Structure of atoms:

1. JJ Thompsons atomic mode: He stated the plum pudding model where he stated that
all electrons are placed inside a positively chargedmatter like a plum pudding.

Postulates:

 An atom consists of a positively charged spheree with electrons embedded in it.

 An atom as a whole is electrivally neutral because the negative and positive charges
are equal in magnitude.

Limitations:

 It failed to explain the stability of the atom because of his model of an atom failed to
explain how a positive charge holds the negative charged electrons in an atom

 Filaed to account other subatomic particles such as protons and neutrons

 Failed to account the arrangement of a nucleus.

2. John Daltons billiard ball model: According to daltons theory, all substances are made
up of atoms, which are indivisible and indestructible building units. While an
elements atoms were all the same size and mass and different elements contained
atoms of various sizes and masses.

Postulates:
  All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.

 All atoms of a specific element are identical in mass and size however atoms of
different elements exhibit different properties and vary in mass and size.

 Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed and they cannot divide into smaller
particles

 Atoms of different elements can combine in a simple whole number ratio.

Limitations:

 Dlatons atomic theory does not account for other subatomic particles, such as
electrons, protons, or Neutrons as the theory mentioned it was indivisible.

 It does not account for isotopes and siobars, as all atoms of an element are siad to be
identical in mass however that is not true for isotopes as they have different atomic
masses. For isobars the tjheory states that atoms of an element contain teh same
mass however that is not true for isobars as different elements have teh same
masses.

Rutherfords gold foil experiment:

 Rutherford set up an apparatus, where a gold foil was placed in surrounding of

reflecting sheets were alpha particles were passed onto a gold foil and these alpha
particles are positive particles.

 From this experiment, some of the alpha particles passed through the gold foil, and
some were reflected back, and from this experiment he concluded that most of the
atom is empty space as the alpha particles passed through the gold foil, and he also
mentioned at the center of the atom it is positively charged whcih caused the alpha
particles to bounce back.

Rutherfords atomic model:

Based on the rutherford experiment he concluded that:

  The positive charge and the most of the mass of an atom is concnerted in the center
of the atom, in an extremely small volume which is known as the nucleus.

 The nucleus of an atom had a positive charge

 He concluded that the negatively charged particles known as electrons revolve

around hte nucleus and are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.

Limitiations of hte model:

 RUtherfor proposed that the electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed paths
called orbits. But according to maxwells law, accelerated charged particles emit
electromagnetic radiation and henc ehte electrons should emit electromagnetic
radiation and exhaust its kinetic energy and collapse into the nucleus.

 Rutherford did not explain anything regarding the arrangenemtn of electrons in the
atom hence his theiry is incomplete.

Neil Bohrs Atomic model:

Description: In 1913 Niel Bohr proposed an atomic structure model, describing an atom as a
positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the
positively charged nucleus like planets and the sun, with the attraction provided by
electrostatic forces.

Postulates:

 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in stable orbits without emission of radiant
energy. Each orbit has a definite energy and is called an energy shell or energy level.

 An orbit or energy level is designated as K, L, M, N shells. When the electron

 3+is in the lowest energy level , it is said to be in a ground state.

 An electron emits or absorbs energy when it jumps from one orbit to another.
Limitations:

 Bohrs model no longer observes the heisenberg uncertainty principle, as we know

from the heisenberg uncertainty principle where we cannot locate the position and
velocity of the particle simultaneously whereas in bohrs model we can hence it is
invalid.

 The Bohr atomic version no longer makes an accurate prediction of large-sized atoms
and furnishes enough statistics that are simplest for smaller atoms.

 Bohrs model does not include the Zeeman effect whilst the spectrum is cut up into
some wavelengths in the sight of a magnetic field.

 It does not state the stark effect whilst the spectrum receives separated into nearly
negligible starisn int eh sight of an electric powered field.

Reasons for the failure of the Bohrs model:

 With the limitations of Bohrs model for hydrogen atoms, becoming transparent,
attempts were made to develop a better and general model of the atom This was
possible because fot eh two important develpmnets that took place after the Bohr
model was postulated and these were:

1. De Broglies proposal of dual behavior of matter

2. Heisenbergs Uncertainty principle.

Quantum mechanical model of the atom:

  A new branch of science, called quantum mechanics was developed in 1926 by
Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrodinger based on uncertainty principle and wave
motion respectively.

 Schrodinger developed the fundamental equation of quantum mechanics which

equation is written as ∧ Hψ = Eψ
incorporates wave particle duality of matter. The schrodinger equation or wave

 Here ∧ H is a mathematical operator called Hamiltonian, ψ (psi) is the wave

function and E the total energy of the system. Solving Schrodinger equation is
beyond the scope fo this book. It may, however, be noted that solution of
schrodinger equation igves E and

Schrodinger equation:

When schrodinger equation is solved for a hydrogen atom, the three quantum numbers are
obtained:

 Principle quantum number(n)

 Azimuthul quantum number(l)

 Magnetic quantnum number(ml)

All quantum numbers:

Principle quantnum number(n):

 The principle quantum number “n” is a positive integer with values of n being 1, 2, 3,
4…. It identifies the shell of the atom just as K, L, M, N.

 Atomic orbitals, having the same value “n” belong to the same shell. With increase
“n” the number of allowed orbitals in that shell increases and given by “n^2”. A set of
 orbitals with given value of n constitutes a single shell. Shells are rpesented by
symbols K, L, M , N

 Rnage(n-> infinite), n=1(K), n=2(l), n=3(M), n=4(M

Azimuthul Quantnum number(l): It represents the number of subshelsl per energy shell:

 Range: 0->(n-1), where n is the number of shells

Principle Azimuthul No,

No,

N=1 0(these are notations of teh sub shells basically range like 1- S sub shell
1=0)

n=2 0-1 SP sub shell

n=3 0-1-2 SPD sub shell

n=4 0-1-2-3 SPDF sub

shell

Magnetic quantum number(ml):

 It represents the orientations of a sub shell

 Range: -l, 0, +l,

Note: Each value fo a magnetic quantum number represents an orientation in which the
electron can be found.

Principle Azimuthul Naming of Magnetic Number of

quantum Quantum subshells quantum orientations the
number(n) number number(ml) electron can take

n=1 0 S 0 1 oritentation or
orbital

n=2 0,1 SP(or P) -1, 0, +1 4 orientations or

orbital

n=3 0,1,2 SPD(Or D) -2, -1, 0,+1,+2 9 orientations or

orbital

n=4 0,1,2,3 SPDF(Or F) -3,-2,- 16 orientations or

1,0,+1,+2,+3 orbital

S- 1 orientation or orbital

P- 3 orbitals or orientation

D- 5 oebitals or orientations

F- 7 orbitals or orientations

Magnetic spin quantum number(ms):

Note: To find the number of orbitals in each subshell it is 2l+1, where l is the azimuthul
quantum number, as done above.

Aufbaus principle:

 Aufbaus principle states thatm the filling of electrons in a subshell happes from a
lower energy level to a higher energy level. I tis based on

1. Increasing order of energies of orbitals

2. Puakis exclusion principle

3. Hunds rule of maximum mutliplicity

Filling of electrons:
Now lets try to find the elements period and group number and everything using this.

Note: Capacity of each subshell:

S- 1 space-> 2 electrons

S,P(or P)- 3 spaces-> 6 electrons(basically 2*3)

S,P,D(or D)- 5 spaces-> 10 electrons

S, P, D, F(or F)-> 7 spaces-> 14 electrons.

Electronic configuration:

Ca→ 2,8,8,2

-> Electronic configuration as per quantum mechanical model:

1S^2, 2S^2,2P^6, 3S^2, 3P^6, 4S^2

The ^2 or ^6 and all of that is the number of electron in that sub shel.

Note: In this case, the last number is chosen where the principle quantum number is chosen
as the period no, the number of electrons in that sub shell is known as the group number,
and the letter given is the Block in the periodic table.

Hence using this the configuration fo electrons in Ca is:

2, 8, 8, 2 as given above.

Hence this element is present on the period table in:

 4th period

 S-block

 2nd Group

Note: Sometimes 4s may come before 3D, because 3D has a higher energy level than 4S, so
basically when this happens, like example:

Pauli Exclusion principle:

Paulis exclusion principle states that: No two electrons in the same atom can have identical
values for all four of their quantum number.

 This only applies for the spin quantum number hence even if the electrons are in the
same orbital, if their spin quantum number is difference such as one is +½ and the
 other is -½ then electrons have their own identity and can be in the same subshell
which leads to the entire change in the electron.

Hunds Rule of maximum multiplicity:

Covalent Bonds:

 It is a chemical bond that occurs between 2 non-metallic elements through the share
of electrons to form a bond, it also occurs when there is not sufficient amount of
electrons to be donated hence they are shared to fulfill an octet shell.

 The electron pairs whic h are shared are known as shared pairs.

 Covalent bonds are the strongest in nature. They are also called molecular bonds.

 These sharing of electrons take place because atoms must satisfy the octet(nearest
noble gas configuration) rule while bonding.

 It is very common in living organisms.

 Covalent bonds can be shared into two types:

1. Polar covalent bonds: In the case of polar covalent bonds, the electrons are
unequally distributed between the atoms.

2. Non-polar covalent bonds: In the case of non polar covalent bonds, the electrons are
equally shared between the two atoms.

Rules to know if a compound is a covalent bond:

1. Uf elements are the same in a compound then it is a covalent bond

E.g: Cl2, O2, H2, etc.

2. If carbon is involved in a compound then it is covalent.

-> CH4, CO2, CO, C2H6O12

3. If electronegativity difference is low then it is covalent(basically so it doesnt snatch

them electri balls)

E.g:

Types of substances a covalent bonds can make:

 Simple molecular substances: Covalent bonds make substance such of only one or
two elements such as water or chlorine or ammonia.

 Complex covalent structure: Giant covalent structures are made up of many covalent
bonds between many atoms. They have high melting points and are insoluble inw
ate.r THye cannot conduct electricity with the exception of graphite.

E.g: diamond, graphite, graphene.0

Properties of covalent bonds:

The following are some of the characteristics of covalent bonds:

  The production of additional electrons is not a result of the formation of covalent
bonds.

 The bond solely links them.

 There are powerful chemical bonds between atoms.

 A covalent bond holds roughly 80 kcal/mol of energy.

 The atoms that are bonded have definite orientations relative to one another.
THerefore covalent bonds are directional.

 Covalent bonds rarely break on their own after they have been formed.

 The MPs and BPs of most covalently bound substances are relative low.

 The enthalpies of vaporization and fusion are frequently lower in compounds

containing covaelnt bonds.

 Because of the absence of free electrons in covalently bonded compounds, they do

not conduct electricity.

 Water does not dissolve covalent compounds

Melting point and boiling point: High in complex covalent bonds but low in simple molecular
substances.

Conduction of electricity: Cannot conduct electricity as there are no free electrons in a

covalent bond.

Solubility: Not soluble in water.

Examples:

 Two atoms of iodine combine to form I2 gas.

 One atom o Carbon combines with two atoms of oxygen to form CO2.

Etc.
Ionic bonds:

 As the name suggests, ionic bonds are a result of the attraction of ions. Ions are
formed when an atom loses or gains an electron. THese types of bonds are
commonly formed between a metal and a non-metal. It is when a metal loses an
electron to form a cation and a non-metal gains that electron to form an anion and
the opposite charges attract to form a bond.

Properties of ionic bonds:

 A ionic bond is the second most powerful of all bonds

 The ionic bond is the msot reactive of all existing bonds in an appropriate medium
since it possesses charges.

 The melting and boiling points of ionic bonds are pretty high

 Ioninc-bonded molecules are strong conductors of electricity in their aqesous

solutions or molten form this is because ions, which function as charge carriers are
present.
Metallic bonds:

 A metallic bond is a force tha tholds atoms together in a metallic substance. Such
solids consists of tightly packed atoms, where the outermost electron shell of each
metal atom overlaps with a large number of neighbouring atoms. As a consequence,
the valence electrons move freely from on atom to another. They are not associated
with any specific pair of atoms. This behavior is called non-localization and this allows
the electrons to move freely form one atom to another in that piece of metal and
these electrons are called delocalized electrons. THis strengthens the bond between
the atoms present in the metals raising the melting points.

Properties of metallic bonds:

1. ELectrical conductivity: Metals are good conductors of electricity and so are metallic
bonds due to the freel flow of delocalized electrons in the valence shells.

2. Thermal condcutivty: Metallic atoms and metals were good conductors of electricity
as there were collisions of electrons that transferred energy throughout the atom.

3. Malleability and ductilitY; The sea of electrons int eh metallic link allows the lattice to
deform, the rigid lattice is distorted rather than shattered when metals are
hammered. Metals may be hammered into thin sheets because of this. Metals are
said to be malleable because their lattices do not easily fracture.

4. Metallic luster: The metals acquires a lustrous metallic shine due to the emission of
light cfaused by the de-exitation fo electrons(it is when exited electrons with a lot of
energy come back to their ground state).

5. High Melting points and Boiling blinds: The attractive forces between metal atoms is
high deu to the intense metallic bonding. Hence a large amount of energy is
necessary to break down these forces of attraction, hence they have high melting
and boiling points.

Examples:
  Sodium Metal

 Aluminum foil

 Copper wire

Coordinate bonds:

 Coordinate covalent bonds is a special type of covalent bond.

 It is when botht he electrons of teh electron pair, is shared equally between two
atoms, and this contributes to

General properties of coordinate bonds:

Physical state: They are generally liquids and gases

Melting and boiling points: The melting and boiling points of such compounds are higher
than that of covalent bonds and are lower than ionic bonds.

Electrical conductivity: Since they have a semi-ionic nature, they are poor conductors of
electricity.

Solubility: THey are a little soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents because they have
semi-polar behavior.

Directional character: The coordinate bonds are rigid and directional and therefore, the
structure of such compounds holds out possibilities for space isomerism as in a pure
covalent compound,.

Ozone layer and ozone depletion:

Ozone layer: The ozone layer is found in the stratosphere and it is a blanket of air made up of
an allotrope of oxygen known as O3 which shields the living organisms from Ultra Violet
radiation from the sun. When UV rays hit Ozone, they break down into molecular oxygen
then bond back with ozone which causes an ozone formation cycle whenever UV rays collide
with ozone.

UV rays are incredibly dangerous to living organisms as they cause skin cancer, and mutate
the DNA of living organisms.

 THis balance in the formation of ozone has been disrupted due to the emissions of
CFCs or chlorofluorocarbon which are emitted by devices such as airconditioners,
aerosols, fridges etc., and they rise to reach the stratosphere. The ultraviolet
radiations break down the CFC compounds and release Chlorine atoms which bind to
the oxygen atoms to form Chlorine Monoxide which disrupts the ozone formation
process without benign consumed in the reaction causing ozone depletion. This has a
lot of adverse effects on the environment.

Facts of one layer depletion:

1. Socially

2. Economically:

3. Ethically

Food adulteration:
  Food adulteration refers to the practice of intentionally degrading teh quality of food
by adding inferior, cheaper or harmful or sometimes non-food substances to it. These
substances may be added intentionally to increase the quantity of the food or to
enhance its apperance, texture or taste, while compromising its nutritional value and
safety. Food adulteration can occur at various stages of the food supply chain, from
production and processing to destrivution and retailing. It poses serious health risks
to consumers and undermines food safety standards and regulations.

Economical effects of food adulteration:

1. Loss of consumer trust: When consumers become aware of the widespread of food
adulteration, they may lose trust in the food company and the industry, which can
lead to decreased consumption of certain foods or brands, resulting in financial
losses for the food producers and retailers.

2. Healthcare costs: Consumption of adulterated food can lead to various health

problems, ranging from mild illness to severe diseases like cancer. The increased
incidence of food borne illness puts pressure on healthcare systems leading ot higher
healthcare costs for both individuals and governments.

3. Reduced export potential: If a country gains a reputation of producing adulterated or

sun safe food products, it may face difficulties in exporting its goods to other
countries. This can have a negative impact on the economy especially fo countries
that heavily rely on exports related to agriculture.

Social implications:

1. Public health concerns: Adulterated food products can pose serious health risks to
consumers. Consumption of such food can lead to foodborne illness, allergic
reactions, long term health problems and even fatalities. THis jeopardizes the well-
being and quality of life of individuals and communities.
2. Damaged business reputation: Food business will suffer from reputational and
financial harm, which can lead to job losses and reduced economic growth.

3. Social unrest: People may become frustrated and angry about the lack of food safety,
which can lead to social unrest.

4. Decreased consumer confidence: consumers may lose confidence in the quality and
safety of food which can lead to decrease in demand and sales.