evapotranspiring surface, soil
factors do not affect ET. Relating ET to a specific surface provides a reference to which ET from
other surfaces can be related. It obviates the need to define a separate ET level for each crop
and stage of growth. ETo values measured or calculated at different locations or in different
seasons are comparable as they refer to the ET from the same reference surface.

The only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. Consequently, ETo is a climatic
parameter and can be computed from weather data. ETo expresses the evaporating power of
the atmosphere at a specific location and time of the year and does not consider the crop
characteristics and soil factors. The FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the
sole method for determining ETo. The method has been selected because it closely
approximates grass ETo at the location evaluated, is physically based, and explicitly
incorporates both physiological and aerodynamic parameters. Moreover, procedures have been
developed for estimating missing climatic parameters.

Typical ranges for ETo values for different agroclimatic regions are given in Table 2. These
values are intended to familiarize inexperienced users with typical ranges, and are not intended
for direct application. The calculation of the reference crop evapotranspiration is discussed in
Part A of this handbook (Box 1).

Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc)

The crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions, denoted as ETc, is the

evapotranspiration from disease-free, well-fertilized crops, grown in large fields, under optimum
soil water conditions, and achieving full production under the given climatic conditions.

TABLE 2. Average ETo for different agroclimatic regions in mm/day

Mean daily temperature (°C)

Regions Cool Moderate Warm
~10°C 20°C > 30°C
Tropics and subtropics
- humid and sub-humid 2 - 3 3-5 5-7
-arid and semi-arid 2-4 4-6 6-8
Temperate region
- humid and sub-humid 1 - 2 2-4 4-7
-arid and semi-arid 1-3 4-7 6-9
BOX 1. Chapters concerning the calculation of the reference crop evapotranspiration (ET o)

PART A ----

Chapter 2 - FAO Penman-Monteith equation:

This chapter introduces the user to the need to standardize one method to compute ETo from
meteorological data. The FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the method for determining
reference ETo. The method and the corresponding definition of the reference surface are described.

Chapter 3 - Meteorological data:

The FAO Penman-Monteith method requires radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind speed data.
Calculation procedures to derive climatic parameters from the meteorological data are presented.
Procedures to estimate missing meteorological variables required for calculating ETo are outlined. This
allows for estimation of ETo with the FAO Penman-Monteith method under all circumstances, even in the
case of missing climatic data.

Chapter 4 - Determination of ETo:

The calculation of ETo by means of the FAO Penman-Monteith equation, with different time steps, from
the principal weather parameters and with missing data is described. The determination of ETo from pan
evaporation is also presented.
BOX 2. Chapters concerning the calculation of crop evapotranspiration under standard
conditions (ETc)

PART B ----

Chapter 5 - Introduction to crop evapotranspiration:

This chapter introduces the user to the 'Kc ETo' approach for calculating crop evapotranspiration. The
effects of characteristics that distinguish field crops from the reference grass crop are integrated into the
crop coefficient Kc. Depending on the purpose of the calculation, the required accuracy, the available
climatic data and the time step with which the calculations have to be executed, a distinction is made
between two calculation methods.

Chapter 6 - ETc - Single crop coefficient (Kc):

This chapter presents the first calculation method for crop evapotranspiration whereby the difference in
evapotranspiration between the cropped and reference grass surface is combined into a single crop
coefficient (Kc).

Chapter 7 - ETc - Dual crop coefficient (Kc = Kcb + Ke):

This chapter presents the other calculation method for crop evapotranspiration. Kc is split into two
separate coefficients, one for crop transpiration (i.e., the basal crop coefficient Kcb) and one for soil
evaporation (Ke).

The amount of water required to compensate the evapotranspiration loss from the cropped field
is defined as crop water requirement. Although the values for crop evapotranspiration and crop
water requirement are identical, crop water requirement refers to the amount of water that
needs to be supplied, while crop evapotranspiration refers to the amount of water that is lost
through evapotranspiration. The irrigation water requirement basically represents the difference
between the crop water requirement and effective precipitation. The irrigation water requirement
also includes additional water for leaching of salts and to compensate for non-uniformity of
water application. Calculation of the irrigation water requirement is not covered in this
publication, but will be the topic of a future Irrigation and Drainage Paper.

Crop evapotranspiration can be calculated from climatic data and by integrating directly the crop
resistance, albedo and air resistance factors in the Penman-Monteith approach. As there is still
a considerable lack of information for different crops, the Penman-Monteith method is used for
the estimation of the standard reference crop to determine its evapotranspiration rate, i.e., ET o.
Experimentally determined ratios of ETc/ETo, called crop coefficients (Kc), are used to relate
ETc to ETo or ETc = Kc ETo.

Differences in leaf anatomy, stomatal characteristics, aerodynamic properties and even albedo
cause the crop evapotranspiration to differ from the reference crop evapotranspiration under the
same climatic conditions. Due to variations in the crop characteristics throughout its growing
season, Kc for a given crop changes from sowing till harvest. The calculation of crop
evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) is discussed in Part B of this handbook (Box
2).

Crop evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions (ET c adj)

The crop evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions (ETc adj) is the evapotranspiration
from crops grown under management and environmental conditions that differ from the standard
conditions. When cultivating crops in fields, the real crop evapotranspiration may deviate from
ETc due to non-optimal conditions such as the presence of pests and diseases, soil salinity, low
soil fertility, water shortage or waterlogging. This may result in scanty plant growth, low plant
density and may reduce the evapotranspiration rate below ETc.
The crop evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions is calculated by using a water stress
coefficient Ks and/or by adjusting Kc for all kinds of other stresses and environmental constraints
on crop evapotranspiration. The adjustment to ETc for water stress, management and
environmental constraints is discussed in Part C of this handbook (Box 3).

Determining evapotranspiration

ET measurement
ET computed from meteorological data
ET estimated from pan evaporation

ET measurement

Evapotranspiration is not easy to measure. Specific devices and accurate measurements of

various physical parameters or the soil water balance in lysimeters are required to determine
evapotranspiration. The methods are often expensive, demanding in terms of accuracy of
measurement and can only be fully exploited by well-trained research personnel. Although the
methods are inappropriate for routine measurements, they remain important for the evaluation
of ET estimates obtained by more indirect methods.

BOX 3. Chapters concerning the calculation of crop evapotranspiration under non-standard

conditions (ETc adj)

PART C ----

Chapter 8 - ETc under soil water stress conditions:

This chapter discusses the reduction in transpiration induced by soil moisture stress or soil water salinity.
The resulting evapotranspiration will deviate from the crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions.
The evapotranspiration is computed by using a water stress coefficient, Ks, describing the effect of water
stress on crop transpiration.

Chapter 9 - ETc for natural, non-typical and non-pristine vegetation:

Procedures that can be used to make adjustments to the Kc to account for less than perfect growing
conditions or stand characteristics are discussed. The procedures can also be used to determine Kc for
agricultural crops not listed in the tables of Part B.

Chapter 10 - ETc under various management practices:

This chapter discusses various types of management practices that may cause the values for Kc and
ETc to deviate from the standard conditions described in Part B. Adjustment procedures for Kc to account
for surface mulches, intercropping, small areas of vegetation and management induced stress are
presented.
Chapter 11 - ETc during non-growing periods:

This chapter describes procedures for predicting ETc during non-growing periods under various types of
surface conditions.

FIGURE 5. Schematic presentation of the diurnal variation of the components of the

energy balance above a well-watered transpiring surface on a cloudless day

Energy balance and microclimatological methods

Evaporation of water requires relatively large amounts of energy, either in the form of sensible
heat or radiant energy. Therefore the evapotranspiration process is governed by energy
exchange at the vegetation surface and is limited by the amount of energy available. Because of
this limitation, it is possible to predict the evapotranspiration rate by applying the principle of
energy conservation. The energy arriving at the surface must equal the energy leaving the
surface for the same time period.

All fluxes of energy should be considered when deriving an energy balance equation. The
equation for an evaporating surface can be written as:

Rn - G -  ET - H = 0 (1)

where Rn is the net radiation, H the sensible heat, G the soil heat flux and  ET the latent heat
flux. The various terms can be either positive or negative. Positive Rn supplies energy to the
surface and positive G,  ET and H remove energy from the surface (Figure 5).

In Equation 1 only vertical fluxes are considered and the net rate at which energy is being
transferred horizontally, by advection, is ignored. Therefore the equation is to be applied to
large, extensive surfaces of homogeneous vegetation only. The equation is restricted to the four
components: Rn,  ET, H and G. Other energy terms, such as heat stored or released in the
plant, or the energy used in metabolic activities, are not considered These terms account for
only a small fraction of the daily net radiation and can be considered negligible when compared
with the other four components.

The latent heat flux ( ET) representing the evapotranspiration fraction can be derived from the
energy balance equation if all other components are known. Net radiation (Rn) and soil heat
fluxes (G) can be measured or estimated from climatic parameters. Measurements of the
sensible heat (H) are however complex and cannot be easily obtained. H requires accurate
measurement of temperature gradients above the surface.

Another method of estimating evapotranspiration is the mass transfer method. This approach
considers the vertical movement of small parcels of air (eddies) above a large homogeneous
surface. The eddies transport material (water vapour) and energy (heat, momentum) from and
towards the evaporating surface. By assuming steady state conditions and that the eddy
transfer coefficients for water vapour are proportional to those for heat and momentum, the
evapotranspiration rate can be computed from the vertical gradients of air temperature and
water vapour via the Bowen ratio. Other direct measurement methods use gradients of wind
speed and water vapour. These methods and other methods such as eddy covariance, require
accurate measurement of vapour pressure, and air temperature or wind speed at different levels
above the surface. Therefore, their application is restricted to primarily research situations.

Soil water balance

Evapotranspiration can also be determined by measuring the various components of the soil
water balance. The method consists of assessing the incoming and outgoing water flux into the
crop root zone over some time period (Figure 6). Irrigation (I) and rainfall (P) add water to the
root zone. Part of I and P might be lost by surface runoff (RO) and by deep percolation (DP) that
will eventually recharge the water table. Water might also be transported upward by capillary
rise (CR) from a shallow water table towards the root zone or even transferred horizontally by
subsurface flow in (SFin) or out of (SFout) the root zone. In many situations, however, except
under conditions with large slopes, SFin and SFout are minor and can be ignored. Soil
evaporation and crop transpiration deplete water from the root zone. If all fluxes other than
evapotranspiration (ET) can be assessed, the evapotranspiration can be deduced from the
change in soil water content ( SW) over the time period:

ET = I + P - RO - DP + CR ±  SF ±  SW (2)

Some fluxes such as subsurface flow, deep percolation and capillary rise from a water table are
difficult to assess and short time periods cannot be considered. The soil water balance method
can usually only give ET estimates over long time periods of the order of week-long or ten-day
periods.

FIGURE 6. Soil water balance of the root zone

Lysimeters

By isolating the crop root zone from its environment and controlling the processes that are
difficult to measure, the different terms in the soil water balance equation can be determined
with greater accuracy. This is done in lysimeters where the crop grows in isolated tanks filled
with either disturbed or undisturbed soil. In precision weighing lysimeters, where the water loss
is directly measured by the change of mass, evapotranspiration can be obtained with an
accuracy of a few hundredths of a millimetre, and small time periods such as an hour can be
considered. In non-weighing lysimeters the evapotranspiration for a given time period is
determined by deducting the drainage water, collected at the bottom of the lysimeters, from the
total water input.

A requirement of lysimeters is that the vegetation both inside and immediately outside of the
lysimeter be perfectly matched (same height and leaf area index). This requirement has
historically not been closely adhered to in a majority of lysimeter studies and has resulted in
severely erroneous and unrepresentative ETc and Kc data.

As lysimeters are difficult and expensive to construct and as their operation and maintenance
require special care, their use is limited to specific research purposes.

ET computed from meteorological data

Owing to the difficulty of obtaining accurate field measurements, ET is commonly computed
from weather data. A large number of empirical or semi-empirical equations have been
developed for assessing crop or reference crop evapotranspiration from meteorological data.
Some of the methods are only valid under specific climatic and agronomic conditions and
cannot be applied under conditions different from those under which they were originally
developed.

Numerous researchers have analysed the performance of the various calculation methods for
different locations. As a result of an Expert Consultation held in May 1990, the FAO Penman-
Monteith method is now recommended as the standard method for the definition and
computation of the reference evapotranspiration, ETo. The ET from crop surfaces under
standard conditions is determined by crop coefficients (Kc) that relate ETc to ETo. The ET from
crop surfaces under non-standard conditions is adjusted by a water stress coefficient (Ks) and/or
by modifying the crop coefficient.

ET estimated from pan evaporation

Evaporation from an open water surface provides an index of the integrated effect of radiation,
air temperature, air humidity and wind on evapotranspiration. However, differences in the water
and cropped surface produce significant differences in the water loss from an open water
surface and the crop. The pan has proved its practical value and has been used successfully to
estimate reference evapotranspiration by observing the evaporation loss from a water surface
and applying empirical coefficients to relate pan evaporation to ETo. The procedure is outlined in
Chapter 3.

Part A - Reference evapotranspiration (ETo)

Chapter 2 - FAO Penman-Monteith equation

Chapter 3 - Meteorological data
Chapter 4 - Determination of ETo

Part A deals with the evapotranspiration from the reference surface, the so-called reference crop
evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration, denoted as ETo. The reference surface is a
hypothetical grass reference crop with an assumed crop height of 0.12 m, a fixed surface resistance of
70 s m-1 and an albedo of 0.23. The reference surface closely resembles an extensive surface of green,
well-watered grass of uniform height, actively growing and completely shading the ground. The fixed
surface resistance of 70 s m-1 implies a moderately dry soil surface resulting from about a weekly
irrigation frequency.

ETo can be computed from meteorological data. As a result of an Expert Consultation held in May 1990,
the FAO Penman-Monteith method is now recommended as the sole standard method for the definition
and computation of the reference evapotranspiration. The FAO Penman-Monteith method requires
radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind speed data. Calculation procedures to derive climatic
parameters from meteorological data and to estimate missing meteorological variables required for
calculating ETo are presented in this Part (Chapter 3). The calculation procedures in this Publication allow
for estimation of ETo with the FAO Penman-Monteith method under all circumstances, even in the case
of missing climatic data.

ETo can also be estimated from pan evaporation. Pans have proved their practical value and have been
used successfully to estimate ETo by observing the water loss from the pan and using empirical
coefficients to relate pan evaporation to ETo. However, special precautions and management must be
applied.

Chapter 2 - FAO Penman-Monteith equation

Need for a standard ETo method

Formulation of the Penman-Monteith equation
Reference surface
FAO Penman-Monteith equation

This chapter introduces the user to the need to standardize one method to compute reference
evapotranspiration (ETo) from meteorological data. The FAO Penman-Monteith method is
recommended as the sole ETo method for determining reference evapotranspiration. The
method, its derivation, the required meteorological data and the corresponding definition of the
reference surface are described in this chapter.

Need for a standard ETo method

A large number of more or less empirical methods have been developed over the last 50 years
by numerous scientists and specialists worldwide to estimate evapotranspiration from different
climatic variables. Relationships were often subject to rigorous local calibrations and proved to
have limited global validity. Testing the accuracy of the methods under a new set of conditions
is laborious, time-consuming and costly, and yet evapotranspiration data are frequently needed
at short notice for project planning or irrigation scheduling design. To meet this need, guidelines
were developed and published in the FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24 'Crop water
requirements'. To accommodate users with different data availability, four methods were
presented to calculate the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo): the Blaney-Criddle,
radiation, modified Penman and pan evaporation methods. The modified Penman method was
considered to offer the best results with minimum possible error in relation to a living grass
reference crop. It was expected that the pan method would give acceptable estimates,
depending on the location of the pan. The radiation method was suggested for areas where
available climatic data include measured air temperature and sunshine, cloudiness or radiation,
but not measured wind speed and air humidity. Finally, the publication proposed the use of the
Blaney-Criddle method for areas where available climatic data cover air temperature data only.

These climatic methods to calculate ETo were all calibrated for ten-day or monthly calculations,
not for daily or hourly calculations. The Blaney-Criddle method was recommended for periods of
one month or longer. For the pan method it was suggested that calculations should be done for
periods of ten days or longer. Users have not always respected these conditions and
calculations have often been done on daily time steps.

Advances in research and the more accurate assessment of crop water use have revealed
weaknesses in the methodologies. Numerous researchers analysed the performance of the four
methods for different locations. Although the results of such analyses could have been
influenced by site or measurement conditions or by bias in weather data collection, it became
evident that the proposed methods do not behave the same way in different locations around
the world. Deviations from computed to observed values were often found to exceed ranges
indicated by FAO. The modified Penman was frequently found to overestimate ET o, even by up
to 20% for low evaporative conditions. The other FAO recommended equations showed variable
adherence to the reference crop evapotranspiration standard of grass.

To evaluate the performance of these and other estimation procedures under different
climatological conditions, a major study was undertaken under the auspices of the Committee
on Irrigation Water Requirements of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). The
ASCE study analysed the performance of 20 different methods, using detailed procedures to
assess the validity of the methods compared to a set of carefully screened lysimeter data from
11 locations with variable climatic conditions. The study proved very revealing and showed the
widely varying performance of the methods under different climatic conditions. In a parallel
study commissioned by the European Community, a consortium of European research institutes
evaluated the performance of various evapotranspiration methods using data from different
lysimeter studies in Europe.

The studies confirm the overestimation of the modified Penman introduced in FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper No. 24, and the variable performance of the different methods depending on
their adaptation to local conditions. The comparative studies may be summarized as follows:

 The Penman methods may require local calibration of the wind function to achieve satisfactory
results.
 The radiation methods show good results in humid climates where the aerodynamic term is
relatively small, but performance in arid conditions is erratic and tends to underestimate
evapotranspiration.

 Temperature methods remain empirical and require local calibration in order to achieve
satisfactory results. A possible exception is the 1985 Hargreaves' method which has shown
reasonable ETo results with a global validity.

 Pan evapotranspiration methods clearly reflect the shortcomings of predicting crop

evapotranspiration from open water evaporation. The methods are susceptible to the
microclimatic conditions under which the pans are operating and the rigour of station
maintenance. Their performance proves erratic.

 The relatively accurate and consistent performance of the Penman-Monteith approach in both
arid and humid climates has been indicated in both the ASCE and European studies.

The analysis of the performance of the various calculation methods reveals the need for
formulating a standard method for the computation of ETo. The FAO Penman-Monteith method
is recommended as the sole standard method. It is a method with strong likelihood of correctly
predicting ETo in a wide range of locations and climates and has provision for application in
data-short situations. The use of older FAO or other reference ET methods is no longer
encouraged.

Formulation of the Penman-Monteith equation

Penman-Monteith equation
Aerodynamic resistance (ra)
(Bulk) surface resistance (rs)

Penman-Monteith equation

In 1948, Penman combined the energy balance with the mass transfer method and derived an
equation to compute the evaporation from an open water surface from standard climatological
records of sunshine, temperature, humidity and wind speed. This so-called combination method
was further developed by many researchers and extended to cropped surfaces by introducing
resistance factors.

The resistance nomenclature distinguishes between aerodynamic resistance and surface

resistance factors (Figure 7). The surface resistance parameters are often combined into one
parameter, the 'bulk' surface resistance parameter which operates in series with the
aerodynamic resistance. The surface resistance, rs, describes the resistance of vapour flow
through stomata openings, total leaf area and soil surface. The aerodynamic resistance, ra,
describes the resistance from the vegetation upward and involves friction from air flowing over
vegetative surfaces. Although the exchange process in a vegetation layer is too complex to be
fully described by the two resistance factors, good correlations can be obtained between
measured and calculated evapotranspiration rates, especially for a uniform grass reference
surface.

FIGURE 7. Simplified representation of the (bulk) surface and aerodynamic resistances

for water vapour flow

The Penman-Monteith form of the combination equation is:

(3)

where Rn is the net radiation, G is the soil heat flux, (es - ea) represents the vapour pressure
deficit of the air,  a is the mean air density at constant pressure, cp is the specific heat of the
air,  represents the slope of the saturation vapour pressure temperature relationship,  is the
psychrometric constant, and rs and ra are the (bulk) surface and aerodynamic resistances. The
parameters of the equation are defined in Chapter 3.

The Penman-Monteith approach as formulated above includes all parameters that govern
energy exchange and corresponding latent heat flux (evapotranspiration) from uniform
expanses of vegetation. Most of the parameters are measured or can be readily calculated from
weather data. The equation can be utilized for the direct calculation of any crop
evapotranspiration as the surface and aerodynamic resistances are crop specific.

Aerodynamic resistance (ra)

The transfer of heat and water vapour from the evaporating surface into the air above the
canopy is determined by the aerodynamic resistance:

(4)

where

ra aerodynamic resistance [s m-1],

zm height of wind measurements [m],
zh height of humidity measurements [m],
d zero plane displacement height [m],
zom roughness length governing momentum transfer [m],
zoh roughness length governing transfer of heat and vapour [m],
k von Karman's constant, 0.41 [-],
uz wind speed at height z [m s-1].

The equation is restricted for neutral stability conditions, i.e., where temperature, atmospheric
pressure, and wind velocity distributions follow nearly adiabatic conditions (no heat exchange).
The application of the equation for short time periods (hourly or less) may require the inclusion
of corrections for stability. However, when predicting ETo in the well-watered reference surface,
heat exchanged is small, and therefore stability correction is normally not required.

Many studies have explored the nature of the wind regime in plant canopies. Zero displacement
heights and roughness lengths have to be considered when the surface is covered by
vegetation. The factors depend upon the crop height and architecture. Several empirical
equations for the estimate of d, zom and zoh have been developed. The derivation of the
aerodynamic resistance for the grass reference surface is presented in Box 4.

(Bulk) surface resistance (rs)

The 'bulk' surface resistance describes the resistance of vapour flow through the transpiring
crop and evaporating soil surface. Where the vegetation does not completely cover the soil, the
resistance factor should indeed include the effects of the evaporation from the soil surface. If the
crop is not transpiring at a potential rate, the resistance depends also on the water status of the
vegetation. An acceptable approximation to a much more complex relation of the surface
resistance of dense full cover vegetation is:

BOX 4. The aerodynamic resistance for a grass reference surface

For a wide range of crops the zero plane displacement height, d [m], and the roughness length governing
momentum transfer, zom [m], can be estimated from the crop height h [m] by the following equations:

d = 2/3 h
zom = 0.123 h

The roughness length governing transfer of heat and vapour, zoh [m], can be approximated by:

zoh = 0.1 zom

Assuming a constant crop height of 0.12 m and a standardized height for wind speed, temperature and
humidity at 2 m (zm = zh = 2 m), the aerodynamic resistance ra [s m-1] for the grass reference surface
becomes (Eq. 4):

where u2 is the wind speed [m s-1] at 2 m.

(5)

where

rs (bulk) surface resistance [s m-1],

rl bulk stomatal resistance of the well-illuminated leaf [s m-1],
LAIactive active (sunlit) leaf area index [m2 (leaf area) m-2 (soil surface)].
The Leaf Area Index (LAI), a dimensionless quantity, is the leaf area (upper side only) per unit
area of soil below it. It is expressed as m2 leaf area per m2 ground area. The active LAI is the
index of the leaf area that actively contributes to the surface heat and vapour transfer. It is
generally the upper, sunlit portion of a dense canopy. The LAI values for various crops differ
widely but values of 3-5 are common for many mature crops. For a given crop, green LAI
changes throughout the season and normally reaches its maximum before or at flowering
(Figure 8). LAI further depends on the plant density and the crop variety.

The bulk stomatal resistance, rl, is the average resistance of an individual leaf. This resistance is
crop specific and differs among crop varieties and crop management. It usually increases as the
crop ages and begins to ripen. There is, however, a lack of consolidated information on changes
in rl over time for the different crops. The information available in the literature on stomatal
conductance or resistance is often oriented toward physiological or ecophysiological studies.

FIGURE 8. Typical presentation of the variation in the active (green) Leaf Area Index over
the growing season for a maize crop

The stomatal resistance, rl, is influenced by climate and by water availability. However,
influences vary from one crop to another and different varieties can be affected differently. The
resistance increases when the crop is water stressed and the soil water availability limits crop
evapotranspiration. Some studies indicate that stomatal resistance is influenced to some extent
by radiation intensity, temperature, and vapour pressure deficit. The derivation of the surface
resistance for the grass reference surface is presented in Box 5.

BOX 5. The (bulk) surface resistance for a grass reference crop

A general equation for LAIactive is:

LAIactive = 0.5 LAI

which takes into consideration the fact that generally only the upper half of dense clipped grass is actively
contributing to the surface heat and vapour transfer. For clipped grass a general equation for LAI is:

LAI = 24 h

where h is the crop height [m].

The stomatal resistance, rl, of a single leaf has a value of about 100 s m-1 under well-watered conditions.
By assuming a crop height of 0.12 m, the surface resistance, rs [s m-1], for the grass reference surface
becomes (Eq. 5):

Reference surface
To obviate the need to define unique evaporation parameters for each crop and stage of growth,
the concept of a reference surface was introduced. Evapotranspiration rates of the various
crops are related to the evapotranspiration rate from the reference surface (ETo) by means of
crop coefficients.

In the past, an open water surface has been proposed as a reference surface. However, the
differences in aerodynamic, vegetation control and radiation characteristics present a strong
challenge in relating ET to measurements of free water evaporation. Relating ETo to a specific
crop has the advantage of incorporating the biological and physical processes involved in ET
from cropped surfaces.

Grass, together with alfalfa, is a well-studied crop regarding its aerodynamic and surface
characteristics and is accepted worldwide as a reference surface. Because the resistance to
diffusion of vapour strongly depends on crop height, ground cover, LAI and soil moisture
conditions, the characteristics of the reference crop should be well defined and fixed. Changes
in crop height result in variations in the roughness and LAI. Consequently, the associated
canopy and aerodynamic resistances will vary appreciably with time. Moreover, water stress
and the degree of ground cover have an effect on the resistances and also on the albedo.

To avoid problems of local calibration which would require demanding and expensive studies, a
hypothetical grass reference has been selected. Difficulties with a living grass reference result
from the fact that the grass variety and morphology can significantly affect the
evapotranspiration rate, especially during peak water use. Large differences may exist between
warm-season and cool-season grass types. Cool-season grasses have a lower degree of
stomatal control and hence higher rates of evapotranspiration. It may be difficult to grow cool-
season grasses in some arid, tropical climates.

The FAO Expert Consultation on Revision of FAO Methodologies for Crop Water Requirements
accepted the following unambiguous definition for the reference surface:

"A hypothetical reference crop with an assumed crop height of 0.12 m, a fixed surface
resistance of 70 s m-1 and an albedo of 0.23."
The reference surface closely resembles an extensive surface of green grass of uniform height,
actively growing, completely shading the ground and with adequate water. The requirements
that the grass surface should be extensive and uniform result from the assumption that all fluxes
are one-dimensional upwards.

The FAO Penman-Monteith method is selected as the method by which the evapotranspiration
of this reference surface (ETo) can be unambiguously determined, and as the method which
provides consistent ETo values in all regions and climates.

FAO Penman-Monteith equation

Equation
Data
Missing climatic data

Equation

A consultation of experts and researchers was organized by FAO in May 1990, in collaboration
with the International Commission for Irrigation and Drainage and with the World Meteorological
Organization, to review the FAO methodologies on crop water requirements and to advise on
the revision and update of procedures.

FIGURE 9. Characteristics of the hypothetical reference crop

The panel of experts recommended the adoption of the Penman-Monteith combination method
as a new standard for reference evapotranspiration and advised on procedures for calculation of
the various parameters. By defining the reference crop as a hypothetical crop with an assumed
height of 0.12 m having a surface resistance of 70 s m-1 and an albedo of 0.23, closely
resembling the evaporation of an extension surface of green grass of uniform height, actively
growing and adequately watered, the FAO Penman-Monteith method was developed. The
method overcomes shortcomings of the previous FAO Penman method and provides values
more consistent with actual crop water use data worldwide.

From the original Penman-Monteith equation (Equation 3) and the equations of the aerodynamic
(Equation 4) and surface resistance (Equation 5), the FAO Penman-Monteith method to
estimate ETo can be derived (Box 6):

(6)

where

ETo reference evapotranspiration [mm day-1],

Rn net radiation at the crop surface [MJ m-2 day-1],
G soil heat flux density [MJ m-2 day-1],
T mean daily air temperature at 2 m height [°C],
u2 wind speed at 2 m height [m s-1],
es saturation vapour pressure [kPa],
ea actual vapour pressure [kPa],
es - ea saturation vapour pressure deficit [kPa],
 slope vapour pressure curve [kPa °C-1],
 psychrometric constant [kPa °C-1].

The reference evapotranspiration, ETo, provides a standard to which:

 evapotranspiration at different periods of the year or in other regions can be compared;

 evapotranspiration of other crops can be related.

The equation uses standard climatological records of solar radiation (sunshine), air temperature,
humidity and wind speed. To ensure the integrity of computations, the weather measurements
should be made at 2 m (or converted to that height) above an extensive surface of green grass,
shading the ground and not short of water.

No weather-based evapotranspiration equation can be expected to predict evapotranspiration

perfectly under every climatic situation due to simplification in formulation and errors in data
measurement. It is probable that precision instruments under excellent environmental and
biological management conditions will show the FAO Penman-Monteith equation to deviate at
times from true measurements of grass ETo. However, the Expert Consultation agreed to use
the hypothetical reference definition of the FAO Penman-Monteith equation as the definition for
grass ETo when deriving and expressing crop coefficients.
It is important, when comparing the FAO Penman-Monteith equation to ETo measurements, that
the full Penman-Monteith equation (Equation 3) and associated equations for ra and
rs (Equations 4 and 5) be used to enable accounting for variation in ET due to variation in height
of the grass measured. Variations in measurement height can significantly change LAI, d and
zom and the corresponding ETo measurement and predicted value. When evaluating results, it
should be noted that local environmental and management factors, such as watering frequency,
also affect ETo observations.

The FAO Penman-Monteith equation is a close, simple representation of the physical and
physiological factors governing the evapotranspiration process. By using the FAO Penman-
Monteith definition for ETo, one may calculate crop coefficients at research sites by relating the
measured crop evapotranspiration (ETc) with the calculated ETo, i.e., Kc = ETc/ETo. In the crop
coefficient approach, differences in the crop canopy and aerodynamic resistance relative to the
hypothetical reference crop are accounted for within the crop coefficient. The Kc factor serves as
an aggregation of the physical and physiological differences between crops and the reference
definition.

Data

Apart from the site location, the FAO Penman-Monteith equation requires air temperature,
humidity, radiation and wind speed data for daily, weekly, ten-day or monthly calculations. The
computation of all data required for the calculation of the reference evapotranspiration is given
in Chapter 3. It is important to verify the units in which the weather data are reported. Factors to
convert common units to the standard unit are presented in Annex I.

Location

Altitude above sea level (m) and latitude (degrees north or south) of the location should be
specified. These data are needed to adjust some weather parameters for the local average
value of atmospheric pressure (a function of the site elevation above mean sea level) and to
compute extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) and, in some cases, daylight hours (N). In the calculation
procedures for Ra and N, the latitude is expressed in radian (i.e., decimal degrees times  /180).

BOX 6. Derivation of the FAO Penman-Monteith equation for the hypothetical grass reference
crop

With standardized height for wind speed, temperature and humidity measurements at 2 m (zm = zh = 2 m)
and the crop height h = 0.12 m, the aerodynamic and surface resistances become (Boxes 4 & 5):

ra = 208/u2 s m-1, (with u2 wind speed at 2 m height)

rs = 70 s m-1
(1 + rs/ra) = (1 + 0.34 u2)
Rn and G is energy available per unit area and expressed in MJ m-2 day-1. To convert the energy units for
radiation to equivalent water depths (mm) the latent heat of vaporization,  is used as a conversion factor
(Chapter 1). The conversion from energy values to equivalent depths of water or vice versa is given by
(Eq. 20):

By substituting cp with a rearrangement of Eq. 8:

and considering the ideal gas law for  a:

where TKv the virtual temperature, may be substituted by:

TKv = 1.01(T+273)

results in:

[MJ m-2 °C-1 day-1]

where

cp specific heat at constant pressure [MJ kg-1 °C-1],

 a mean air density at constant pressure [kg m-3],
ra aerodynamic resistance [s m-1],
 psychrometric constant [kPa °C-1],
 ratio molecular weight of water vapour/dry air = 0.622,
 latent heat of vaporization [MJ kg-1],
u2 wind speed at 2 m [m s-1],
R specific gas constant = 0.287 kJ kg-1 K-1,
T air temperature [°C],
P atmospheric pressure [kPa],

[MJ m-2 °C-1 day-1]

or, when divided by  ( = 2.45),

[mm °C-1 day-1]

A positive value is used for the northern hemisphere and a negative value for the southern
hemisphere.

Temperature

The (average) daily maximum and minimum air temperatures in degrees Celsius (°C) are
required. Where only (average) mean daily temperatures are available, the calculations can still
be executed but some underestimation of ETo will probably occur due to the non-linearity of the
saturation vapour pressure - temperature relationship (Figure 11). Using mean air temperature
instead of maximum and minimum air temperatures yields a lower saturation vapour pressure
es, and hence a lower vapour pressure difference (es - ea), and a lower reference
evapotranspiration estimate.

Humidity

The (average) daily actual vapour pressure, ea, in kilopascals (kPa) is required. The actual
vapour pressure, where not available, can be derived from maximum and minimum relative
humidity (%), psychrometric data (dry and wet bulb temperatures in °C) or dewpoint
temperature (°C) according to the procedures outlined in Chapter 3.

Radiation

The (average) daily net radiation expressed in megajoules per square metre per day (MJ m-
2
day-1) is required. These data are not commonly available but can be derived from the
(average) shortwave radiation measured with a pyranometer or from the (average) daily actual
duration of bright sunshine (hours per day) measured with a (Campbell-Stokes) sunshine
recorder. The calculation procedures are outlined in Chapter 3.

Wind speed

The (average) daily wind speed in metres per second (m s-1) measured at 2 m above the ground
level is required. It is important to verify the height at which wind speed is measured, as wind
speeds measured at different heights above the soil surface differ. The calculation procedure to
adjust wind speed to the standard height of 2 m is presented in Chapter 3.

Missing climatic data

Situations might occur where data for some weather variables are missing. The use of an
alternative ETo calculation procedure, requiring only limited meteorological parameters, should
generally be avoided. It is recommended that one calculate ETo using the standard FAO
Penman-Monteith method after resolving the specific problem of the missing data. Procedures
for estimating missing climatic data are outlined in Chapter 3. Differences between ETo values
obtained with the FAO Penman-Monteith equation with, on the one hand, a limited data set and,
on the other hand, a full data set, are expected to be smaller than or of similar magnitude to the
differences resulting from the use of an alternative ETo equation.

Even where the data set contains only maximum and minimum air temperature it is still possible
to obtain reasonable estimates of ten-day or monthly ETo with the FAO Penman-Monteith
equation. As outlined in Chapter 3, radiation data can be derived from the air temperature
difference, or, along with wind speed and humidity data, can be imported from a nearby weather
station. Humidity data can also be estimated from daily minimum air temperature. After
evaluating the validity of the use of data from another station, ten-day or monthly estimates of
ETo can be calculated.

The procedures for estimating missing data should be validated at the regional level. This can
be done for weather stations with full data sets by comparing ETo calculated with full and with
limited data sets. The ratio should be close to one. Where the ratio deviates significantly from
one, the ratio can be used as a correction factor for estimates made with the limited data set.
Where the standard error of estimate exceeds 20% of the mean ETo, a sensitivity analysis
should be performed to determine causes (and limits) for the method utilized to import the
missing data. A validation should be completed for each month and variable, for the monthly as
well as for the daily estimates.

Chapter 3 - Meteorological data

Meteorological factors determining ET

Atmospheric parameters
Air temperature
Air humidity
Radiation
Wind speed
Climatic data acquisition
Estimating missing climatic data
Minimum data requirements

The methods for calculating evapotranspiration from meteorological data require various
climatological and physical parameters. Some of the data are measured directly in weather
stations. Other parameters are related to commonly measured data and can be derived with the
help of a direct or empirical relationship. This chapter discusses the source, measurement and
computation of all data required for the calculation of the reference evapotranspiration by means
of the FAO Penman-Monteith method. Different examples illustrate the various calculation
procedures. Appropriate procedures for estimating missing data are also provided.

Meteorological data can be expressed in several units. Conversion factors between various
units and standard S. I. units are given in Annex 1. Climatic parameters, calculated by means of
the equations presented in this chapter are tabulated and displayed for different meteorological
conditions in Annex 2. Only the standardized relationships are presented in this chapter. The
background of certain relationships and more information about certain procedures are given in
Annex 3. Annexes 4, 5 and 6 list procedures for the statistical analysis, assessment, correction
and completion of partial or missing weather data.
Meteorological factors determining ET

Solar radiation
Air temperature
Air humidity
Wind speed

The meteorological factors determining evapotranspiration are weather parameters which

provide energy for vaporization and remove water vapour from the evaporating surface. The
principal weather parameters to consider are presented below.

Solar radiation

The evapotranspiration process is determined by the amount of energy available to vaporize

water. Solar radiation is the largest energy source and is able to change large quantities of
liquid water into water vapour. The potential amount of radiation that can reach the evaporating
surface is determined by its location and time of the year. Due to differences in the position of
the sun, the potential radiation differs at various latitudes and in different seasons. The actual
solar radiation reaching the evaporating surface depends on the turbidity of the atmosphere and
the presence of clouds which reflect and absorb major parts of the radiation. When assessing
the effect of solar radiation on evapotranspiration, one should also bear in mind that not all
available energy is used to vaporize water. Part of the solar energy is used to heat up the
atmosphere and the soil profile.

Air temperature

The solar radiation absorbed by the atmosphere and the heat emitted by the earth increase the
air temperature. The sensible heat of the surrounding air transfers energy to the crop and exerts
as such a controlling influence on the rate of evapotranspiration. In sunny, warm weather the
loss of water by evapotranspiration is greater than in cloudy and cool weather.

FIGURE 10. Illustration of the effect of wind speed on evapotranspiration in hot-dry and
humid-warm weather conditions
Air humidity

While the energy supply from the sun and surrounding air is the main driving force for the
vaporization of water, the difference between the water vapour pressure at the evapotranspiring
surface and the surrounding air is the determining factor for the vapour removal. Well-watered
fields in hot dry arid regions consume large amounts of water due to the abundance of energy
and the desiccating power of the atmosphere. In humid tropical regions, notwithstanding the
high energy input, the high humidity of the air will reduce the evapotranspiration demand. In
such an environment, the air is already close to saturation, so that less additional water can be
stored and hence the evapotranspiration rate is lower than in arid regions.

Wind speed

The process of vapour removal depends to a large extent on wind and air turbulence which
transfers large quantities of air over the evaporating surface. When vaporizing water, the air
above the evaporating surface becomes gradually saturated with water vapour. If this air is not
continuously replaced with drier air, the driving force for water vapour removal and the
evapotranspiration rate decreases.

The combined effect of climatic factors affecting evapotranspiration is illustrated in Figure 10 for
two different climatic conditions. The evapotranspiration demand is high in hot dry weather due
to the dryness of the air and the amount of energy available as direct solar radiation and latent
heat. Under these circumstances, much water vapour can be stored in the air while wind may
promote the transport of water allowing more water vapour to be taken up. On the other hand,
under humid weather conditions, the high humidity of the air and the presence of clouds cause
the evapotranspiration rate to be lower. The effect on evapotranspiration of increasing wind
speeds for the two different climatic conditions is illustrated by the slope of the curves in Figure
10. The drier the atmosphere, the larger the effect on ET and the greater the slope of the curve.
For humid conditions, the wind can only replace saturated air with slightly less saturated air and
remove heat energy. Consequently, the wind speed affects the evapotranspiration rate to a far
lesser extent than under arid conditions where small variations in wind speed may result in
larger variations in the evapotranspiration rate.

Atmospheric parameters

Atmospheric pressure (P)

Latent heat of vaporization (l)
Psychrometric constant (g)

Several relationships are available to express climatic parameters. The effect of the principal
weather parameters on evapotranspiration can be assessed with the help of these equations.
Some of the relationships require parameters which express a specific characteristic of the
atmosphere. Before studying the four principal weather parameters, some atmospheric
parameters will be discussed.

Atmospheric pressure (P)

The atmospheric pressure, P, is the pressure exerted by the weight of the earth's atmosphere.
Evaporation at high altitudes is promoted due to low atmospheric pressure as expressed in the
psychrometric constant. The effect is, however, small and in the calculation procedures, the
average value for a location is sufficient. A simplification of the ideal gas law, assuming 20°C for
a standard atmosphere, can be employed to calculate P:

(7)

where

P atmospheric pressure [kPa],

z elevation above sea level [m],

Values for atmospheric pressure as a function of altitude are given in Annex 2 (Table 2.1).

Latent heat of vaporization ()

The latent heat of vaporization, , expresses the energy required to change a unit mass of water
from liquid to water vapour in a constant pressure and constant temperature process. The value
of the latent heat varies as a function of temperature. At a high temperature, less energy will be
required than at lower temperatures. As  varies only slightly over normal temperature ranges a
single value of 2.45 MJ kg-1 is taken in the simplification of the FAO Penman-Monteith equation.
This is the latent heat for an air temperature of about 20°C.
Psychrometric constant ()

The psychrometric constant, , is given by:

(8)

where

 psychrometric constant [kPa °C-1],

P atmospheric pressure [kPa],
 latent heat of vaporization, 2.45 [MJ kg-1],
cp specific heat at constant pressure, 1.013 10-3 [MJ kg-1 °C-1],
 ratio molecular weight of water vapour/dry air = 0.622.

The specific heat at constant pressure is the amount of energy required to increase the
temperature of a unit mass of air by one degree at constant pressure. Its value depends on the
composition of the air, i.e., on its humidity. For average atmospheric conditions a value c p =
1.013 10-3 MJ kg-1 °C-1 can be used. As an average atmospheric pressure is used for each
location (Equation 7), the psychrometric constant is kept constant for each location. Values for
the psychrometric constant as a function of altitude are given in Annex 2 (Table 2.2).

EXAMPLE 2. Determination of atmospheric parameters.

Determine the atmospheric pressure and the psychrometric constant at an elevation of 1800 m.
With: z= 1800 m
From Eq. 7: P = 101.3 [(293 - (0.0065) 1800)/293] =
5.26
81.8 kPa
From Eq. 8:  = 0.665 10-3 (81.8) = 0.054 kPa °C-1
The average value of the atmospheric pressure is 81.8 kPa.
The psychrometric constant, , is 0.054 kPa/°C.

Air temperature
Agrometeorology is concerned with the air temperature near the level of the crop canopy. In
traditional and modem automatic weather stations the air temperature is measured inside
shelters (Stevenson screens or ventilated radiation shields) placed in line with World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) standards at 2 m above the ground. The shelters are
designed to protect the instruments from direct exposure to solar heating. The louvered
construction allows free air movement around the instruments. Air temperature is measured with
thermometers, thermistors or thermocouples mounted in the shelter. Minimum and maximum
thermometers record the minimum and maximum air temperature over a 24-hour period.
Thermographs plot the instantaneous temperature over a day or week. Electronic weather
stations often sample air temperature each minute and report hourly averages in addition to 24-
hour maximum and minimum values.

Due to the non-linearity of humidity data required in the FAO Penman-Monteith equation, the
vapour pressure for a certain period should be computed as the mean between the vapour
pressure at the daily maximum and minimum air temperatures of that period. The daily
maximum air temperature (Tmax) and daily minimum air temperature (Tmin) are, respectively, the
maximum and minimum air temperature observed during the 24-hour period, beginning at
midnight. Tmax and Tmin for longer periods such as weeks, 10-day's or months are obtained by
dividing the sum of the respective daily values by the number of days in the period. The mean
daily air temperature (Tmean) is only employed in the FAO Penman-Monteith equation to calculate
the slope of the saturation vapour pressure curves () and the impact of mean air density (Pa)
as the effect of temperature variations on the value of the climatic parameter is small in these
cases. For standardization, Tmean for 24-hour periods is defined as the mean of the daily
maximum (Tmax) and minimum temperatures (Tmin) rather than as the average of hourly
temperature measurements.

(9)

The temperature is given in degrees Celsius (°C) or Fahrenheit (°F). The conversion table is
given in Annex 1. In some calculation procedures, temperature is required in Kelvin (K), which
can be obtained by adding 273.16 to the temperature expressed in degrees Celsius (in practice
K = °C + 273.16). The Kelvin and Celsius scale have the same scale interval.

Air humidity

Concepts
Measurement
Calculation procedures

Concepts

The water content of the air can be expressed in several ways. In agrometeorology, vapour
pressure, dewpoint temperature and relative humidity are common expressions to indicate air
humidity.

Vapour pressure

Water vapour is a gas and its pressure contributes to the total atmospheric pressure. The
amount of water in the air is related directly to the partial pressure exerted by the water vapour
in the air and is therefore a direct measure of the air water content.

In standard S. I. units, pressure is no longer expressed in centimetre of water, millimetre of

mercury, bars, atmosphere, etc., but in pascals (Pa). Conversion factors between various units
and Pa are given in Annex 1. As a pascal refers to a relatively small force (1 newton) applied on
a relatively large surface (1 m2), multiples of the basic unit are often used. In this handbook,
vapour pressure is expressed in kilopascals (kPa = 1000 Pa).
When air is enclosed above an evaporating water surface, an equilibrium is reached between
the water molecules escaping and returning to the water reservoir. At that moment, the air is
said to be saturated since it cannot store any extra water molecules. The corresponding
pressure is called the saturation vapour pressure (e°(T)). The number of water molecules that
can be stored in the air depends on the temperature (T). The higher the air temperature, the
higher the storage capacity, the higher its saturation vapour pressure (Figure 11).

As can be seen from Figure 11, the slope of the curve changes exponentially with temperature.
At low temperatures, the slope is small and varies only slightly as the temperature rises. At high
temperatures, the slope is large and small changes in T result in large changes in slope. The
slope of the saturation vapour pressure curve, , is an important parameter in describing
vaporization and is required in the equations for calculating ETo from climatic data.

FIGURE 11. Saturation vapour pressure shown as a function of temperature: e°(T) curve

FIGURE 12. Variation of the relative humidity over 24 hours for a constant actual vapour
pressure of 2.4 kPa
The actual vapour pressure (ea) is the vapour pressure exerted by the water in the air. When the
air is not saturated, the actual vapour pressure will be lower than the saturation vapour
pressure. The difference between the saturation and actual vapour pressure is called the vapour
pressure deficit or saturation deficit and is an accurate indicator of the actual evaporative
capacity of the air.

Dewpoint temperature

The dewpoint temperature is the temperature to which the air needs to be cooled to make the
air saturated. The actual vapour pressure of the air is the saturation vapour pressure at the
dewpoint temperature, The drier the air, the larger the difference between the air temperature
and dewpoint temperature.

Relative humidity

The relative humidity (RH) expresses the degree of saturation of the air as a ratio of the actual
(ea) to the saturation (e°(T)) vapour pressure at the same temperature (T):

(10)

Relative humidity is the ratio between the amount of water the ambient air actually holds and the
amount it could hold at the same temperature. It is dimensionless and is commonly given as a
percentage. Although the actual vapour pressure might be relatively constant throughout the
day, the relative humidity fluctuates between a maximum near sunrise and a minimum around
early afternoon (Figure 12). The variation of the relative humidity is the result of the fact that the
saturation vapour pressure is determined by the air temperature. As the temperature changes
during the day, the relative humidity also changes substantially.

Measurement

It is not possible to directly measure the actual vapour pressure. The vapour pressure is
commonly derived from relative humidity or dewpoint temperature.

Relative humidity is measured directly with hygrometers. The measurement is based on the
nature of some material such as hair, which changes its length in response to changes in air
humidity, or using a capacitance plate, where the electric capacitance changes with RH. Vapour
pressure can be measured indirectly with psychrometers which measure the temperature
difference between two thermometers, the so-called dry and wet bulb thermometers. The dry
bulb thermometer measures the temperature of the air. The bulb of the wet bulb thermometer is
covered with a constantly saturated wick. Evaporation of water from the wick, requiring energy,
lowers the temperature of the thermometer. The drier the air, the larger the evaporative cooling
and the larger the temperature drop. The difference between the dry and wet bulb temperatures
is called the wet bulb depression and is a measure of the air humidity.

The dewpoint temperature is measured with dewpoint meters. The underlying principle of some
types of apparatus is the cooling of the ambient air until dew formation occurs. The
corresponding temperature is the dewpoint temperature.

Relative humidity and dewpoint temperature data are notoriously plagued by measurement
errors. Measurement error is common for both older hygrothermograph types of instruments
and for the more modem electronic instruments. These instruments are described in Annex 5.
Great care should be made to assess the accuracy and integrity of RH and dewpoint data. The
user is encouraged to always compare computed dewpoint temperatures to daily minimum air
temperatures, as described at the end of this chapter and in Annexes 5 and 6. Frequently, it is
better to utilize a dewpoint temperature that is predicted from daily minimum air temperature,
rather than to use unreliable relative humidity measurements. The user is encouraged to utilize
good judgement in this area.

Calculation procedures

Mean saturation vapour pressure (es)

As saturation vapour pressure is related to air temperature, it can be calculated from the air
temperature. The relationship is expressed by:

(11)

where

e°(T) saturation vapour pressure at the air temperature T [kPa],

T air temperature [°C],
exp[..] 2.7183 (base of natural logarithm) raised to the power [..].
Values of saturation vapour pressure as a function of air temperature are given in Annex 2
(Table 2.3). Due to the non-linearity of the above equation, the mean saturation vapour pressure
for a day, week, decade or month should be computed as the mean between the saturation
vapour pressure at the mean daily maximum and minimum air temperatures for that period:

(12)

Using mean air temperature instead of daily minimum and maximum temperatures results in
lower estimates for the mean saturation vapour pressure. The corresponding vapour pressure
deficit (a parameter expressing the evaporating power of the atmosphere) will also be smaller
and the result will be some underestimation of the reference crop evapotranspiration. Therefore,
the mean saturation vapour pressure should be calculated as the mean between the saturation
vapour pressure at both the daily maximum and minimum air temperature.

EXAMPLE 3. Determination of mean saturation vapour pressure

The daily maximum and minimum air temperature are respectively 24.5 and 15°C.
Determine the saturation vapour pressure for that day.
From Eq. 11 e°(Tmax) = 0.6108 exp[17.27(24.5)/(24.5 + 237.3)] 3.075 kPa
From Eq. 11 e°(Tmin) = 0.6108 exp[17.27(15)/(15 + 237.3)] 1.705 kPa
From Eq. 12 es = (3.075 + 1.705)/2 2.39 kPa
Note that for temperature 19.75°C (which is Tmean). e°(T) = 2.30 kPa
The mean saturation vapour pressure is 2.39 kPa.

Slope of saturation vapour pressure curve ( )

For the calculation of evapotranspiration, the slope of the relationship between saturation
vapour pressure and temperature, , is required. The slope of the curve (Figure 11) at a given
temperature is given by.

(13)

where

 slope of saturation vapour pressure curve at air temperature T [kPa °C-1],

T air temperature [°C],
exp[..] 2.7183 (base of natural logarithm) raised to the power [..].

Values of slope  for different air temperatures are given in Annex 2 (Table 2.4). In the FAO
Penman-Monteith equation, where  occurs in the numerator and denominator, the slope of the
vapour pressure curve is calculated using mean air temperature (Equation 9).

Actual vapour pressure (ea) derived from dewpoint temperature

As the dewpoint temperature is the temperature to which the air needs to be cooled to make the
air saturated, the actual vapour pressure (ea) is the saturation vapour pressure at the dewpoint
temperature (Tdew) [°C], or:

(14)

Actual vapour pressure (ea) derived from psychrometric data

The actual vapour pressure can be determined from the difference between the dry and wet
bulb temperatures, the so-called wet bulb depression. The relationship is expressed by the
following equation:

ea = e° (Twet) -  psy (Tdry - Twet) (15)

where

ea actual vapour pressure [kPa],

e°(Twet) saturation vapour pressure at wet bulb temperature [kPa],
 psy psychrometric constant of the instrument [kPa °C-1],
Tdry-Twet wet bulb depression, with Tdry the dry bulb and Twet the wet bulb temperature [°C].

The psychrometric constant of the instrument is given by:

 psy = apsy P (16)

where apsy is a coefficient depending on the type of ventilation of the wet bulb [°C-1], and P is the
atmospheric pressure [kPa]. The coefficient apsy depends mainly on the design of the
psychrometer and rate of ventilation around the wet bulb. The following values are used:

apsy = 0.000662 for ventilated (Asmann type) psychrometers, with an air movement of some 5 m/s,
0.000800 for natural ventilated psychrometers (about 1 m/s),
0.001200 for non-ventilated psychrometers installed indoors.

EXAMPLE 4. Determination of actual vapour pressure from psychrometric readings

Determine the vapour pressure from the readings of an aspirated psychrometer in a location at an
elevation of 1200 m. The temperatures measured by the dry and wet bulb thermometers are 25.6 and
19.5°C respectively.
From Eq. 7 (Table 2.1), at: z= 1200 m
Then: P= 87.9 kPa
From Eq. 11 (Table 2.3), for Twet = 19.5 °C
Then: e°(Twet) = 2.267 kPa
Ventilated psychrometer apsy = 0.000662 °C-1
From Eq. 15: ea = 2.267 - 0.000662 (87.9) (25.6 - 19.5) = 1.91 kPa
The actual vapour pressure is 1.91 kPa.

Actual vapour pressure (ea) derived from relative humidity data

The actual vapour pressure can also be calculated from the relative humidity. Depending on the
availability of the humidity data, different equations should be used.

 For RHmax and RHmin:

(17)

where

ea actual vapour pressure [kPa],

e°(Tmin) saturation vapour pressure at daily minimum temperature [kPa],
e°(Tmax) saturation vapour pressure at daily maximum temperature [kPa],
RHmax maximum relative humidity [%],
RHmin minimum relative humidity [%].

For periods of a week, ten days or a month, RHmax and RHmin are obtained by dividing the sum of
the daily values by the number of days in that period.

 For RHmax:

When using equipment where errors in estimating RHmin can be large, or when RH data integrity
are in doubt, then one should use only RHmax:

(18)

 For RHmean:

In the absence of RHmax and RHmin, another equation can be used to estimate ea:

(19)

where RHmean is the mean relative humidity, defined as the average between RHmax and RHmin.
However, Equation 19 is less desirable than are Equations 17 or 18.

EXAMPLE 5. Determination of actual vapour pressure from relative humidity

Given the following daily minimum and maximum air temperature and the corresponding relative humidity
data:

Tmin = 18°C and RHmax = 82%

Tmax = 25°C and RHmin = 54%

Determine the actual vapour pressure.

From Eq. 11 (Table 2.3), at: Tmin = 18 °C
Then: e°(Tmin) = 2.064 kPa
From Eq. 11 (Table 2.3), at: Tmax = 25 °C
Then: e°(Tmax) = 3.168 kPa
From Eq. 17: ea = [2.064 (82/100) + 3.168 (54/100)] = 1.70 kPa
Note that when using Eq. 19: ea = 1.78 kPa

Vapour pressure deficit (es - ea)

The vapour pressure deficit is the difference between the saturation (es) and actual vapour
pressure (ea) for a given time period. For time periods such as a week, ten days or a month e s is
computed from Equation 12 using the Tmax and Tmin averaged over the time period and similarly
the ea is computed with one of the equations 4 to 19, using average measurements over the
period. As stated above, using mean air temperature and not Tmax and Tmin in Equation 12
results in a lower estimate of es, thus in a lower vapour pressure deficit and hence an
underestimation of the ETo (see Box 7). When desired, es and ea for long time periods cal also
be calculated as averages of values computed for each day of the period.

EXAMPLE 6. Determination of vapour pressure deficit

Determine the vapour pressure deficit with the data of the previous example (Example 5).
From Example 5: e°(Tmin) = 2.064 kPa
e°(Tmax) = 3.168 kPa
ea = 1.70 kPa
es - ea = (2.064 + 3.168)/2-1.70 = 0.91 kPa
The vapour pressure deficit is 0.91 kPa.
BOX 7. Calculation sheet for vapour pressure deficit (es - ea)
Saturation vapour pressure: es (Eq. 11 or Table 2.3)
Tmax °C kPa

Tmin °C kPa

saturation vapour pressure es = [e°(Tmax) + e°(Tmin)]/2 Eq. 12 kPa

Actual vapour pressure: ea
1. ea derived from dewpoint temperature (Eq. 14 or Table 2.3)
Tdew °C kPa

OR 2. ea derived from maximum and minimum relative humidity

RHmax % kPa

RHmin % kPa

ea = [e°(Tmin) RHmax/100 + e°(Tmax) RHmin/100]/2 Eq. 17 kPa

OR 3. ea derived from maximum relative humidity (errors in RHmin)
RHmax % ea = e°(Tmin) RHmax/100 Eq. 18 kPa
OR 4. ea derived from mean relative humidity (less recommended)
RHmean % ea = es (RHmean)/100 Eq. 19 kPa
Vapour pressure deficit: (es - ea) kPa

Radiation

Concepts
Units
Measurement
Calculation procedures

Concepts

Extraterrestrial radiation (Ra)

The radiation striking a surface perpendicular to the sun's rays at the top of the earth's
atmosphere, called the solar constant, is about 0.082 MJ m-2 min-1. The local intensity of
radiation is, however, determined by the angle between the direction of the sun's rays and the
normal to the surface of the atmosphere. This angle will change during the day and will be
different at different latitudes and in different seasons. The solar radiation received at the top of
the earth's atmosphere on a horizontal surface is called the extraterrestrial (solar) radiation, R a.

If the sun is directly overhead, the angle of incidence is zero and the extraterrestrial radiation is
0.0820 MJ m-2 min-1. As seasons change, the position of the sun, the length of the day and,
hence, Ra change as well. Extraterrestrial radiation is thus a function of latitude, date and time of
day. Daily values of Ra throughout the year for different latitudes are plotted in Figure 13.

FIGURE 13. Annual variation in extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) at the equator, 20 and 40°
north and south
Solar or shortwave radiation (Rs)

As the radiation penetrates the atmosphere, some of the radiation is scattered, reflected or
absorbed by the atmospheric gases, clouds and dust. The amount of radiation reaching a
horizontal plane is known as the solar radiation, Rs. Because the sun emits energy by means of
electromagnetic waves characterized by short wavelengths, solar radiation is also referred to as
shortwave radiation.

FIGURE 14. Annual variation of the daylight hours (N) at the equator, 20 and 40° north
and south
For a cloudless day, Rs is roughly 75% of extraterrestrial radiation. On a cloudy day, the
radiation is scattered in the atmosphere, but even with extremely dense cloud cover, about 25%
of the extraterrestrial radiation may still reach the earth's surface mainly as diffuse sky radiation.
Solar radiation is also known as global radiation, meaning that it is the sum of direct shortwave
radiation from the sun and diffuse sky radiation from all upward angles.

Relative shortwave radiation (Rs/Rso)

The relative shortwave radiation is the ratio of the solar radiation (Rs) to the clear-sky solar
radiation (Rso). Rs is the solar radiation that actually reaches the earth's surface in a given
period, while Rso is the solar radiation that would reach the same surface during the same period
but under cloudless conditions.

The relative shortwave radiation is a way to express the cloudiness of the atmosphere; the
cloudier the sky the smaller the ratio. The ratio varies between about 0.33 (dense cloud cover)
and 1 (clear sky). In the absence of a direct measurement of Rn, the relative shortwave radiation
is used in the computation of the net longwave radiation.

Relative sunshine duration (n/N)

The relative sunshine duration is another ratio that expresses the cloudiness of the atmosphere.
It is the ratio of the actual duration of sunshine, n, to the maximum possible duration of sunshine
or daylight hours N. In the absence of any clouds, the actual duration of sunshine is equal to the
daylight hours (n = N) and the ratio is one, while on cloudy days n and consequently the ratio
may be zero. In the absence of a direct measurement of Rs, the relative sunshine duration, n/N,
is often used to derive solar radiation from extraterrestrial radiation.
As with extraterrestrial radiation, the day length N depends on the position of the sun and is
hence a function of latitude and date. Daily values of N throughout the year for different latitudes
are plotted in Figure 14.

Albedo () and net solar radiation (Rns)

A considerable amount of solar radiation reaching the earth's surface is reflected. The fraction,
a, of the solar radiation reflected by the surface is known as the albedo. The albedo is highly
variable for different surfaces and for the angle of incidence or slope of the ground surface. It
may be as large as 0.95 for freshly fallen snow and as small as 0.05 for a wet bare soil. A green
vegetation cover has an albedo of about 0.20-0.25. For the green grass reference crop,  is
assumed to have a value of 0.23.

The net solar radiation, Rns, is the fraction of the solar radiation Rs that is not reflected from the
surface. Its value is (1-)Rs.

Net longwave radiation (Rnl)

The solar radiation absorbed by the earth is converted to heat energy. By several processes,
including emission of radiation, the earth loses this energy. The earth, which is at a much lower
temperature than the sun, emits radiative energy with wavelengths longer than those from the
sun. Therefore, the terrestrial radiation is referred to as longwave radiation. The emitted
longwave radiation (Rl, up) is absorbed by the atmosphere or is lost into space. The longwave
radiation received by the atmosphere (Rl, down) increases its temperature and, as a consequence,
the atmosphere radiates energy of its own, as illustrated in Figure 15. Part of the radiation finds
it way back to the earth's surface. Consequently, the earth's surface both emits and receives
longwave radiation. The difference between outgoing and incoming longwave radiation is called
the net longwave radiation, Rnl. As the outgoing longwave radiation is almost always greater
than me incoming longwave radiation, Rnl represents an energy loss.

Net radiation (Rn)

The net radiation, Rn, is the difference between incoming and outgoing radiation of both short
and long wavelengths. It is the balance between the energy absorbed, reflected and emitted by
the earth's surface or the difference between the incoming net shortwave (Rns) and the net
outgoing longwave (Rnl) radiation (Figure 15). Rn is normally positive during the daytime and
negative during the nighttime. The total daily value for Rn is almost always positive over a period
of 24 hours, except in extreme conditions at high latitudes.

Soil heat flux (G)

In making estimates of evapotranspiration, all terms of the energy balance (Equation 1) should
be considered. The soil heat flux, G, is the energy that is utilized in heating the soil. G is positive
when the soil is warming and negative when the soil is cooling. Although the soil heat flux is
small compared to Rn and may often be ignored, the amount of energy gained or lost by the soil
in this process should theoretically be subtracted or added to Rn when estimating
evapotranspiration.

Units
The standard unit used in this handbook to express energy received on a unit surface per unit
time is megajoules per square metre per day (MJ m-2 day-1). In meteorological bulletins other
units might be used or radiation might even be expressed in units no longer accepted as
standard S. I. units, such as calories cm-2 day-1.

FIGURE 15. Various components of radiation

In the FAO Penman-Monteith equation (Equation 6), radiation expressed in MJ m-2 day-1 is
converted (Box 8) to equivalent evaporation in mm day-1 by using a conversion factor equal to
the inverse of the latent heat heat of vaporization (1/ = 0.408):

equivalent evaporation [mm day-1] = 0.408 x Radiation [MJ m-2 day-1] (20)
BOX 8. Conversion from energy values to equivalent evaporation

The conversion from energy values to depths of water or vice versa is given by:

where

 latent heat of vaporization [MJ kg-1],

 W density of water, i.e., 1000 kg m-3,
[depth of water] is expressed in m,
[energy/surface] is expressed in MJ m-2.

By using a single value of 2.45 MJ kg-1 for  (see section on atmospheric parameters and Annex 3) and
multiplying the above equation by 1000 to obtain mm:

Common units used to express energy received on a unit surface per unit time, and conversion
factors are summarized in Table 3.

TABLE 3. Conversion factors for radiation

multiplier to obtain energy received on a unit surface per unit equivalent

time evaporation
MJ m day
-2 -1
J cm day-1
-2
cal cm-2 day-1 W m-2 mm day-1
1 MJ m day
-2 -1
1 100 23.9 11.6 0.408
1 cal cm-2 day- 4.1868 10-2 4.1868 1 0.485 0.0171
1

1 W m-2 0.0864 8,64 2.06 1 0.035

1 mm day-1 2.45 245 58.5 28.4 1

Measurement
Solar radiation can be measured with pyranometers, radiometers or solarimeters. The
instruments contain a sensor installed on a horizontal surface that measures the intensity of the
total solar radiation, i.e., both direct and diffuse radiation from cloudy conditions. The sensor is
often protected and kept in a dry atmosphere by a glass dome that should be regularly wiped
clean.

Net longwave and net shortwave radiation can be measured by recording the difference in
output between sensors facing upward and downward. In a net radiometer, the glass domes are
replaced by polyethylene domes that have a transmission range for both shortwave and
longwave radiation.

Where pyranometers are not available, solar radiation is usually estimated from the duration of
bright sunshine. The actual duration of sunshine, n, is measured with a Campbell-Stokes
sunshine recorder. This instrument records periods of bright sunshine by using a glass globe
that acts as a lens. The sun rays are concentrated at a focal point that burns a hole in a
specially treated card mounted concentrically with the sphere. The movement of the sun
changes the focal point throughout the day and a trace is drawn on the card. If the sun is
obscured, the trace is interrupted. The hours of bright sunshine are indicated by the lengths of
the line segments.

The quantity of heat conducted into the soil, G, can be measured with systems of soil heat flux
plates and thermocouples or thermisters.

Calculation procedures

Extraterrestrial radiation for daily periods (Ra)

The extraterrestrial radiation, Ra, for each day of the year and for different latitudes can be
estimated from the solar constant, the solar declination and the time of the year by:

(21)

where

Ra extraterrestrial radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],

Gsc solar constant = 0.0820 MJ m-2 min-1,
dr inverse relative distance Earth-Sun (Equation 23),
 s sunset hour angle (Equation 25 or 26) [rad],
 latitude [rad] (Equation 22),
 solar decimation (Equation 24) [rad].

Ra is expressed in the above equation in MJ m-2 day-1. The corresponding equivalent evaporation
in mm day-1 is obtained by multiplying Ra by 0.408 (Equation 20). The latitude, , expressed in
radians is positive for the northern hemisphere and negative for the southern hemisphere
(Example 7). The conversion from decimal degrees to radians is given by:
 (22)

EXAMPLE 7. Conversion of latitude in degrees and minutes to radians

Express the latitudes of Bangkok (Thailand) at 13°44'N and Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) at 22°54'S in radians.
Latitude Bangkok (northern hemisphere) Rio de Janeiro (southern hemisphere)
degrees & minutes 13°44'N 22°54'S
decimal degrees 13 + 44/60=13.73 (-22) + (-54/60) = - 22.90
radians ( /180) 13.73 = + 0.240 ( /180) (-22.90) = - 0.400
The latitudes of Bangkok and Rio de Janeiro are respectively +0.240 and -0.400 radians.

The inverse relative distance Earth-Sun, dr, and the solar declination, , are given by:

(23)

(24)

where J is the number of the day in the year between 1 (1 January) and 365 or 366 (31
December). Values for J for all days of the year and an equation for estimating J are given in
Annex 2 (Table 2.5).

The sunset hour angle,  s, is given by:

 s = arccos [-tan () tan ()] (25)

As the arccos function is not available in all computer languages, the sunset hour angle can
also be computed using the arctan function:

(26)

where

X = 1 - [tan()]2 [tan()]2 (27)

and X = 0.00001 if X  0

Values for Ra for different latitudes are given in Annex 2 (Table 2.6). These values represent
Ra on the 15th day of each month. These values deviate from values that are averaged over
each day of the month by less than 1% for all latitudes during non-frozen periods and are
included for simplicity of calculation. These values deviate slightly from the values in the
Smithsonian Tables. For the winter months in latitudes greater than 55° (N or S), the equations
for Ra have limited validity. Reference should be made to the Smithsonian Tables to assess
possible deviations.
EXAMPLE 8. Determination of extraterrestrial radiation

Determine the extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) for 3 September at 20°S.

From Eq. 22 20°S or  = ( /180) (-20) = (the value is negative for the southern -0.35 rad
hemisphere)
From Table The number of day in the year, J = 246 days
2.5:
From Eq. 23 dr = 1 + 0.033 cos(2 (246)/365) = 0.985 rad
From Eq. 24  = 0.409 sin(2 (246)/365 - 1.39) = 0.120 rad
From Eq. 25:  s = arccos[-tan(-0.35)tan(0.120)] = 1.527 rad
Then: sin()sin() = -0.041 -
and: cos()cos() = 0.933 -
From Eq. 21 Ra = 24(60)/ (0.0820)(0.985)[1.527(-0.041) + 0.933 sin(1.527)] = 32.2 MJ m-2 d-1
From Eq. 20 expressed as equivalent evaporation = 0.408 (32.2) = 13.1 mm/day
The extraterrestrial radiation is 32.2 MJ m-2 day-1.

Extraterrestrial radiation for hourly or shorter periods (Ra)

For hourly or shorter periods the solar time angle at the beginning and end of the period should
be considered when calculating Ra:

(28)

where

Ra extraterrestrial radiation in the hour (or shorter) period [MJ m-2 hour-1],
Gsc solar constant = 0.0820 MJ m-2 min-1,
dr inverse relative distance Earth-Sun (Equation 23),
 solar declination [rad] (Equation 24),
 latitude [rad] (Equation 22),
 1 solar time angle at beginning of period [rad] (Equation 29),
 2 solar time angle at end of period [rad] (Equation 30).

The solar time angles at the beginning and end of the period are given by:

(29)

(30)

where

 solar time angle at midpoint of hourly or shorter period [rad],

t1 length of the calculation period [hour]: i.e., 1 for hourly period or 0.5 for a 30-minute period.

The solar time angle at midpoint of the period is:

 (31)

where

t standard clock time at the midpoint of the period [hour]. For example for a period between
14.00 and 15.00 hours, t = 14.5,

Lz longitude of the centre of the local time zone [degrees west of Greenwich]. For example, L z =
75, 90, 105 and 120° for the Eastern, Central, Rocky Mountain and Pacific time zones (United
States) and Lz = 0° for Greenwich, 330° for Cairo (Egypt), and 255° for Bangkok (Thailand),

Lm longitude of the measurement site [degrees west of Greenwich],

Sc seasonal correction for solar time [hour].

Of course,  < - s or  >  s from Equation 31 indicates that the sun is below the horizon so
that, by definition, Ra is zero.

The seasonal correction for solar time is:

Sc = 0.1645 sin(2 b) - 0.1255 cos(b) - 0.025 sin(b) (32)

(33)

where J is the number of the day in the year.

Daylight hours (N)

The daylight hours, N, are given by:

(34)

where  s is the sunset hour angle in radians given by Equation 25 or 26. Mean values for N
(15th day of each month) for different latitudes are given in Annex 2, Table 2.7.

EXAMPLE 9. Determination of daylight hours

Determine the daylight hours (N) for 3 September at 20°S.

From Example 8:  s = arccos[-tan(-0.35)tan(0.120)] = 1.527 rad
From Eq. 34: N= 24/ (1.527) = 11.7 hour
The number of daylight hours is 11.7 hours.
BOX 9. Calculation sheet for extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) and daylight hours (N)
Latitude
Degrees and minutes are
+ positive for northern hemisphere
- negative for southern hemisphere
Degrees ° -------------------> °
Minutes  ---------/60------> °
Decimal degrees = Sum(degrees + minutes/60) °
 =  /180*[decimal degrees] Eq. 22 rad
Day of the year
Day
Month J Table 2.5 (Annex 2)
dr = 1 + 0.033 cos(2 J/365) Eq. 23
 = 0.409 sin(2 J/365-1.39) Eq. 24 rad
sin()sin()
cos()cos()
 s = arccos[-tan()tan()] Eq. 25 rad
(24(60)/ Gsc 37.59 MJ m-2 day-1
Extraterrestrial radiation: Ra
MJ m-2 day-1
Eq. 21
Daylight hours: N
hour/day
Eq. 34

Solar radiation (Rs)

If the solar radiation, Rs, is not measured, it can be calculated with the Angstrom formula which
relates solar radiation to extraterrestrial radiation and relative sunshine duration:

(35)

where

Rs solar or shortwave radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],

n actual duration of sunshine [hour],

N maximum possible duration of sunshine or daylight hours [hour],

n/N relative sunshine duration [-],

Ra extraterrestrial radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],

as regression constant, expressing the fraction of extraterrestrial radiation reaching the earth on
overcast days (n = 0),
as+bs fraction of extraterrestrial radiation reaching the earth on clear days (n = N).

Rs is expressed in the above equation in MJ m-2 day-1. The corresponding equivalent evaporation
in mm day-1 is obtained by multiplying Rs by 0.408 (Equation 20). Depending on atmospheric
conditions (humidity, dust) and solar declination (latitude and month), the Angstrom values
as and bs will vary. Where no actual solar radiation data are available and no calibration has
been carried out for improved as and bs parameters, the values as = 0.25 and bs = 0.50 are
recommended.

The extraterrestrial radiation, Ra, and the daylight hours or maximum possible duration of
sunshine, N, are given by Equations 21 and 34. Values for Ra and N for different latitudes are
also listed in Annex 2 (Tables 2.6 and 2.7). The actual duration of sunshine, n, is recorded with
a Campbell Stokes sunshine recorder.

EXAMPLE 10. Determination of solar radiation from measured duration of sunshine

In Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) at a latitude of 22°54'S, 220 hours of sunshine were recorded in May.
Determine the solar radiation.
From Eq. 22: latitude = 22°54'S = 22.90°S or  /180(-22.90) = -0.40 rad
From Table 2.5: for 15 May, the day in the year (J) = 135 --
From Eq. 21 or Table 2.6: Ra = 25.1 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 34 or Table 2.7 N = 10.9 hours day-1
n = 220 hours/31 days = 7.1 hours day-1
From Eq. 35: Rs = [0.25 + 0.50 (7.1/10.9)] Ra = 0.58 Ra = 0.58 (25.1) = 14.5 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 20: expressed as equivalent evaporation = 0.408(14.5) = 5.9 mm/day
The estimated solar radiation is 14.5 MJ m-2 day-1.

Clear-sky solar radiation (Rso)

The calculation of the clear-sky radiation, Rso, when n = N, is required for computing net
longwave radiation.

 For near sea level or when calibrated values for as and bs are available:

Rso = (as+bs)Ra (36)

where

Rso clear-sky solar radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],

as+bs fraction of extraterrestrial radiation reaching the earth on clear-sky days (n = N).

 When calibrated values for as and bs are not available:

Rso = (0.75 + 2 l0-5z)Ra (37)

where

z station elevation above sea level [m].

Other more complex estimates for Rso, which include turbidity and water vapour effects, are
discussed in Annex 3 (Equations 3.14 to 20).

Net solar or net shortwave radiation (Rns)

The net shortwave radiation resulting from the balance between incoming and reflected solar
radiation is given by:

Rns = (1-)Rs (38)

where

Rns net solar or shortwave radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],

 albedo or canopy reflection coefficient, which is 0.23 for the hypothetical grass reference crop
[dimensionless],

Rs the incoming solar radiation [MJ m-2 day-1].

Rns is expressed in the above equation in MJ m-2 day-1.

Net longwave radiation (Rnl)

The rate of longwave energy emission is proportional to the absolute temperature of the surface
raised to the fourth power. This relation is expressed quantitatively by the Stefan-Boltzmann
law. The net energy flux leaving the earth's surface is, however, less than that emitted and
given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law due to the absorption and downward radiation from the sky.
Water vapour, clouds, carbon dioxide and dust are absorbers and emitters of longwave
radiation. Their concentrations should be known when assessing the net outgoing flux. As
humidity and cloudiness play an important role, the Stefan-Boltzmann law is corrected by these
two factors when estimating - the net outgoing flux of longwave radiation. It is thereby assumed
that the concentrations of the other absorbers are constant:

(39)

where

Rnl net outgoing longwave radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],

 Stefan-Boltzmann constant [4.903 10-9 MJ K-4 m-2 day-1],
Tmax, K maximum absolute temperature during the 24-hour period [K = °C + 273.16],
Tmin, K minimum absolute temperature during the 24-hour period [K = °C + 273.16],
ea actual vapour pressure [kPa],
Rs/Rso relative shortwave radiation (limited to  1.0),
Rs measured or calculated. (Equation 35) solar radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],
Rso calculated (Equation 36 or 37) clear-sky radiation [MJ m-2 day-1].
An average of the maximum air temperature to the fourth power and the minimum air
temperature to the fourth power is commonly used in the Stefan-Boltzmann equation for 24-hour
time steps. The term (0.34-0.14 ea) expresses the correction for air humidity, and will be
smaller if the humidity increases. The effect of cloudiness is expressed by (1.35 Rs/Rso - 0.35).
The term becomes smaller if the cloudiness increases and hence Rs decreases. The smaller the
correction terms, the smaller the net outgoing flux of longwave radiation. Note that the
Rs/Rso term in Equation 39 must be limited so that Rs/Rso  1.0.

Where measurements of incoming and outgoing short and longwave radiation during bright
sunny and overcast hours are available, calibration of the coefficients in Equation 39 can be
carried out.

Annex 2 (Table 2.8) lists values for for different air temperatures.

EXAMPLE 11. Determination of net longwave radiation

In Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) at a latitude of 22°54'S (= -22.70°), 220 hours of bright sunshine, a mean
monthly daily maximum and minimum air temperature of 25.1 and 19.1°C and a vapour pressure of 2.1
kPa were recorded in May. Determine the net longwave radiation.
From Example 10: Rs = 14.5 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 36: Rso = 0.75 Ra = 0.75. 25.1 = 18.8 MJ m-2 day-1
From Table 2.8 or = 4.903 10-9 MJ K-4 m-2 day-1
for:
Then: Tmax = 25.1°C = 298.3 K
and: 38.8 MJ m-2 day-1

and: Tmin = 19.1°C = 292.3 K

and: 35.8 MJ m-2 day-1

and: ea = 2.1 kPa

and: 0.34-0.14  ea = 0.14 -
and: Rs/Rso = (14.5)/(18.8) 0.77 -
- 1.35(0.77) - 0.35 = 0.69 -
From Eq. 39: Rnl = [(38.7 + 35.7)/2] (0.14) (0.69) = 3.5 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 20: expressed as equivalent evaporation = 0.408 (3.5) = 1.4 mm/day
The net longwave radiation is 3.5 MJ m-2 day-1.

Net radiation (Rn)

The net radiation (Rn) is the difference between the incoming net shortwave radiation (Rns) and
the outgoing net longwave radiation (Rnl):

Rn = Rns - Rnl (40)

EXAMPLE 12. Determination of net radiation

Determine the net radiation in Rio de Janeiro in May with the data from previous examples.
From Example 10: Rs = 14.5 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 39: Rns = (1 - 0.23) Rs = 11.1 MJ m-2 day-1
From Example 11: Rnl = 3.5 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 40: Rn = 11.1-3.5 = 7.6 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 20: expressed as equivalent evaporation = 0.408 (7.7) = 3.1 mm/day
The net radiation is 7.6 MJ m-2 day-1.
BOX 10. Calculation sheet for net radiation (Rn)
Latitude °
Day Ra (Box 9 or Table 2.6) MJ m-2 d-1
Month N (Box 9 or Table 2.7) hours
n hours (in absence of Rs) n/N
Net solar radiation: Rns
If n is measured instead of Rs:
Rs = (0.25+0.50 n/N) Ra Eq. 35 MJ m-2 d-1
Rso = [0.75 + 2 (Altitude)/100000] Ra Eq. 37 MJ m-2 d-1
Rs/Rso ( 1.0)
Rns = 0.77 Rs Eq. 38 MJ m-2 d-1
Net longwave radiation: Rnl
with  = 4.903 10-9 MJ K-4 m-2 day-1
and TK = T[°C] + 273.16
Tmax °C Tmax, K = Tmax + 273.16 K
Tmin °C Tmin, K = Tmin + 273.16 K
MJ m-2 d-1
(Table 2.8)
MJ m-2 d-1
(Table 2.8)
MJ m-2 d-1

ea kPa (0.34-0.14 ea)

Rs/Rso (1.35 Rs/Rso - 0.35)
MJ m-2 d-1
Eq. 39
Net radiation: Rn
Rn = Rns - Rnl Eq. 40 MJ m-2 d-1

Soil heat flux (G)

Complex models are available to describe soil heat flux. Because soil heat flux is small
compared to Rn, particularly when the surface is covered by vegetation and calculation time
steps are 24 hours or longer, a simple calculation procedure is presented here for long time
steps, based on the idea that the soil temperature follows air temperature:

(41)

where

G soil heat flux [MJ m-2 day-1],

cs soil heat capacity [MJ m-3 °C-1],
Ti air temperature at time i [°C],
Ti-1 air temperature at time i-1 [°C],
 t length of time interval [day],
 z effective soil depth [m].

As the soil temperature lags air temperature, the average temperature for a period should be
considered when assessing me daily soil heat flux, i.e.,  t should exceed one day. The depth of
penetration of the temperature wave is determined by the length of the time interval. The
effective soil depth,  z, is only 0.10-0.20 m for a time interval of one or a few days but might be
2 m or more for monthly periods. The soil heat capacity is related to its mineral composition and
water content.

 For day and ten-day periods:

As the magnitude of the day or ten-day soil heat flux beneath the grass reference surface is
relatively small, it may be ignored and thus:

Gday  0 (42)

 For monthly periods:

When assuming a constant soil heat capacity of 2.1 MJ m-3 °C-1 and an appropriate soil depth,
Equation 41 can be used to derive G for monthly periods:

Gmonth, i = 0.07 (Tmonth, i+1 - Tmonth, i-1) (43)

or, if Tmonth, i+1 is unknown:

Gmonth, i = 0.14 (Tmonth, i - Tmonth, i-1) (44)

where

Tmonth, i mean air temperature of month i [°C],

Tmonth, i-1 mean air temperature of previous month [°C],
Tmonth, i+1 mean air temperature of next month [°C].

 For hourly or shorter periods:

For hourly (or shorter) calculations, G beneath a dense cover of grass does not correlate well
with air temperature. Hourly G can be approximated during daylight periods as:

Ghr = 0.1 Rn (45)

and during nighttime periods as:

Ghr = 0.5 Rn (46)

Where the soil is warming, the soil heat flux G is positive. The amount of energy required for this
process is subtracted from Rn when estimating evapotranspiration.

EXAMPLE 13. Determination of soil heat flux for monthly periods

Determine the soil heat flux in April in Algiers (Algeria) when the soil is warming. The mean monthly
temperatures of March, April and May are 14.1, 16.1, and 18.8°C respectively.
From Eq. 43 for the month of April: 0.33 MJ m-2 day-1
Gmonth = 0.07 (18.8 - 14.1) =
From Eq. 20 expressed as equivalent evaporation = 0.408(0.33) = 0.13 mm/day
The soil heat flux is 0.33 MJ m day .
-2 -1

Wind speed

Measurement
Wind profile relationship

Measurement

Wind is characterized by its direction and velocity. Wind direction refers to the direction from
which the wind is blowing. For the computation of evapotranspiration, wind speed is the relevant
variable. As wind speed at a given location varies with time, it is necessary to express it as an
average over a given time interval. Wind speed is given in metres per second (m s-1) or
kilometres per day (km day-1).

Wind speed is measured with anemometers. The anemometers commonly used in weather
stations are composed of cups or propellers which are turned by the force of the wind. By
counting the number of revolutions over a given time period, the average wind speed over the
measuring period is computed.

Wind profile relationship

Wind speeds measured at different heights above the soil surface are different. Surface friction
tends to slow down wind passing over it. Wind speed is slowest at the surface and increases
with height. For this reason anemometers are placed at a chosen standard height, i.e., 10 m in
meteorology and 2 or 3 m in agrometeorology. For the calculation of evapotranspiration, wind
speed measured at 2 m above the surface is required. To adjust wind speed data obtained from
instruments placed at elevations other than the standard height of 2m, a logarithmic wind speed
profile may be used for measurements above a short grassed surface:

(47)

where

u2 wind speed at 2 m above ground surface [m s-1],

uz measured wind speed at z m above ground surface [m s-1],
z height of measurement above ground surface [m].
The corresponding multipliers or conversion factors are given in Annex 2 (Table 2.9) and are
plotted in Figure 16.

FIGURE 16. Conversion factor to convert wind speed measured at a certain height above
ground level to wind speed at the standard height (2 m)

EXAMPLE 14. Adjusting wind speed data to standard height

Determine the wind speed at the standard height of 2 m, from a measured wind speed of 3.2 m/s at 10 m
above the soil surface.
For: uz = 3.2 m/s
And: z= 10 m
Then: Conversion factor = 4.87/ln (67.8 (10) - 5.42) = 0.75 -
From Eq. 47: u2 = 3.2 (0.75) = 2.4 m/s
The wind speed at 2 m above the soil surface is 2.4 m/s.

Climatic data acquisition

Weather stations
Agroclimatic monthly databases
Weather stations

Meteorological data are recorded at various types of weather stations. Agrometeorological

stations are sited in cropped areas where instruments are exposed to atmospheric conditions
similar to those for the surrounding crops. In these stations, air temperature and humidity, wind
speed and sunshine duration are typically measured at 2 m above an extensive surface of grass
or short crop. Where needed and feasible, the cover of the station is irrigated. Guidelines for the
establishment and maintenance of agrometeorological stations are given in the FAO Irrigation
and Drainage Paper No. 27. This handbook also describes the different types of instruments,
their installation and reliability.

Data collected at stations other than agrometeorological stations require a careful analysis of
their validity before their use. For example, in aeronautic stations, data relevant for aviation are
measured. As airports are often situated near urban conditions, temperatures may be higher
than those found in rural agricultural areas. Wind speed is commonly measured at 10 m height
above the ground surface.

The country's national meteorological service should be contacted for information on the
climatic data collected at various types of weather stations in the country. National services
commonly publish meteorological bulletins listing processed climatic data from the various
stations.

The annexes list procedures for the statistical analysis, assessment, correction and completion
of partial or missing weather data:

Annex 4: Statistical analysis of weather data sets;

Annex 5: Measuring and assessing integrity of weather data;
Annex 6: Correction of weather data observed at non-reference sites for computing ET o.

Agroclimatic monthly databases

Starting in 1984, FAO has published mean monthly agroclimatic data from 2300 stations in the
FAO Plant Production and Protection Series. Several volumes exist:

No. 22: Volume 1: data for Africa, countries north of the equator (1984),
Volume 2: data for Africa, countries south of the equator (1984);
No. 24: Agroclimatic data for Latin America and the Caribbean (1985);
No. 25: Volume 1: Agroclimatic data for Asia (A-J) (1987),
Volume 2: Agroclimatic data for Asia (K-Z) (1987).

CLIMWAT for CROPWAT (FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 46) contains monthly data
from 3 262 climatic stations contained on five separate diskettes. The stations are grouped by
country and by continent. Monthly averages of maximum and minimum temperatures, mean
relative humidity, wind speed, sunshine hours, radiation data as well as rainfall and
ETo calculated with the FAO Penman-Monteith method are listed on the diskettes for mean
long-term conditions.
FAOCLIM provides a user friendly interface on compact disc to the agroclimatic database of the
Agrometeorology Group in FAO. The data presented are an extension of the previously
published FAO Plant Production and Protection Series and the number of stations has been
increased from 2300 to about 19000, with an improved world wide coverage. However, values
for all principal weather parameters are not available for all stations. Many contain air
temperature and precipitation only.

These databases can be consulted in order to verify the consistency of the actual database or to
estimate missing climatic parameters. However, they should only be used for preliminary
studies as they contain mean monthly data only. FAOCLIM provides monthly time series for
only a few stations. The information in these databases should never replace actual data.

Other electronic databases for portions of the globe have been published by the International
Water Management Institute (IWMI). These databases include daily and monthly air
temperature, precipitation and ETo predicted using the Hargreaves ETo equation that is based
on differences between daily maximum and minimum air temperature.

Estimating missing climatic data

Estimating missing humidity data

Estimating missing radiation data
Missing wind speed data

The assessment of the reference evapotranspiration ETo with the Penman-Monteith method is
developed in Chapter 4. The calculation requires mean daily, ten-day or monthly maximum and
minimum air temperature (Tmax and Tmin), actual vapour pressure (ea), net radiation (Rn) and wind
speed measured at 2 m (u2). If some of the required weather data are missing or cannot be
calculated, it is strongly recommended that the user estimate the missing climatic data with one
of the following procedures and use the FAO Penman-Monteith method for the calculation of
ETo. The use of an alternative ETo calculation procedure, requiring only limited meteorological
parameters, is less recommended. Procedures to estimate missing humidity, radiation and wind
speed data are given in this section.

Estimating missing humidity data

Where humidity data are lacking or are of questionable quality, an estimate of actual vapour
pressure, ea, can be obtained by assuming that dewpoint temperature (Tdew) is near the daily
minimum temperature (Tmin). This statement implicitly assumes that at sunrise, when the air
temperature is close to Tmin, that the air is nearly saturated with water vapour and the relative
humidity is nearly 100%. If Tmin is used to represent Tdew then:

(48)
The relationship Tdew  Tmin holds for locations where the cover crop of the station is well
watered. However, particularly for arid regions, the air might not be saturated when its
temperature is at its minimum. Hence, Tmin might be greater than Tdew and a further calibration
may be required to estimate dewpoint temperatures. In these situations, "Tmin" in the above
equation may be better approximated by subtracting 2-3 °C from Tmin. Appropriate correction
procedures are given in Annex 6. In humid and subhumid climates, Tmin and Tdew measured in
early morning may be less than Tdew measured during the daytime because of condensation of
dew during the night. After sunrise, evaporation of the dew will once again humidify the air and
will increase the value measured for Tdew during the daytime. This phenomenon is demonstrated
in Figure 5.4 of Annex 5. However, it is standard practice in 24-hour calculations of ET o to use
Tdew measured or calculated during early morning.

The estimate for ea from Tmin should be checked. When the prediction by Equation 48 is
validated for a region, it can be used for daily estimates of ea.

Estimating missing radiation data

Net radiation measuring devices, requiring professional control, have rarely been installed in
agrometeorological stations. In the absence of a direct measurement, longwave and net
radiation can be derived from more commonly observed weather parameters, i.e., solar
radiation or sunshine hours, air temperature and vapour pressure. Where solar radiation is not
measured, it can perhaps be estimated from measured hours of bright sunshine. However,
where daily sunshine hours (n) are not available, solar radiation data cannot be computed with
the calculation procedures previously presented. This section presents various methods to
estimate solar radiation data with an alternative methodology.

Solar Radiation data from a nearby weather station

This method relies on the fact that for the same month and often for the same day, the variables
affecting incoming solar radiation, Rs, and sunshine duration, n, are similar throughout a given
region. This implies that: (i) the size of the region is small; (ii) the air masses governing rainfall
and cloudiness are nearly identical within parts of the region; and (iii) the physiography of the
region is almost homogenous. Differences in relief should be negligible as they strongly
influence the movement of air masses. Under such conditions, radiation data observed at
nearby stations can be used.

Caution should be used when applying this method to mountainous and coastal areas where
differences in exposure and altitude could be important or where rainfall is variable due to
convective conditions. Moreover, data from a station located nearby but situated on the other
side of a mountain may not be transferable as conditions governing radiation are different. The
user should observe climatic conditions in both locations and obtain information from local
persons concerning general differences in cloud cover and type.

Where the north-south distance to a weather station within the same homogeneous region
exceeds 50 km so that the value for Ra changes, the Rs measurement should be adjusted using
the ratio of the solar to extraterrestrial radiation, Rs/Ra:

(49)
where

Rs, reg solar radiation at the regional location [MJ m-2 day-1],
Ra, reg extraterrestrial radiation at the regional location [MJ m-2 day-1].

Once the solar radiation has been derived from the radiation data of a nearby station, the net
longwave radiation (Equation 39) and the net radiation (Equation 40) can be calculated.

The estimation method of Equation 49 is recommended for monthly calculations of ETo. If using
the method for daily estimates of ETo, a more careful analysis of weather data in the importing
and exporting meteorological stations has to be performed to verify whether both stations are in
the same homogeneous climatic region and are close enough to experience similar conditions
within the same day. The analysis should include the comparison of daily weather data from
both stations, particularly the maximum and minimum air temperature and humidity. In fact,
similar cloudiness and sunshine durations are related to similarities in temperature and humidity
trends.

Generally, daily calculations of ETo with estimated radiation data are justified when utilized as a
sum or an average over a several-day period. This is the case for the computation of the mean
evapotranspiration demand between successive irrigations or when planning irrigation
schedules. Under these conditions, the relative error for one day often counterbalances the
error for another day of the averaging period. Daily estimates should not be utilized as true daily
estimates but only in averages over the period under consideration.

Solar Radiation data derived from air temperature differences

The difference between the maximum and minimum air temperature is related to the degree of
cloud cover in a location. Clear-sky conditions result in high temperatures during the day (Tmax,)
because the atmosphere is transparent to the incoming solar radiation and in low temperatures
during the night (Tmin) because less outgoing longwave radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere.
On the other hand, in overcast conditions, Tmax is relatively smaller because a significant part of
the incoming solar radiation never reaches the earth's surface and is absorbed and reflected by
the clouds. Similarly, Tmin will be relatively higher as the cloud cover acts as a blanket and
decreases the net outgoing longwave radiation. Therefore, the difference between the maximum
and minimum air temperature (Tmax - Tmin) can be used as an indicator of the fraction of
extraterrestrial radiation that reaches the earth's surface. This principle has been utilized by
Hargreaves and Samani to develop estimates of ETo using only air temperature data.

The Hargreaves' radiation formula, adjusted and validated at several weather stations in a
variety of climate conditions, becomes:

(50)

where

Ra extraterrestrial radiation [MJ m-2 d-1],

Tmax maximum air temperature [°C],
Tmin minimum air temperature [°C],
kRs adjustment coefficient (0.16.. 0.19) [°C-0.5].
The square root of the temperature difference is closely related to the existing daily solar
radiation in a given location. The adjustment coefficient kRs is empirical and differs for 'interior' or
'coastal' regions:

 for 'interior' locations, where land mass dominates and air masses are not strongly influenced
by a large water body, kRs  0.16;

 for 'coastal' locations, situated on or adjacent to the coast of a large land mass and where air
masses are influenced by a nearby water body, kRs  0.19.

The relationship between Rs/Ra and the temperature difference is plotted in Figure 17 for interior
and coastal locations. The fraction of extraterrestrial radiation that reaches the earth's surface,
Rs/Ra, ranges from about 0.25 on a day with dense cloud cover to about 0.75 on a cloudless day
with clear sky. Rs predicted by Equation 50 should be limited to  Rso from Equation 36 or 37.

FIGURE 17. Relationship between the fraction of extraterrestrial radiation that reaches
the earth's surface, Rs/Ra, and the air temperature difference Tmax - Tmin for interior (kRs =
0.16) and coastal (kRs = 0.19) regions

The temperature difference method is recommended for locations where it is not appropriate to
import radiation data from a regional station, either because homogeneous climate conditions
do not occur, or because data for the region are lacking. For island conditions, the methodology
of Equation 50 is not appropriate due to moderating effects of the surrounding water body.

Caution is required when daily computations of ETo are needed. The advice given for Equation
49 fully applies. It is recommended that daily estimates of ETo that are based on estimated
Rs be summed or averaged over a several-day period, such as a week, decade or month to
reduce prediction error.
EXAMPLE 15. Determination of solar radiation from temperature data

Determine the solar radiation from the temperature data of July in Lyon (France) at a latitude of 45°43'N
and at 200 m above sea level. In July, the mean monthly maximum and minimum air temperatures are
26.6 and 14.8°C respectively.
latitude = 45°43' = +45.72" decimal degrees = 0.80 radian
From Table 2.5: The day of the year for 15 July is 196 -
From Eq. 21 or Annex 2 Table 2.6): Ra = 40.6 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 50 (same latitude): Rs = 0.16 [ (26.6-14.8)] Ra = 0.55 (40.6) = 22.3 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 20 (same latitude): equivalent evaporation = 0.408 (22.3) = 9.1 mm/day
In July, the estimated solar radiation, Rs, is 22.3 MJ m-2 day-1

EXAMPLE 16. Determination of net radiation in the absence of radiation data

Calculate the net radiation for Bangkok (13°44'N) by using Tmax, and Tmin. The station is located at the
coast at 2 m above sea level. In April, the monthly average of the daily maximum temperature, daily
minimum temperature and daily vapour pressure are 34.8°C, 25.6°C and 2.85 kPa respectively.
For Latitude 13°44'N = +13.73° decimal degrees = -0.24 radian and for 15 April, J = 105:
From Eq. 21 or Ra = 38.1 MJ m-2 day-1
Table 2.6. (in coastal location) kRs = 0.19
(Tmax - Tmin) = (34.8 - 25.6) = 9.2°C °C
From Eq. 50: Rs = 0.19 (9.2)Ra 21.9 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 36: Rso = 0.75 Ra 28.5 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 38: Rns = 0.77Rs 16.9 MJ m-2 day-1
= 4.903 10-9 MJ K-4 m-2 day-1
Tmax = 34.8 °C
44.1 MJ m-2 day-1

Tmin 25.6 °C
39.1 MJ m-2 day-1

41.6 MJ m-2 day-1

For: ea = 2.85 kPa 2.85 kPa

(0.34-0.14 ea) = 0.10 -
For: Rs/Rso = 0.77 -
Then: (1.35(Rs/Rso) - 0.35)= 0.69 -
From Eq. 39: Rnl = 41.6(0.10)0.69 = 3.0 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 40: Rn = (16.9-2.9) = 13.9 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 20: equivalent evaporation = 0.408 (13.9) = 5.7 mm/day
The estimated net radiation is 13.9 MJ m-2 day-1.

Empirical methodology for island locations

For island locations, where the land mass has a width perpendicular to the coastline of 20 km or
less, the air masses influencing the atmospheric conditions are dominated by the adjacent water
body in all directions. The temperature method is not appropriate for this situation. Where
radiation data from another location on the island are not available, a first estimate of the
monthly solar average can be obtained from the empirical relation:
Rs = 0.7 Ra - b (51)

where

Rs solar radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],

Ra extraterrestrial radiation [MJ m-2 day-1],
b empirical constant, equal to 4 MJ m-2 day-1.

This relationship is only applicable for low altitudes (from 0 to 100 m). The empirical constant
represents the fact that in island locations some clouds are usually present, thus making the
mean solar radiation 4 MJ m-2 day-1 below the nearly clear sky envelope (0.7 Ra). Local
adjustment of the empirical constant may improve the estimation.

The method is only appropriate for monthly calculations. The constant relation between R s and
Ra does not yield accurate daily estimates.

Missing wind speed data

Wind speed data from a nearby weather station

Importing wind speed data from a nearby station, as for radiation data, relies on the fact that the
air flow above a 'homogeneous' region may have relatively large variations through the course
of a day but small variations when referring to longer periods or the total for the day. Data from
a nearby station may be imported where air masses are of the same origin or where the same
fronts govern air flows in the region and where the relief is similar.

When importing wind speed data from another station, the regional climate, trends in variation of
other meteorological parameters and relief should be compared. Strong winds are often
associated with low relative humidity and light winds are common with high relative humidity.
Thus, trends in variation of daily maximum and minimum relative humidities should be similar in
both locations. In mountainous areas, data should not necessarily be imported from the nearest
station but from nearby stations with similar elevation and exposure to the dominant winds. The
paired stations may even vary from one season to another, depending on the dominant winds.

Imported wind speed data can be used when making monthly estimates of evapotranspiration.
Daily calculations are justified when utilized as a sum or average over a several-day period,
such as a week or decade.

Empirical estimates of monthly wind speed

As the variation in wind speed average over monthly periods is relatively small and fluctuates
around average values, monthly values of wind speed may be estimated. The 'average' wind
speed estimates may be selected from information available for the regional climate, but should
take seasonal changes into account. General values are suggested in Table 4.

TABLE 4. General classes of monthly wind speed data

Description mean monthly wind speed at 2 m

light wind ... 1.0 m/s
light to moderate wind 1 - 3 m/s
moderate to strong wind 3 - 5 m/s
strong wind ...  5.0 m/s

Where no wind data are available within the region, a value of 2 m/s can be used as a
temporary estimate. This value is the average over 2000 weather stations around the globe.

In general, wind speed at 2 m, u2, should be limited to about u2  0.5 m/s when used in the
ETo equation (Equation 6). This is necessary to account for the effects of boundary layer
instability and buoyancy of air in promoting exchange of vapour at the surface when air is calm.
This effect occurs when the wind speed is small and buoyancy of warm air induces air
exchange at the surface. Limiting u2  0.5 m/s in the ETo equation improves the estimation
accuracy under the conditions of very low wind speed.

Minimum data requirements

An alternative equation for ETo when weather data are missing

This section has shown how solar radiation, vapour pressure and wind data can be estimated
when missing. Many of the suggested procedures rely upon maximum and minimum air
temperature measurements. Unfortunately, there is no dependable way to estimate air
temperature when it is missing. Therefore it is suggested that maximum and minimum daily air
temperature data are the minimum data requirements necessary to apply the FAO Penman-
Monteith method.

An alternative equation for ETo when weather data are missing

When solar radiation data, relative humidity data and/or wind speed data are missing, they
should be estimated using the procedures presented in this section. As an alternative, ET o can
be estimated using the Hargreaves ETo equation where:

ETo = 0.0023(Tmean + 17.8)(Tmax - Tmin)0.5 Ra (52)

where all parameters have been previously defined. Units for both ETo and Ra in Equation 52
are mm day-1. Equation 52 should be verified in each new region by comparing with estimates
by the FAO Penman-Monteith equation (Equation 6) at weather stations where solar radiation,
air temperature, humidity, and wind speed are measured. If necessary, Equation 52 can be
calibrated on a monthly or annual basis by determining empirical coefficients where ETo = a + b
ETo Eq. 52, where the "Eq. 52" subscript refers to ETo predicted using Equation 52. The
coefficients a and b can be determined by regression analyses or by visual fitting. In general,
estimating solar radiation, vapor pressure and wind speed as described in Equations 48 to 51
and Table 4 and then utilizing these estimates in Equation 6 (the FAO Penman-Monteith
equation) will provide somewhat more accurate estimates as compared to estimating
ETo directly using Equation 52. This is due to the ability of the estimation equations to
incorporate general climatic characteristics such as high or low wind speed or high or low
relative humidity into the ETo estimate made using Equation 6.

Equation 52 has a tendency to underpredict under high wind conditions (u2 > 3 m/s) and to
overpredict under conditions of high relative humidity.

Chapter 4 - Determination of ETo

Penman-Monteith equation
Calculation procedures with missing data
Pan evaporation method

This chapter demonstrates how the crop reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is determined either
from meteorological data or from pan evaporation.

The FAO Penman-Monteith method is maintained as the sole standard method for the
computation of ETo from meteorological data. The method itself is introduced in Chapter 2, and
the computation of all data required for the calculation of ETo is discussed in Chapter 3. This
chapter presents guidelines to calculate ETo with different time steps, ranging from hours to
months, and with missing climatic data. The ETo calculation can be done by hand with the help
of a calculation sheet, or by means of a computer.

ETo can also be estimated from the evaporation loss from a water surface. The procedure to
obtain ETo from pan evaporation and the coefficients for different types of pans are presented in
this chapter.

Penman-Monteith equation

Calculation procedure
ETo calculated with different time steps
From the original Penman-Monteith equation and the equations of the aerodynamic and canopy
resistance, the FAO Penman-Monteith equation has been derived in Chapter 2:

(6)

where

ETo reference evapotranspiration [mm day-1],

Rn net radiation at the crop surface [MJ m-2 day-1],
G soil heat flux density [MJ m-2 day-1],
T air temperature at 2 m height [°C],
u2 wind speed at 2 m height [m s-1],
es saturation vapour pressure [kPa],
ea actual vapour pressure [kPa],
es - ea saturation vapour pressure deficit [kPa],
 slope vapour pressure curve [kPa °C-1],
 psychrometric constant [kPa °C-1].

The FAO Penman-Monteith equation determines the evapotranspiration from the hypothetical
grass reference surface and provides a standard to which evapotranspiration in different periods
of the year or in other regions can be compared and to which the evapotranspiration from other
crops can be related.

Calculation procedure

Calculation sheet

ETo can be estimated by means of the calculation sheet presented in Box 11. The calculation
sheet refers to tables in Annex II for the determination of some of the climatic parameters. The
calculation procedure consists of the following steps:

1. Derivation of some climatic parameters from the daily maximum (Tmax) and minimum (Tmin) air
temperature, altitude (z) and mean wind speed (u2).

2. Calculation of the vapour pressure deficit (es - ea). The saturation vapour pressure (es) is
derived from Tmax and Tmin, while the actual vapour pressure (ea) can be derived from the
dewpoint temperature (Tdew), from maximum (RHmax) and minimum (RHmin) relative humidity,
from the maximum (RHmax), or from mean relative humidity (RHmean).

3. Determination of the net radiation (Rn) as the difference between the net shortwave radiation
(Rns) and the net longwave radiation (Rnl). In the calculation sheet, the effect of soil heat flux (G)
is ignored for daily calculations as the magnitude of the flux in this case is relatively small. The
net radiation, expressed in MJ m-2 day-1, is converted to mm/day (equivalent evaporation) in the
FAO Penman-Monteith equation by using 0.408 as the conversion factor within the equation.
4. ETo is obtained by combining the results of the previous steps.

Examples 17 and 20 present typical examples using the calculation sheet.

Computerized calculations

Calculations of the reference crop evapotranspiration ETo are often computerized. The
calculation procedures of all data required for the calculation of ETo by means of the FAO
Penman-Monteith equation are presented in Chapter 3. Typical sequences in which the
calculations can be executed are given in the calculation sheets. The procedures presented in
Boxes 7 (vapour pressure deficit), 9 (extraterrestrial radiation and daylight hours), 10 (net
radiation) and 11 (ETo) can be used when developing a spreadsheet or computer program to
calculate ETo.

Many software packages already use the FAO Penman-Monteith equation to assess the
reference evapotranspiration. As an example, the output of CROPWAT, the FAO software for
irrigation scheduling, is presented in Figure 18.

ETo calculated with different time steps

The selection of the time step with which ETo is calculated depends on the purpose of the
calculation, the accuracy required and the time step of the climatic data available.

BOX 11. Calculation sheet for ETo (FAO Penman-Monteith) using meteorological tables of Annex 2
Parameters
Tmax °C
Tmin °C Tmean - (Tmax + Tmin)/2 °C
Tmean °C  (Table 2.4 of Annex 2) kPa/°C
Altitude m  (Table 2.2 of Annex 2) kPa/°C
u2 m/s (1 + 0.34 u2)
 /[ +  (1 + 0.34 u2)]
 /[ +  (1 + 0.34 u2)]
[900/(Tmean + 273)] u2
Vapour pressure deficit
Tmax °C e°(Tmax) (Table 2.3) kPa
Tmin °C e°(Tmin) (Table 2.3) kPa
Saturation vapour pressure es = [(e°(Tmax) + e°(Tmin)]/2 kPa
ea derived from dewpoint temperature:
Tdew °C ea = e°(Tdew) (Table 2.3) kPa
OR ea derived from maximum and minimum relative humidity:
RHmax % e°(Tmin) RHmax/100 kPa
RHmin % e°(Tmax) RHmin/100 kPa
ea: (average) kPa
OR ea derived from maximum relative humidity: (recommended if there are errors in RHmin)
RHmax % ea = e°(Tmin) RHmax/100 kPa
OR ea derived from mean relative humidity: (less recommended due to non-linearities)
RHmean % ea = es RHmean/100 kPa
Vapour pressure deficit (es - ea) kPa
Radiation
Latitude °
Day Ra (Table 2.6) MJ m-2 d-1
Month N (Table 2.7) hours
n hours n/N
If no Rs data available: Rs = (0.25 + 0.50 n/N) Ra MJ m-2 d-1
Rso = [0.75 + 2 (Altitude)/100000] Ra MJ m-2 d-1
Rs/Rso
Rns = 0.77 Rs MJ m-2 d-1
Tmax MJ m-2 d-1
(Table 2.8)
Tmin MJ m-2 d-1
(Table 2.8)
MJ m-2 d-1

ea kPa (0.34-0.14  ea)

Rs/Rso (1.35 Rs/Rso - 0.35)

Rn = Rns - Rnl
Tmonth °C Gday (assume) 0
Tmonth-1 °C Gmonth = 0.14 (Tmonth - Tmonth-1)
Rn - G MJ m-2 d-1
0.408 (Rn - G) mm/day
Grass reference evapotranspiration
mm/day

mm/day

mm/day

FIGURE 18. ETo computed by CROPWAT

MONTHLY REFERENCE EVAPOTRANSPIRATION PENMAN MONTEITH

Mateostation: CABINDA Country: Angola
Altitude: 20 m. Coordinates: -5.33 South 12.11 East
Month MinTemp MaxTemp Humid. Wind Sunshine Radiation ETo-PenMon
°C °C % km/day Hours MJ/m2/day mm/day
January 22.8 29.6 81 78 4.0 15.7 3.4
February 22.7 30.3 82 69 4.6 16.9 3.7
March 23.0 30.6 80 78 5.1 17.4 3.8
April 23.0 30.2 82 69 5.0 16.4 3.5
May 22.0 28.6 84 69 3.8 13.5 2.9
June 19.2 26.5 81 69 3.3 12.2 2.6
July 17.6 25.1 78 78 3.2 12.3 2.6
August 18.6 25.3 78 78 2.6 12.4 2.6
September 20.5 26.5 78 104 2.0 12.4 2.8
October 22.5 28.0 79 130 2.2 12.9 3.1
November 23.0 28.7 80 104 3.2 14.4 3.3
December 23.0 29.1 82 95 3.8 15.2 3.4
Year 21.5 28.2 80 85 3.6 14.3 3.1
CROPWAT 7.0 Climate file: C:\PROF-P~1\CROPWAT\CROPWAT\CLI\CABINDA.PEN
03/07/98

Ten-day or monthly time step

Notwithstanding the non-linearity in the Penman-Monteith equation and some weather

parameter methods, mean ten-day or monthly weather data can be used to compute the mean
ten-day or monthly values for the reference evapotranspiration. The value of the reference
evapotranspiration calculated with mean monthly weather data is indeed very similar to the
average of the daily ETo values calculated with daily average weather data for that month.

The meteorological data consist of:

 Air temperature: ten-day or monthly average daily maximum (Tmax) and average daily minimum
temperature (Tmin).

 Air humidity: ten-day or monthly average of the daily actual vapour pressure (ea) derived from
psychrometric, dewpoint or relative humidity data.

 Wind speed: ten-day or monthly average of daily wind speed data measured at 2 m height
(u2).

 Radiation: ten-day or monthly average of daily net radiation (Rn) computed from the mean ten-
day or monthly measured shortwave radiation or from actual duration of daily sunshine hours
(n). The extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) and daylight hours (N) for a specific day of the month can
be computed using Equations 21 and 34 or can be selected from Tables 2.5 and 2.6 in Annex 2.

When the soil is warming (spring) or cooling (autumn), the soil heat flux (G) for monthly periods
may become significant relative to the mean monthly Rn. In these cases G cannot be ignored
and its value should be determined from the mean monthly air temperatures of the previous and
next month. Chapter 3 outlines the calculation procedure (Equations 43 and 44).

EXAMPLE 17. Determination of ETo with mean monthly data

Given the monthly average climatic data of April of Bangkok (Thailand) located at 13°44'N and at an
elevation of 2 m:
- Monthly average daily maximum temperature (Tmax) = 34.8 °C
- Monthly average daily minimum temperature (Tmin) = 25.6 °C
- Monthly average daily vapour pressure (ea) = 2.85 kPa
Measured at 2 m Monthly average daily wind speed (u2) = 2 m/s
- Monthly average sunshine duration (n) = 8.5 hours/day
For April Mean monthly average temperature (Tmonth, i) = 30.2 °C
For March Mean monthly average temperature (Tmonth, i-1) = 29.2 °C
Determination according to outline of Box 11 (calculation sheet ETo)
Parameters
- Tmean = [(Tmax = 34.8) + (Tmin = 25.6)]/2 = 30.2 °C
From Table 2.4 or Eq.13: = 0.246 kPa/°C
From Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 Altitude = 2m
or Eq. 7 and Eq. 8: P= 101.3 kPa
= 0.0674 kPa/°C
- (1 + 0.34 u2) = 1.68 -
-  /[ +  (1 + 0.34u2)] = 0.246/[(0.246 + 0.0674 (1.68)] 0.685 -
=
-  /[ +  (1 + 0.34u2)] = 0.0667/[0.246 + 0.0674 (1.68)] 0.188 -
=
- 900/(Tmean + 273) u2 = 5.94 -
Vapour pressure deficit
From Table 2.3 or Tmax = 34.8 °C
Eq. 11: e°(Tmax) = 5.56 kPa
From Table 2.3 or Tmin = 25.6 °C
Eq. 11: e°(Tmin) = 3.28 kPa
- es = (5.56 + 3.28)/2 = 4.42 kPa
Given ea = 2.85 kPa
- Vapour pressure deficit (es - ea) = (4.42 - 2.85) = 1.57 kPa
Radiation (for month = April)
From Table 2.6 or 2.5 or Eq. J = (for 15 April) 105 -
21: Latitude = 13°44'N = (13 + 44/60) = 13.73 °N
Ra = 38.06 MJ m-2 day-
1

N (Table 2.7 or Eq. 34): Daylength N = 12.31 hours

- n/N = (8.5/12.31) = 0.69 -
- Rs = [0.25 + 0.50 (0.69)] 38.06 = 22.65 MJ m-2 day-
1

- Rso = (0.75 + 2 (2)/100000) 38.06 = 28.54 MJ m-2 day-

1

- Rs/Rso = (22.65/28.54) = 0.79 -

- Rns = 0.77 (22.65) = 17.44 MJ m-2 day-
1

From Table 2.8: Tmax = 34.8 °C

44.10 MJ m-2 day-
1

From Table 2.8: Tmin = 25.6 °C

39.06 MJ m-2 day-
1

- 41.58 MJ m-2 day-

1

For: ea = 2.85 kPa

Then: (0.34-0.14 ea) = 0.10 -
For: Rs/Rso = 0.79 -
Then: (1.35 Rs/Rso-0.35) = 0.72 -
- Rnl = 41.58 (0.10)0.72 = 3.11 MJ m-2 day-
1

- Rn = (17.44-3.11) = 14.33 MJ m-2 day-

1

- G =0.14 (30.2-29.2) = 0.14 MJ m-2 day-

1

- (Rn - G) = (14.33-0.14) = 14.19 MJ m-2 day-

1
- 0.408 (Rn - G) = 5.79 mm/day
Grass reference evapotranspiration
- 0.408 (Rn - G)  /[ +  (1+0.34 u2)] =
- (5.79) 0.685 = 3.97 mm/day
- 900 u2/(T + 273) (es - ea)  /[ +  (1+0.34 u2)] = 1.75 mm/day
5.94(1.57)0.188 =
- ETo = (3.97+1.75) = 5.72 mm/day
The grass reference evapotranspiration is 5.7 mm/day.

Daily time step

Calculation of ETo with the Penman-Monteith equation on 24-hour time scales will generally
provide accurate results. The required meteorological data consist of:

 Air temperature: maximum (Tmax) and minimum (Tmin) daily air temperatures.

 Air humidity: mean daily actual vapour pressure (ea) derived from psychrometric, dewpoint
temperature or relative humidity data.

 Wind speed: daily average for 24 hours of wind speed measured at 2 m height (u2).

 Radiation: net radiation (Rn) measured or computed from solar and longwave radiation or from
the actual duration of sunshine (n). The extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) and daylight hours (N) for
a specific day of the month should be computed using Equations 21 and 34. As the magnitude
of daily soil heat flux (G) beneath the reference grass surface is relatively small, it may be
ignored for 24-hour time steps.

EXAMPLE 18. Determination of ETo with daily data

Given the meteorological data as measured on 6 July in Uccle (Brussels, Belgium) located at 50°48'N
and at 100 m above sea level:
- Maximum air temperature (Tmax) = 21.5 °C
- Minimum air temperature (Tmin) = 12.3 °C
- Maximum relative humidity (RHmax) = 84 %
- Minimum relative humidity (RHmin) = 63 %
- Wind speed measured at 10 m height = 10 km/h
- Actual hours of sunshine (n) = 9.25 hours
Conversion of wind speed
At 10 m height Wind speed = 10 km/h or uz = 2.78 m/s
From Eq. 47, with z = At standard height, u2 = 0.748 (2.78) = 2,078 m/s
10 m:
Parameters
From Eq. 7, for: altitude = 100 m
- P= 100.1 kPa
- Tmean = (21.5 + 12.3)/2 = 16.9 °C
From Eq. 13, for: Tmean = 16.9 °C
= 0.122 kPa/°C
From Eq. 8, for: P= 100.1 kPa
= 0.0666 kPa/°C
- (1 + 0.34 u2) = 1.71 -
-  /[ +  (1+0.34 u2)] = 0.122/[(0.122 + 0.0666 (1.71)] = 0.518 -
-  /[ +  (1+0.34 u2)] = 0.0666/[0.122 + 0.0666 (1.71)] = 0.282 -
- 900/(Tmean + 273) u2 = 6.450 -
Vapour pressure deficit
From Eq. 11, for: Tmax = 21.5 °C
Then: e°(Tmax) = 2.564 kPa
From Eq. 11, for: Tmin = 12.3 °C
Then: e°(Tmin) = 1.431 kPa
- es = (2.564 + 1.431) = 1.997 kPa
Given relative RHmax = 84 %
humidity data RHmin = 63 %
From Eq. 17: ea = [1.431 (0.84) + 2.564 (0.63)]/2 = 1.409 kPa
- Vapour pressure deficit (es - ea) = (1.997-1.409) = 0.589 kPa
Radiation
From Table 2.5: Month 7, Day = 6
J= 187 -
From Eq. 21: Latitude = 50°48'N = 50.80 °N
J= 187 -
Ra = 41.09 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 34: Latitude = 50°48'N = 50.80 °N
J= 187 -
N = 16.1 16.1 hours
n/N = 9.25/16.3 = 0.57 -
From Eq. 35 Rs = [0.25 + 0.50 (0.57)] 41.09 22.07 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 37 Rso = (0.75 +2(100)/100000) 41.09 = 30.90 MJ m-2 day-1
- Rs/Rso = 0.71 -
From Eq. 38 Rns = 0.77 (22.07) = 17.00 MJ m-2 day-1
For: Tmax = 21.5 °C
Then: Tmax, K = 21.5+273.16 = 294.7 K
36.96 MJ m-2 day-1

For: Tmin = 12.3 °C

Then: Tmin, K = 12.3 +273.16 = 285.5 K
32.56 MJ m-2 day-1

34.76 MJ m-2 day-1

- (0.34 - 0.14 ea) = 0.17 -

- (1.35(Rs/Rso) - 0.35) = 0.61 -
From Eq. 39 Rnl = 34.76(0.17)0.61 = 3.71 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 40 Rn = (17.00 - 3.71) = 13.28 MJ m-2 day-1
From Eq. 42 G= 0 MJ m-2 day-1
- (Rn - G) = (13.28 - 0) = 13.28 MJ m-2 day-1
- 0.408 (Rn - G) = 5.42 mm/day
Grass reference evapotranspiration
- 0.408 (Rn - G)  /[ +  (1 + 0.34 u2)] = 2.81 mm/day
- 900/(T+273) u2 (es - ea)  /[ +  (1+0.34 u2)] = 1.07 mm/day
- ETo (Eq. 6) = 2.81 + 1.07 = 3.88  3.9 mm/day
The grass reference evapotranspiration is 3.9 mm/day.
Hourly time step

In areas where substantial changes in wind speed, dewpoint or cloudiness occur during the day,
calculation of the ETo equation using hourly time steps is generally better than using 24-hour
calculation time steps. Such weather changes can cause 24-hour means to misrepresent
evaporative power of the environment during parts of the day and may introduce error into the
calculations. However, under most conditions, application of the FAO Penman-Monteith
equation with 24-hour data produces accurate results.

With the advent of electronic, automated weather stations, weather data are increasingly
reported for hourly or shorter periods. Therefore, in situations where calculations are
computerized, the FAO Penman-Monteith equation can be applied on an hourly basis with good
results. When applying the FAO Penman-Monteith equation on an hourly or shorter time scale,
the equation and some of the procedures for calculating meteorological data should be adjusted
for the smaller time step. The FAO Penman-Monteith equation for hourly time steps is:

(53)

where

ETo reference evapotranspiration [mm hour-1],

Rn net radiation at the grass surface [MJ m-2 hour-1] (Equation 40),
G soil heat flux density [MJ m-2 hour-1] (Equations 45 and 46),
Thr mean hourly air temperature [°C],
 saturation slope vapour pressure curve at Thr [kPa °C-1] (Equation 13),
 psychrometric constant [kPa °C-1] (Equation 8),
e°(Thr) saturation vapour pressure at air temperature Thr [kPa] (Equation 11),
ea average hourly actual vapour pressure [kPa] (Equation 54),
u2 average hourly wind speed [m s-1].

Given relative humidity measurements, the actual vapour pressure is determined as:

(54)

where

ea average hourly actual vapour pressure [kPa],

e°(Thr) saturation vapour pressure at air temperature Thr [kPa] (Equation 11),
RHhr average hourly relative humidity [%].

The net radiation is the difference between the net shortwave radiation (Rns) and the net
longwave radiation (Rnl) at the hourly time steps. Consequently:

 If Rns and Rnl need to be calculated, the extraterrestrial radiation value (Ra) for the hourly
period (Equation 28) should be used.
 In the computation of Rnl by means of Equation 39, is replaced

by and the Stefan-Boltzman constant becomes:

 = (4.903/24) 10-9 = 2.043 10-10 MJ m-2 hour-1.

Since the ratio Rs/Rso is used to represent cloud cover, when calculating Rnl for hourly periods
during the nighttime, the ratio Rs/Rso can be set equal to the Rs/Rso calculated for a time period
occurring 2-3 hours before sunset, before the sun angle becomes small. This will generally
serve as a good approximation of cloudiness occurring during the subsequent nighttime. The
hourly period that is 2 to 3 hours before sunset can be identified during computation of R a as the
period where , calculated from Equation 31, is within the range ( s - 0.79)    ( s - 0.52),
where  s is calculated using Equation 25. As a more approximate alternative, one can assume
Rs/Rso = 0.4 to 0.6 during nighttime periods in humid and subhumid climates and Rs/Rso = 0.7 to
0.8 in arid and semiarid climates. A value of Rs/Rso = 0.3 presumes total cloud cover.

Soil heat flux is important for hourly calculations. Equations 45 and 46 can be used to derive G
for the hourly periods.

The required meteorological data consist of:

 Air temperature: mean hourly temperature (Thr).

 Air humidity: average hourly relative humidity (RHhr).
 Wind speed: average hourly wind speed data measured at 2 m height (u2).
 Radiation: total hourly solar (Rs) or net radiation (Rn).

Because of the need for standardization, the constants in Equation 53 presume a constant
surface resistance (rs) of 70 s/m during all periods. This constant resistance may cause some
underprediction of hourly ETo during some daytime periods when actual rs may be somewhat
lower. The constant resistance may cause some overprediction of hourly ETo during evening
periods when actual rs may be somewhat higher. However, when the calculations of hourly
ETo from Equation 53 are summed over 24 hour periods to produce an equivalent 24-hour ETo,
the hourly differences tend to compensate one another and the results are generally equivalent
to calculations of ETo made on a 24-hour time step. Precise estimates of ETo for specific hourly
periods may require the use of aerodynamic stability functions and functions for modifying the
value for rs based on levels of radiation, humidity and temperature. Application of these
functions are not normally required when hourly calculations are to be summed to 24-hour
totals. Therefore, these functions are not described here.

EXAMPLE 19. Determination of ETo with hourly data

Given mean average hourly data between 02.00 and 03.00 hours and 14.00 and 15.00 hours on 1
October in N'Diaye (Senegal) at 16°13'N and 16°15'W and 8 m above sea level. In the absence of
calibrated coefficients, indicative values for as and bs (Eq. 35 Angstrom formula) and for the coefficients of
the net longwave radiation (Eq. 39) are used.
Measured climatic data 02.00-03.00 h 14.00-15.00h Units
Thr: mean hourly temperature = 28 38 °C
RHhr: mean hourly relative humidity = 90 52 %
u2: mean hourly wind speed = 1.9 3.3 m/s
Rs: total solar radiation = - 2.450 MJ m-2 hour-1
Parameters
From Eq. 13 = 0.220 0.358 kPa °C-1
From Eq. 8 = 0.0673 0.0673 kPa °C-1
Vapour pressure deficit
From Eq. 11 e°(T) = 3.780 6.625 kPa
From Eq. 54 ea = 3.402 3.445 kPa
- es - ea = 0.378 3.180 kPa
Extraterrestrial radiation 02.00-03.00 h 14.00-15.00h Units
From Table 2.5
for 1 October: J = 274 -
From Eq. 22:  =  /180 (16.22) = 0.2830 rad
From Eq. 23: dr = 1.0001 -
From Eq. 24:  = - 0.0753 rad
From Eq. 33: b = 3.3315 -
From Eq. 32: Sc = 0.1889 hour
- Lz = 15 degrees
- Lm = 16.25 degrees
- t= 2.5 14.5 hour
From Eq. 31: = -2.46 0.682 rad
- tl = 1 1 hour
From Eq. 29: 1= - 0.5512 rad
From Eq. 30: 2= - 0.8130 rad
From Eq. 28: Ra = 0 3.543 MJ m-2 hour-1
Radiation
Given Rs = 0 2.450 MJ m-2 hour-1
From Eq. 37: Rso = 0 2.658 MJ m-2 hour-1
From Eq. 38: Rns = 0 1.887 MJ m-2 hour-1
- 1.681 1.915 MJ m-2 hour-1

- (0.34-0.14  ea) = 0.082 0.080 -

- Rs/Rso = 0.8 (assumed) 0.922 -
- (1.35 Rs/Rso - 0.35) = 0.730 0.894 -
From Eq. 39: Rnl = 0.100 0.137 MJ m-2 hour-1
From Eq. 40: Rn = -0.100 1.749 MJ m-2 hour-1
From Eq. 46, 45: G= -0.050 0.175 MJ m-2 hour-1
- (Rn - G) = -0.050 1.574 MJ m-2 hour-1
- 0.408(Rn - G) = -0.020 0.642 mm/hour
Grass reference evapotranspiration
- 0.408(Rn - G)
-  /[ +  (1+0.34 u2)] = -0.01 0.46 mm/hour
37/(T + 273) u2 (es - ea)
From Eq. 53:  /[ +  (1 +0.34 u2)] = 0.01 0.17 mm/hour
ETo = 0.00 0.63 mm/hour
The grass reference evapotranspiration is 0.00 mm/hour between 02.00 and 03.00 hours and 0.63
mm/hour between 14.00 and 15.00 hours.

Calculation procedures with missing data

The meteorological data, required to estimate ETo by means of the FAO Penman-Monteith
equation, consist of air temperature, air humidity, wind speed and radiation. Where some of
these data are missing or cannot be calculated, it is strongly recommended that the user
estimate the missing climatic data with one of the procedures presented in Chapter 3 and that
the FAO Penman-Monteith method be used for the calculation of ETo. The use of an alternative
ETo calculation procedure, requiring only limited meteorological parameters, is less
recommended.

Example 20 illustrates the estimation of monthly ETo with the FAO Penman-Monteith for a data
set containing only maximum and minimum air temperature. The procedures given in Chapter 3
to estimate missing humidity, radiation and wind speed data should be validated by comparing
ETo calculated with full and with limited data sets for weather stations in the region with
complete data sets.

EXAMPLE 20. Determination of ETo with missing data

Given the monthly average daily maximum and average daily minimum air temperature of July from a
station near Lyon, France (45°43'N, altitude 200 m). No other climatic data were recorded.
- Monthly average daily maximum temperature (Tmax) = 26.6 °C
- Monthly average daily minimum temperature (Tmin) = 14.8 °C
Determination according to Box 11 (calculation sheet ETo)
Estimation of wind speed:
2 m/s is used as a temporary estimate. Due to the relatively small crop height of 0.12 m of the reference
crop and the appearance of u2 in both the nominator and denominator of the FAO Penman-Monteith
equation, ETo is not highly sensitive to normal ranges of wind speed.
Parameters:
- Tmean = (26.6+14.8)/2 = 20.7 °C
From Table 2.4 or Tmean = 20.7 °C
Eq. 13: = 0.150 kPa/°C
From Table 2.2 or Altitude = 200 m
Eq. 8: = 0.066 kPa/°C
- (1 + 0.34 u2) = (1 + 0.34 (2)) = 1.68 -
-  /[ +  (1 + 0.34 u2)] = 0.150/[(0.150 + 0.066(1.68)] = 0.576 -
-  /[ +  (1 + 0.34 u2)] = 0.0658/[0.150 + 0.066(1.68)] = 0.252 -
- 900/(Tmean + 273) u2 = 6.13 -
Estimation of humidity data:
Assume (Eq. 48): Tdew  Tmin = 14.8 °C
Consequently(Eq. 14 or Tdew = 14.8 °C
Table 2.3) for:
Then ea = 1.68 kPa
From Table 2.3 or Eq. 11, Tmax = 26.6 °C
for:
Then: e°(Tmax) = 3.48 kPa
From Table 2.3 or Eq. 11, Tmin = 14.8 °C
for:
Then: e°(Tmin) = 1.68 kPa
- es = (3.48+1.68)/2 = 2.58 kPa
- (es - ea) = (2.58-1.68) = 0.90 kPa
This corresponds with:
- RHmax = 100ea/e°(Tmin) = 100 %
- RHmin = 100 ea/e°(Tmax) = 100 (1.68/3.48) = 48 %
- RHmean = (RHmax + RHmin)/2 = 74 %
Estimation of radiation data:
Rs can be derived from the difference between Tmax and Tmin:
From Eq. 50 Rs = 0.16  (26.6-14.8) Ra - MJ m-2 day-
1

- Rs = 0.55 Ra - MJ m-2 day-

1

Table 2.6 or Eq. 21, for: For Day 15, Month = July, J = 196 -
Latitude = 45°43'N = 45.72 °N
Then: Ra = 40.55 MJ m-2 day-
1

- Rs = 0.55 Ra = 0.55 (40.55) = 22.29 MJ m-2 day-

1

- Rso = (0.75 + 2 (200)/100000) 40.55 = 30.58 MJ m-2 day-

1

- Rs/Rso = 0.73 -
- Rns = 0.77 (22.29) = 17.16 MJ m-2 day-
1

Table 2.8, for: Tmax = 26.6°C 26.6 °C

Tmax, K = 26.6+273.16 = 299.76 K
Then: 39.59 MJ m-2 day-
1

Table 2.8, for: Tmin = 14.8°C 14.8 °C

Tmin, K = 14.8 +273.16 287.96 K
Then: 33.71 MJ m-2 day-
1

- 36.65 MJ m-2 day-

1

For: ea = 1.68 kPa

Then: (0.34 - 0.14 ea) = 0.16 -
For: Rs/Rso = 0.73 -
Then: (1.35 Rs/Rso - 0.35) = 0.63 -
- Rnl = 36.65 (0.16) 0.63 = 3.68 MJ m-2 day-
1

- Rn = (17.16-3.68) = 13.48 MJ m-2 day-

1

Assume: G= 0 MJ m-2 day-

1

- (Rn - G) = (13.48-0) = 13.48 MJ m-2 day-

1

- 0.408 (Rn - G) = 5.50 mm/day

Grass reference evapotranspiration:
- 0.408 (Rn - G)  /[ +  (1+0.34 u2)] = 3.17 mm/day
- 900/(T + 273) u2 (es - ea)  /[ +  (1+0.34 u2)] = 1.39 mm/day
- ETo = (3.17 + 1.39) = 4.56 mm/day
The estimated grass reference evapotranspiration is 4.6 mm/day. If instead of 2 m/s, the wind speed is
estimated as 1 or 3 m/s, ETo would have been 7% lower (4.2 mm/day) or 6% higher (4.8 mm/day)
respectively. In comparison, the Hargreaves equation (Equation 52) predicts ETo = 5.0 mm/day

Pan evaporation method

Pan evaporation
Pan coefficient (Kp)

Pan evaporation

The evaporation rate from pans filled with water is easily obtained. In the absence of rain, the
amount of water evaporated during a period (mm/day) corresponds with the decrease in water
depth in that period. Pans provide a measurement of the integrated effect of radiation, wind,
temperature and humidity on the evaporation from an open water surface. Although the pan
responds in a similar fashion to the same climatic factors affecting crop transpiration, several
factors produce significant differences in loss of water from a water surface and from a cropped
surface. Reflection of solar radiation from water in the shallow pan might be different from the
assumed 23% for the grass reference surface. Storage of heat within the pan can be
appreciable and may cause significant evaporation during the night while most crops transpire
only during the daytime. There are also differences in turbulence, temperature and humidity of
the air immediately above the respective surfaces. Heat transfer through the sides of the pan
occurs and affects the energy balance.

Notwithstanding the difference between pan-evaporation and the evapotranspiration of cropped

surfaces, the use of pans to predict ETo for periods of 10 days or longer may be warranted. The
pan evaporation is related to the reference evapotranspiration by an empirically derived pan
coefficient:

ETo = Kp Epan (55)

where

ETo reference evapotranspiration [mm/day],

Kp pan coefficient [-],
Epan pan evaporation [mm/day].

Pan coefficient (Kp)

Pan types and environment

Different types of pans exist. Descriptions of Class A and Colorado sunken pans are given in
Boxes 12 and 13. As the colour, size, and position of the pan have a significant influence on the
measured results, the pan coefficients are pan specific.

In selecting the appropriate pan coefficient, not only the pan type, but also the ground cover in
the station, its surroundings as well as the general wind and humidity conditions, should be
checked. The siting of the pan and the pan environment also influence the results. This is
particularly so where the pan is placed in fallow rather than cropped fields. Two cases are
commonly considered: Case A where the pan is sited on a short green (grass) cover and
surrounded by fallow soil; and Case B where the pan is sited on fallow soil and surrounded by a
green crop (Figure 19).
 FIGURE 19. Two cases of evaporation pan siting and their environment

Pan coefficients

Depending on the type of pan and the size and state of the upwind buffer zone (fetch), pan
coefficients will differ. The larger the upwind buffer zone, the more the air moving over the pan
will be in equilibrium with the buffer zone. At equilibrium with a large fetch, the air contains more
water vapour and less heat in Case A than in Case B. Pan coefficients for the Class A pan and
for the Colorado sunken pan for different ground cover, fetch and climatic conditions are
presented in Tables 5 and 6. Regression equations derived from the tables are presented in
Table 7. Where measured data from other types of sunken pans are available, such data should
first be related to Colorado sunken pan data or to the FAO Penman-Monteith equation to
develop Kp. Ratios between evaporation from sunken pans and from the Colorado sunken pan
for different climatic conditions and pan environment are given in Table 8.

Where data are missing, wind speed can be estimated by taking a global value of u2 = 2 m s-1 or
as indicated in Table 4 (page 63). RHmean can be approximated from air temperature as RHmean =
50 e°(Tmin)/e°(Tmax) + 50.

Adjustments

Under some conditions not accounted for in the tables, the presented Kp coefficients may need
some adjustment. This is the case in areas with no agricultural development, or where the pans
are enclosed by tall crops. Not maintaining the standard colour of the pan or installing screens
can affect the pan readings and will require some adjustment of the pan coefficient.

In areas with no agricultural development and extensive areas of bare soils (large fetch, Case
B), as found under desert or semi-desert conditions, the listed values for Kp given for arid, windy
areas may need to be reduced by up to 20%; for areas with moderate levels of wind,
temperature and relative humidity, the listed values may need to be reduced by 5-10%; no or
little reduction in Kp is needed in humid, cool conditions.

Where pans are placed in a small enclosure but surrounded by tall crops, for example 2.5 m
high maize, the listed pan coefficients will need to be increased by up to 30% for dry windy
climates whereas only a 5-10% increase is required for calm, humid conditions.

Painting the pans may affect the pan evaporation. The pan coefficients presented apply to
galvanized pans annually painted with aluminium and to stainless steel pans. Little difference in
Epan will occur where the inside and outside surfaces of the pan are painted white. An increase
in Epan of up to 10% may occur when they are painted black. The material from which the pan is
made may account for variations of only a few percent.

The level at which the water is maintained in the pan is important; resulting errors may be up to
15% when water levels in the Class A pan fall 10 cm below the accepted standard of between 5
and 7.5 cm below the rim. Screens mounted over pans will reduce Epan by up to 10%. In an
attempt to avoid pans being used by birds for drinking, pans filled to the rim with water can be
placed near the Class A pan; birds may prefer to use the fully filled pan. The evaporation pan
should be placed in a large, secure, wire enclosure to prevent animals from entering and
drinking. The turbidity of the water in the pan usually does not affect E pan by more than 5%. The
overall variation in Epan is not constant with time because of ageing, deterioration and repainting.

TABLE 5. Pan coefficients (Kp) for Class A pan for different pan siting and environment
and different levels of mean relative humidity and wind speed (FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper No. 24)

Class A pan Case A: Pan placed in short green Case B: Pan placed in dry fallow area
cropped area
RH mean low medium high low medium high >
(%)  < 40 40 - 70 > 70 < 40 40 - 70 70
Wind speed Windward side Windward side
(m s-1) distance of green distance of dry
crop (m) fallow (m)
Light 1 .55 .65 .75 1 .7 .8 .85
<2 10 .65 .75 .85 10 .6 .7 .8
100 .7 .8 .85 100 .55 .65 .75
1000 .75 .85 .85 1000 .5 .6 .7
Moderate 1 .5 .6 .65 1 .65 .75. .8
2-5 10 .6 .7 .75 10 .55 .65 .7
100 .65 .75 .8 100 .5 .6 .65
1000 .7 .8 .8 1000 .45 .55 .6.
Strong 1 .45 .5 .6 1 .6 .65 .7
5-8 10 .55 .6 .65 10 .5 .55 .65
100 .6 .65 .7 100 .45 .5 .6
1000 .65 .7 .75 1000 .4 .45 .55
Very strong 1 .4 .45 .5 1 .5 .6 .65
>8 10 .45 .55 .6 10 .45 .5 .55
100 .5 .6 .65 100 .4 .45 .5
1000 .55 .6 .65 1000 .35 .4 .45

TABLE 6. Pan coefficients (Kp) for Colorado sunken pan for different pan siting and
environment and different levels of mean relative humidity and wind speed (FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24)

Sunken Case A: Pan placed in short green Case B: Pan placed in dry fallow area (1)
Colorado cropped area
RH mean low medium high low medium high >
(%)  < 40 40 - 70 > 70 < 40 40 - 70 70
Wind speed Windward side Windward side
(m s-1) distance of green distance of dry
crop (m) fallow (m)
Light 1 .75 .75 .8 1 1.1 1.1 1.1
<2 10 1.0 1.0 1.0 10 .85 .85 .85
 100 1.1 1.1 1.1 100 .75 .75 .8
1000 .7 .7 .75
Moderate 1 .65 .7 .7 1 .95 .95 .95
2-5 10 .85 .85 .9 10 .75 .75 .75
 100 .95 .95 .95 100 .65 .65 .7
1000 .6 .6 .65
Strong 1 .55 .6 .65 1 .8 .8 .8
5-8 10 .75 .75 .75 10 .65 .65 .65
 100 .8 .8 .8 100 .55 .6 .65
1000 .5 .55 .6
Very strong 1 .5 .55 .6 1 .7 .75 .75
>8 10 .65 .7 .7 10 ,55 .6 .65
 100 .7 .75 .75 100 .5 .55 .6
1000 .45 .5 .55
(1) For extensive areas of bare-fallow soils and no agricultural development, reduce Kpan by 20%
under hot, windy conditions; by 5-10% for moderate wind, temperature and humidity conditions.
TABLE 7. Pan coefficients (Kp): regression equations derived from Tables 5 and 6

Class A pan with Kp = 0.108 - 0.0286 u2 + 0.0422 ln(FET) +0.1434 ln(RHmean) - 0.000631
green fetch [ln(FET)]2 ln(RHmean)
Class A pan with dry Kp = 0.61 + 0.00341 RHmean - 0.000162 u2 RHmean - 0.00000959 u2 FET + 0.00327
fetch u2 ln(FET) - 0.00289 u2 ln(86.4 u2) - 0.0106 ln(86.4 u2)ln(FET) + 0.00063
[ln(FET)]2ln(86.4 u2)
Colorado sunken Kp = 0.87 + 0.119 ln(FET)-0.0157[ln(86.4 u2)]2 In(RHmean) - 0.000053
pan with green ln(86.4u2)ln(FET)RHmean
Colorado sunken Kp = 1.145 - 0.080 u2 + 0.000903(u2)2ln(RHmean) - 0.0964 ln(FET) + 0.0031
pan with dry fetch u2 In(FET) + 0.0015[ln(FET)]2ln(RHmean)
Coefficients and Kp pan coefficient []
parameters u2 average daily wind speed at 2 m height (m s-1)
RHmean average daily relative humidity [%] = (RHmax + RHmin)/2
FET fetch, or distance of the identified surface type (grass or short green
agricultural crop for case A, dry crop or bare soil for case B upwind of the
evaporation pan)
Range for variables 1 m  FET  1000 m (these limits must be observed)
30%  RHmean  84%
1 m s-1  u2  8 m s-1

Recommendations

The above considerations and adjustments indicate that the use of tables or the corresponding
equations may not be sufficient to consider all local environmental factors influencing Kp and
that local adjustment may be required. To do so, an appropriate calibration of Epan against
ETo computed with the Penman-Monteith method is recommended.

It is recommended that the pan should be installed inside a short green cropped area with a size
of a square of at least 15 by 15 m. The pan should not be installed in the centre but at a
distance of at least 10 m from the green crop edge in the general upwind direction.

Where observations of wind speed and relative humidity, required for the computation of K p, are
not available at the site, estimates of the weather variables from a nearby station have to be
utilized. It is then recommended that these variables be averaged for the computation period
and that Epan be averaged for the same period.

Equation 1 in Table 7 yields Kp = 0.83 for data in Example 21 as shown in Example 22.

TABLE 8. Ratios between the evaporation from sunken pans and a Colorado sunken pan
for different climatic conditions and environments (FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper
No. 24)

Ratio Epan mentioned and Epan Colorado

Climate Humid-temperate Arid to semi-arid (dry
climate season)
Ground cover surrounding pan (50 m or more) Short green Dry Short green Dry fallow
cover fallow cover
Pan area
(m2)
GGI 20 diameter 5 m, depth 2 m (former 19.6 1.0 1.1 1.05 1.25
Soviet Union)
Sunken pan diameter 12 ft (3.66 m) depth 10.5
3.3 ft (Israel)
BPI diameter 6 ft (1.83 m), depth 2 ft (0.61 2.6
m) (USA)
Kenya pan diameter 4 ft (1.22 m) depth 14 1.2
in (0.356 m)
Australian pan diameter 3 ft (0.91 m) depth 0.7 1.0 1.0
3 ft (0.91 m)
Symmons pan 6 ft2 (0.56 m2) depth 2 ft 0.6
(0.61 m)
Aslyng pan 0.33 m2, depth 1 m (Denmark) 0.3 1.0
GGI 3000 diameter 0.618 cm, depth 60-80 0.3
cm (former Soviet Union)
Sunken pan diameter 50 cm, depth 25 cm 0.2 1.0 0.95 1.0 0.95
(Netherlands)

EXAMPLE 21. Determination of ETo from pan evaporation using tables

Given the daily evaporation data for the first week of July for a Class A pan installed in a green area
surrounded by short irrigated field crops: 8.2, 7.5, 7.6, 6.8, 7.6, 8.9 and 8.5 mm/day. In that period the
mean wind speed is 1.9 m/s and the daily mean relative humidity is 73%. Determine the 7-day average
reference evapotranspiration.
Pan is installed on a green surface: Case A
Pan is surrounded by irrigated crops: fetchmax = 1000 m
Wind speed is light: u< 2 m/s
Relative humidity is high: RHmean > 70 %
From Table 5 (for above conditions): Kp = 0.85 -
- Epan = (8.2 + 7.5 + 7.6 + 6.8 + 7.6 + 8.9 + 7.9 mm/day
8.5)/7 =
From Eq. 55: ETo = 0.85 (7.9) = 6.7 mm/day
The 7-day average of the crop reference evapotranspiration is 6.7 mm/day
BOX 12. Description of Class A pan

The Class A Evaporation pan is circular, 120.7 cm in diameter and 25 cm deep. It is made of galvanized
iron (22 gauge) or Monel metal (0.8 mm). The pan is mounted on a wooden open frame platform which is
15 cm above ground level. The soil is built up to within 5 cm of the bottom of the pan. The pan must be
level. It is filled with water to 5 cm below the rim, and the water level should not be allowed to drop to
more than 7.5 cm below the rim. The water should be regularly renewed, at least weekly, to eliminate
extreme turbidity. The pan, if galvanized, is painted annually with aluminium paint. Screens over the pan
are not a standard requirement and should preferably not be used. Pans should be protected by fences
to keep animals from drinking.

The site should preferably be under grass, 20 by 20 m, open on all sides to permit free circulation of the
air. It is preferable that stations be located in the centre or on the leeward side of large cropped fields.

Pan readings are taken daily in the early morning at the same time that precipitation is measured.
Measurements are made in a stilling well that is situated in the pan near one edge. The stilling well is a
metal cylinder of about 10 cm in diameter and some 20 cm deep with a small hole at the bottom.
BOX 13. Description of Colorado sunken pan

The Colorado sunken pan is 92 cm (3 ft) square and 46 cm (18 in) deep, made of 3 mm thick iron, placed
in the ground with the rim 5 cm (2 in) above the soil level. Also, the dimensions 1 m square and 0.5 m
deep are frequently used. The pan is painted with black tar paint. The water level is maintained at or
slightly below ground level, i.e., 5-7.5 cm below the rim.

Measurements are taken similarly to those for the Class A pan. Siting and environment requirements are
also similar to those for the Class A pan.

Sunken Colorado pans are sometimes preferred in crop water requirements studies, as these pans give a
better direct estimation of the reference evapotranspiration than does the Class A pan. The disadvantage
is that maintenance is more difficult and leaks are not visible.
EXAMPLE 22. Determination of ETo from pan evaporation using equations

Given the 7-day average evaporation measurement from Example 21, estimate the ETo for the two types
of pans and two types of fetch conditions represented by equations in Table 7. Assume that fetch is 1000
m in both fetch cases (green and dry).
Fetch = 1000 m
u2 = 1.9 m/s
RHmean = 73 %

Class A pan Kp = 0.108 - 0.0286 u2 + 0.0422 ln(FET) Kp = 0.108 - 0.0286 (1.9) + 0.0422 0.83 -
with green + 0.1434 ln(RHmean) - 0.000631 ln(1000) +0.1434 ln(73) - 0.000631
fetch [ln(FET)]2 ln(RHmean) [ln(1000)]2 ln(73)
Epan = 7.9 mm/day
ETo = ETo = 0.83 (7.9) 6.6 mm/day
Class A pan Kp = 0.61 + 0.00341 RHmean - 0.000162 Kp = 0.61 + 0.00341 (73) - 0.61 -
with dry u2 RHmean - 0.00000959 u2 FET + 0.000162 (1.9) (73) - 0.00000959
fetch 0.00327 u2 ln(FET) - 0.00289 u2 ln(86.4 (1.9)(1000) + 0.00327 (1.9)
u2) - 0.0106 ln(86.4u2)ln(FET) + 0.00063 ln(1000) - 0.00289 (1.9)
[ln(FET)]2ln(86.4 u2) ln(86.4(1.9)) - 0.0106
ln(86.4(1.9))ln(1000) + 0.00063
[ln(1000)]2 ln(86.4 (1.9))
Epan = 7.9 mm/day
ETo = ETo = 0.61 (7.9) 4.8 mm/day
Colorado Kp = 0.87 + 0.119 ln(FET) - Kp = 0.87 + 0.119 ln(100) - 0.0157 0.97 -
sunken pan 0.0157[ln(86.4 u2)]2 - 0.0019 [ln(86.4(1.9))]2 - 0.0019 [ln(1000)]2
with green [ln(FET)]2ln(86.4 u2) + 0.013 ln(86.4 u2) ln(86.4 (1.9)) + 0.013 ln(86.4(1.9))
fetch ln(RHmean) - 0.000053 ln(86.4 u2)ln(FET) ln(73) - 0.000053 ln(86.4 (1.9))
RHmean ln(1000) (73)
Epan = 7.9 mm/day
ETo = ETo = 0.97(7.9) 7.7 mm/day
Colorado Kp = 1.145 - 0.080 Kp = 1.145 - 0.080(1.9) + 0.69 -
sunken pan u2 +0.000903(u2)2ln(RHmean) - 0.0964 0.000903(1.9)2ln(73) - 0.0964
with dry ln(FET) + 0.0031 u2 ln(FET) + 0.0015 ln(1000) + 0.0031 (1.9) ln(1000)
fetch [ln(FET)]2 ln(RHmean) +0.0015 [ln(1000)]2ln(73)
Epan = 7.9 mm/day
ETo = ETo = 0.69 (7.9) 5.4 mm/day
The 7-day average of the crop reference evapotranspiration for the four pan/fetch conditions is 6.6, 4.8,
7.7, and 5.4 mm/day