4.

0 AC METERS
Objectives:

❖ List four principle meter movements and application for

each.
❖ Describe the purpose and operation of the diode in half-
wave rectifier circuit and full-wave rectifier
❖ Describe the purpose of the second diode in a half-wave
rectifier which is often used in rectifier circuits
❖ List five applications for electrodynamometer movement
❖ List the typical frequency range of the iron-vane meter
movement

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 4.1 Introduction
Five principle meter movements used in ac instruments are:

1. Electrodynamometer
- Standard meter, transfer instrument, wattmeter, frequency
meter

2. Iron-vane
- Indicator applications such as in automobiles

3. Electrostatic
- Measurement of high voltage when very little current can
be supplied by the circuit being measured
2
 Cont’d…
4. Thermocouple
- Measurement of radio-frequency as signals

5. D’Arsonval (PMMC)
- Most widely used meter movement for measuring direct
current or voltage and resistance

➢ In this chapter we will discover that we can use the same

d’Arsonval meter movement to measure alternating current
and voltage.
➢ Even though it cannot directly measure alternative current
with d’Arsonval. We must first rectify the alternating
current by use of a diode rectifier to produce unidirectional
current flow.
 Cont’d…
Conversion AC to DC concept:
• Supply from TNB: 50Hz, 240V RMS (240V peak).

• TNB sine-wave supply gives zero DC component!

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 4

 Cont’d…
• We can use simple half-wave rectifier. A fixed DC voltage
is now obtained. This is a simple PE system.

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 5

 Cont’d…

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 6

 4.2 D’Arsonval Meter Movement
Used with half-wave rectifier
➢ Types of diodes are selected such as copper oxide ,
vacuum diode, semiconductor or crystal diode and etc.

Figure 4.1 DC voltmeter meter circuit modified to measure ac voltage

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 7

 Cont’d…
➢ The circuit from Figure 4.1 produces an approximate half
sine wave across the load resistor. The average value of
this circuit is referred to as the dc voltage. The forward
biased diode will have no effect on the operation of the
circuit if we assume an ideal diode.
➢ Recall from chapter 2 that the sensitivity of DC voltmeter
is 1 
S = ( / V ) = 1k
I fs V
➢ Now we assume that a multiplier of ten times of this value
means a 10Vdc input will cause exactly full-scale
deflection of d’Arsonval instrument in Figure 4.1.
4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 8
 Cont’d…
➢ When replace 10Vdc with 10Vrms, the voltage across the
meter movement is just the positive half cycle of the sine
wave because of the rectifying action of the diode. The
peak value of the 10Vrms sine wave is:
V p = 2  10Vrms
➢ The arsonval instrument will respond to the average (DC)
value of the ac sine wave where the average is :
VP Vrms
Vave = =  2 = 0.45Vrms = 4.5V
 

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 9

 Cont’d…
➢ The pointer will indicate to 4.5V when a 10Vrms
sinusoidal ac waveform is applied. Therefore we can say
that a 10Vrms voltage is equal to 4.5Vdc for full scale
deflection or in otherword the pointer will deflect to 45%
of full scale.
➢ This means that the ac voltmeter is not as sensitive as the
dc voltmeter. In fact an ac voltmeter using half-wave
rectification is only approximately 45% as sensitive as a dc
voltmeter.
➢ The multiplier resistor would be only 45% of the value of
the multiplier resistor for a 10Vdc voltmeter.

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 10

 Cont’d…
➢ Equation for computing the value of the multiplier resistor:
Vdc 0.45Vrms
Rs = − Rm = − Rm
I dc Idc

S ac = 0.45S dc

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 11

 4.3 D’Arsonval Meter Movement
Used with full-wave rectifier
➢ It is more desirable to used a full-wave rather than a half-
wave rectifier in ac voltmeter because of the higher
sensitivity rating
➢ The most frequently used for full-wave rectification is the
bridge-type rectifier
D1 D2

Vin=10Vrms
Rs

D3 D4
Ifs=1mA
Rm=100

Figure 4.2: Full-wave bridge rectifier used in ac voltmeter circuit

 Cont’d…
➢ D2 and D3 conduct in positive half cycle and while D1 and
D4 conduct in negative half cycle. D1 and D3 cannot be on
the same time. Similarly D1 and D4 cannot conduct
simultaneously.
➢ The maximum voltage across the load for positive and
negative half cycle is Vp.
1 T 1  2

V0 =  V (t )dt =
T  0 + 2  − 2 
V 1 (t ) dt + V 1 (t ) dt
T 0

+ ve 1 cycle
2
V p sin t dt = −V p cos t 0 = 2V p



0 13
 Cont’d…
− ve 1 cycle
2
V p sin t dt = V p cos t  = 2V p
2


0

Vave = V0 =
1
2

2V p + 2V p =


2V p
= 0.636V p = 0.9Vrms

➢ Since current flows through the meter movement on both

half cycles, we can expect the deflection of the pointer to
be greater than with half wave rectifier, which will allows
current to flow only on every other half cycle.
4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 14
 Cont’d…
➢ When full wave rectification is used, the pointer will
deflect to 90% of full scale.
➢ i.g => 10Vrms voltage is equivalent to 9Vdc
➢ This means and ac voltmeter using full-wave rectification
has sensitivity equal to 90% of the dc sensitivity or it twice
the sensitivity of half wave rectification.
➢ The multiplier resistor would be 90% of the value of the
multiplier resistor for a 10Vdc voltmeter.
➢ Equation for computing the value of the multiplier resistor:
V 0.9Vrms
Rs = dc − Rm = − Rm
I dc Idc

S ac = 0.9 S dc 15
 Cont’d…
➢ The meter scale is usually calibrated to give the rms value
of an alternating sine wave input. Practical rectifier are
non-linear devices particularly at low values of forward
current as illustrate in Figure 4.3. Hence the meter scale is
non linear and is generally crowded at the lower end of a
low range voltmeter. In this part the meter has low
sensitivity because of the high forward resistance of the
diode. Also the diode resistance depends on the
temperature.
➢ The rectifier exhibits capacitance properties when reverse
biased, and tends to bypass higher frequency. The meter
reading may be in error by as much as 0.5% decrese for
every 1kHz rise in frequency.
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 Cont’d…
➢ A general rectifier type ac voltmeter arrangement that use
in half-wave rectification have additional diode and shunt
resistor as shown in Figure 4.4.
➢ The additional diode D2 is reverse-biased on the positive
half-cycle and has virtually no effect on the behavior of the
circuit. In the negative half-cycle, D2 is forward-biased
and provides an alternate path for reverse biased leakage
current that would normally flow through the meter
movement and diode D1. The purpose of Rsh is to increase
the current flow through D1 during the positive half cycle
so that the diode is operating in a more linear portion of its
characteristic curve.

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 17

 Cont’d…
Rs D1 If

Im Ish

AC Input D2 Rm Rsh

Figure 4.4 Half-wave rectification using an instrument rectifier

and a shunt resistor for improved linearity.

Example 4.1:
Design a voltmeter for a 10Vrms ac range on the circuit
shown in Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2. Determine the ac
sensitivity of both design.
4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 18
 Cont’d…
Example 4.2
Rs D1 If

Im Ish Figure 3.5 Half-wave

AC Input
D2
rectification using an
10Vrms
Rm = 200 instrumentation rectifier
Rsh = 200
Ifsd=100A and a shunt resistor

In the half wave rectifier shown in Figure 4.5, diodes D1

and D2 have an average forward resistance of 50Ω and
are assumed to have an infinite resistance in the reverse
direction. Calculate:
a) Rs b) ac sensitivity c) dc sensitivity
19
 Cont’d…
Example 4.3
Each diode in the full wave rectifier circuit in figure 3.6
has an average forward resistance of 50 and is assumed
to have an infinite resistance in the reverse direction

Figure 4.6 AC voltmeter

circuit using full-wave
rectification and shunt

Calculates:
20
a) Rs b) ac sensitivity c) dc sensitivity
 4.4 Other types of AC meter
movement
Electrodynamometer movement

Figure 4.7 Electrodynamometer Movement

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 Cont’d…
➢ Has the same basic operating principle as the
D’Arsonval meter movement, except that the permanent
magnet is replaced by fixed coils.
➢ The moving coil and pointer, which are attached to the
coil, are suspended between and connected in series with
the two field coils (fix coil). The two field coils and
moving coil are connected in series such that the same
current flows through each coil.
➢ Current flow through the three coils in either direction
causes a magnetic field to be produced between the field
coils.
The same current flow through the moving coil causes
it to act as a magnet exerting a force against the spring
4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 22
 Cont’d…
➢ If the current is reversed, the field polarity and the polarity of
the moving coil reverse, and the force continues in the same
direction. Due to this characteristic of the
electrodynamometer movement, it can be used in both AC
and DC systems to measure current.
➢ The basic electrodynamometer is capable of handling more
current than D’Arsonval movement. A 100mA is an
approximately value of maximum current without resistor.
➢ The magnetic coupling between the fix coils and moving
coils is across and air gap that results in a weak magnetic
field. To be sufficient more current must flow through the
coils, which mean that a large diameter wire must be used.
However, the large diameter has a less resistance than a
smaller diameter. This cause the electrodynamometer
movement to have a very low sensitivity rating of
approximately 20-100 Ω/V.
 Cont’d…
Example:
An electrodynamometer movement that has a full scale
deflection current rating of 10mA is to be used in a
voltmeter circuit. Calculate the value of the multiplier for a
10V range if Rm equals 50Ω
1
S= = 100 
I fs V
RS = S  range − Rm = 950

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 24

 Cont’d…
An electrodynamometer movement with a full-scale
deflection current rating of 10mA is to be used as 1A
ammeter. If the resistance of the moving coil is 40Ω, what
is the value of the shunt?
I fs Rm Rm
RSh = = = 0.404
I − I fs n −1
If the ammeter in this example is connected to a 1A dc
source, the pointer should deflect to exactly full scale. The
pointer should also deflect full scale if the 1A dc is
replaced with a 1A ac source.

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 25

 Cont’d…
➢ The most extensive application of the electrodynamometer
meter is in wattmeters either to measure dc or ac power.
The ac signal are not restricted to sinusoidal forms so that
power developed by any ac waveform may be measured.
➢ When used as a wattmeter, the fixed coils are in series with
the load and therefore conduct the same current as the load
(plus a small current through the moving coil). The moving
coil is connected as a voltmeter across the load where the
resistor Rs is the multiplier for the voltage sensitive meter.

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 26

 Cont’d…
➢ The magnetic torque that causes the pointer to deflect up
scale can be express as
 m = K m EI cos 
where:
θm = angular deflection of the pointer
Km = Instrument constant, degree per watt
E = rms value of source current
Cosθ = power factor

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 27

 Cont’d…
➢ Because of the inherent accuracy of the
electrodynamometer movement, it is used in standard
instruments those used the calibration of other meters.
➢ The term transfer instrument is applied to an instrument
that may be calibrated with a dc source and then used
without modification to measure alternating current. This
gives us a direct means of equating ac and dc
measurements of voltage and current.
➢ Most electrodynamometer movement are accurate over the
frequency range from 0-125Hz

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 28

 Cont’d…
3.4.2 Iron-vane meter movement

Figure 4.8 Iron-vane movement

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 29
 Cont’d…
➢ The moving iron vane movement (Figure 4.8) can be used
to measure both AC current and voltage. By changing the
meter scale calibration, the movement can be used to
measure DC current and voltage.
➢ The moving iron vane meter operates on the principle of
magnetic repulsion between like poles. The measured
current flows through a field coil which produces a
magnetic field proportional to the magnitude of
current. Suspended in this field are two iron vanes
attached to a pointer. The two iron vanes consist of one
fixed and one moveable vane.

4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 30

 Cont’d…
➢ The magnetic field produced by the current flow
magnetizes the two iron vanes with the same polarity
regardless of the direction of current through the
coil. Since like poles repel one another, the moving iron
vane pulls away from the fixed vane and moves the meter
pointer. This motion exerts a force against a spring. The
distance the moving iron vane will travel against the spring
depends on the strength of the magnetic field. The strength
of the magnetic field depends on the magnitude of current
flow.
➢ As stated previously, this type of meter movement may
also be used to measure voltage. When this type of
movement is used to measure voltage, the field coil
consists of many turns of fine wire used to generate a
strong magnetic field with only a small current flow.
 Cont’d…
➢ The basic iron-vane movement has a square law response,
but the fixed coil can be designed to provide a relatively
linear response.
➢ Although the iron-vane movement is responsive to direct
current, the hysteresis, or magnetic lag, in the iron vanes
causes appreciable error. Therefore moving vane
instruments for measuring direct current are rarely used
except for very inexpensive indicator such as charge-
discharge indicator on automobiles.
➢ For and ac application, the magnetic lag present no
problems. Therefore iron-vane meter movements are used
extensively in industry for measuring alternating current
when errors on order of 5% to 10% are acceptable.
4/7/2023 Chapter 1 : AC Meters 32
 Cont’d…
➢ The basic current responding iron vane meter movement
can be used to measure voltage by adding a multiplier
resistor as with D’Arsonval movement. It is very sensitive
to frequency change can be expected to provide accurate
readings over a limited frequency range, approximately 25-
125Hz.

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