Revision Notes for Class 12 Physics

Chapter 7 – Alternating Current

Alternating Current

1. The Alternating Current

The magnitude of alternating current changes continuously with time and its direction is
reversed periodically. It is represented by

I = I0 sin  t or I = I0 cos  t

2
= = 2 v
T

2. Average Value of Alternating Current

The mean or average value of alternating current over any half cycle is defined as that value
of steady current which would send the same amount of charge through a circuit in the time of
half cycle (i.e. T / 2 ) as is sent by the alternating current through the same circuit, in the same
time.

To calculate the mean or average value, let an alternating current be represented by

I = I0 sin  t …(1)

If the strength of current is assumed to remain constant for a small time, dt , then small amount
of charge sent in a small time dt is

dq = Idt …(2)

Let q be the total charge sent by alternating current in the first half cycle (i.e. 0 → T / 2 ).

q=
T /2
Idt
0

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 1

  cos  t 
T/2
T/2
U sing(1) , we get, q =  I0 sin  t  dt = I0  −
0
   0

I0  T 
= −  cos  − cos 0o 
 2 

10
= − cos  − cos 0o  ( T = 2 )


I0 2I0
q= − [−1 − 1] = …(3)
 

If I m represents the mean or average value of alternating current over the 1 st half cycle, then

T
q = Im  …(4)
2

T I 2I  T
From (3) and (4), we get Im  =2 0 = 0 …(5)
2  2

2
or Im = I 0 = 0.637I0


Hence, the mean or average value of alternating current over the positive half cycle is 0.637
times the peak value of alternating current, i.e., 63.7% of the peak value.

3. A.C. Circuit Containing Resistance Only

Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to a pure resistance R, Figure. Suppose the
alternating e.m.f. supplied is represented by

E = E0 sin t …(1)

Let I be the current in the circuit at any instant t . The potential difference developed across
R will be IR. This must be equal to e.m.f. applied at that instant, i.e., IR = E = E0 sin t

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 2

 E0
or I= sin t = I 0 sin t …(2)
R

where I 0 = E0 / R , maximum value of current.

This is the form of alternating current developed.

Comparing I0 = E0 / R with Ohm's law equation, viz. current = voltage/resistance, we find that
resistance to a.c. is represented by R-which is the value of resistance to d .c. Hence behaviour
of R in d.c. and a.c. circuit is the same, R can reduce a.c. as well as d.c. equally effectively.

Comparing (2) and (1), we find that E and I are in phase. Therefore, in an a.c. circuit
containing R only, the voltage and current are in the same phase, as shown in figure.

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 3

3.1 Phasor Diagram

In the a.c. circuit containing R only, current and voltage are in the same phase. Therefore, in
figure, both phasors I0 and E 0 are in the same direction making an angle ( t) with OX. This
is so for all times. It means that the phase angle between alternating voltage and alternating
current through R is zero.

I = I0 sin t and E = E0 sin  t

4. A.C. Circuit Containing Inductance Only

In an a.c. circuit containing L only alternating current I lags behind alternating voltage E by
a phase angle of 90o , i.e., by one fourth of a period. Conversely, voltage across L leads the
current by a phase angle of 90o . This is shown in figure.

Figure (b) represents the vector diagram or the phasor diagram of a.c. circuit containing L
only. The vector representing E0 makes an angle ( t ) with OX. As current lags behind the
e.m.f. by 90o , therefore, phasor representing I 0 is turned clockwise through 90o from the
direction of

  v
E 0 .I = I0 sin   t −  , I0 = 0 , X L = L
 2 xL

A pure inductance offers zero resistance to dc. It means a pure inductor cannot reduce dc. The
units of inductive reactance

1 1 1
XL =  L  ( henry ) = = ohm
sec sec amp / sec

The dimensions of inductive reactance are the same as those of resistance.

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 4

5. A.C. Circuit Containing Capacitance Only

Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to a capacitor only of capacitance C , figure.

Suppose the alternating e.m.f. supplied is

E = E0 sin t …(1)

The current flowing in the circuit transfers charge to the plates of the capacitor. This produces
a potential difference between the plates. The capacitor is alternately charged and discharged
as the current reverses each half cycle. At any instant t , suppose q is the charge on the
capacitor. Therefore, potential difference across the plates of capacitor V = q / C .

At every instant, the potential difference V must be equal to the e.m.f. applied i.e.,

q
V= = E = E 0 sin  t
C

Or q = C 0 sin t

If I is instantaneous value of current in the circuit at instant t , then

dq d
I= = ( C 0 sin t )
dt dt

I = CE0 (cos t )

E0
I= sin(t +  / 2) …(2)
1/ C

The current will be maximum i.e.,

I = I 0 , when sin(t +  / 2) = maximum = 1

E0
 From (2), I 0 = 1 …(3)
1/ C

Put in (2), I = I0 sin( t +  / 2) …(4)

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 5

This is the form of alternating current developed.

Comparing (4) with (1), we find that in an a.c. circuit containing C only, alternating current
leads the alternating e.m.f. by a phase angle of 90o . This is shown in figure (b) and (c).

The phasor diagram or vector diagram of a.c. circuit containing C only is shown in figure (b).
The phasor I 0 is turned anticlockwise through 90o from the direction of phasor E0 . Their
projections on YOY give the instantaneous values E and I as shown in figure (b). When E0
and I 0 rotate with frequency  , curves in figure (c). are generated.

Comparing (3) with Ohm's law equation, viz current = voltage/resistance, we find that (1/ C )
represents effective resistance offered by the capacitor. This is called capacitive reactance and
is denoted by Xc ,

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 6

 1 1
Thus, X C = =
C 2 VC

The capacitive reactance limits the amplitude of current in a purely capacitive circuit in the
same way as the resistance limits the current in a purely resistive circuit. Clearly, capacitive
reactance varies inversely as the frequency of a.c. and also inversely as the capacitance of the
condenser.

In a d.c. circuit, v = 0, XC = 

1 1 sec
Xc = = sec =
C farad coulomb/ volt

voltsec.
Xc = = olm
amp.sec

5. A.C. Circuit Containing Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance and Series

6.1 Phasor Treatment

Let a pure resistance R , a pure inductance L and an ideal capacitor of capacitance C be

connected in series to a source of alternating e.m.f. figure. As R, L, C are in series, therefore,
current at any instant through the three elements has the same amplitude and phase. Let it be
represented by I = I0 sin t

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 7

However, voltage across each element bears a different phase relationship with the current.
Now,

(i) The maximum voltage across R is

V R = I0 R

In figure, the current phasor I 0 is represented along OX .

As VR is in phase with current, it is represented by the vector OA , along OX .

(ii) The maximum voltage across L is V L = I0 X L

As voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90o , it is represented by OB along OY,90o
ahead of I0 .

(iii) The maximum voltage across C is VC = I0 XC

As voltage across the capacitor lags behind the alternating current by 90o , it is represented by
OC rotated clockwise through 90o from the direction of I 0  OC is along OY

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 8

6.2 Analytical Treatment of RLC Series Circuit

Let a pure resistance R , a pure inductance L and an ideal condenser of capacity C be

connected in series to a source of alternating e.m.f. Suppose the alternating e.m.f. supplied is

E = E0 sin  t …(1)

At any instant of time t, suppose

q = charge on capacitor

I = current in the circuit

dI
= rate of change of current in the circuit
dt

q
potential difference across the condenser =
C

dI
potential difference across inductor = L
dt

potential difference across resistance = RI

 The voltage equation of the circuit is

dI q
L + RI + = E = E 0 sin  t …(2)
dt C

dq dI d 2 q
As I = , therefore, =
dt dt dt 2

 The voltage equation becomes

d 2q dq q
L 2
+ R + = E0 sin  t …(3)
dt dt C

This is like the equation of a forced, damped oscillator. Let the solution of equation (3) be

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 9

q = q0 sin(t +  )

dq
 = q0 cos(t +  )
dt

d 2q
2
= − q0 2 sin(t +  )
dt

Substituting these values in equation (3), we get

L  −q0 2 sin(t +  )  + Rq0 cos(t +  )

q0  1 
sin(t +  ) = E0 sin t q0  R cos(t +  ) −  L sin(t +  ) + sin (t +  )  = E0 sin t
C  C 

1
As L = XL and = X C , therefore q0  R cos(t +  ) + ( X C − X L ) sin(t +  )  = E0 sin t
OC
Multiplying and dividing by,

Z = R 2 + ( X C − X L ) , we get
2

R X − XL 
q0 Z  cos(t +  ) + C sin(t +  )  = E0 sin t …(4)
Z Z 

R X − XL
Let = cos  and C = sin  …(5)
Z Z

Xc − XL
So that tan  = …(6)
Z

q0 Z cos (t +  ) cos  + sin (t +  ) sin   = E0 sin t

or q0Z cos(t +  −  ) = E0 sin t = E0 cos(t −  / 2) (7)

Comparing the two sides of this equation, we find that E0 = q0 Z = I 0 Z , where I 0 q0 …(8)

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 10

and t +  −  = t −  / 2

−
 −  =
2

−
or  = + …(9)
2

Current in the circuit is

dq d
I= =  q0 sin(t +  ) = q0 cos(t +  )
dt dt

I = I 0 cos(t +  ) { using (8)}

Using (9) , we get, I = I0 cos(t +  −  / 2)

I = I0 sin( t +  ) …(10)

From (6),  = tan −1

( XC − X L ) …(11)
R

As cos2  + sin 2  = 1

 R   X − XL 
2 2

  +  C  =1
Z  Z 

R2 + ( X C − X L ) = Z 2
2

Z = R2 + ( X C − X L )
2
…(12)

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 11

7. A.C. Circuit Containing Resistance & Inductance

Let a source of alternating e m f be connected to an ohmic resistance R and a coil of

inductance L , in series as shown in figure.

Z = R 2 + X L2

We find that in RL circuit, voltage leads the current by a phase angle  , where

AK OL VL I0 X L
tan  = = = =
OA OA VR I0 R

XL
tan  =
R

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 12

8. A.C. Circuit Containing Resistance and Capacitance

Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to an ohmic resistance R and a condenser of

capacity C , in series as shown in figure.

Z = R 2 + X C2

Figure represents phasor diagram of RC circuit. We find that in RC circuit, voltage lags behind
the current by a phase angle  , where

AK OC VC I 0 X C
tan  = = = =
OA OA VR I0 R

XC
tan  =
R

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 13

9. Energy Stored in an Inductor

When a.c. is applied to an inductor of inductance L , the current in it grows from zero to
maximum steady value I0 If I is the current at any instant t , then the magnitude of induced e
m .f. developed in the inductor at that instant is,

dI
E=L …(1)
dt

The self induced e.m.f. is also called the back e.m.f., as it opposes any change in the current
in the circuit.

Physically, the self inductance plays the role of inertia. It is the electromagnetic analogue of
mass in mechanics. Therefore, work needs to be done against the back e.m.f. E . in establishing
the current. This work is stored in the inductor as magnetic potential energy.

For the current I at an instant t , the rate of doing work is,

dW
= EI
dt

If we ignore the resistive losses, and consider only inductive effect, then

dW dI
Using (1), = EI = L  I or dW = LIdI
dt dt

Total amount of work done in establishing the current I is,

1 2
W =  dW =  LI dI =
1
LI
0 2

Thus energy required to build up current in an inductor = energy stored in inductor,

1 2
UB = W = LI
2

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 14

10. Electric Resonance

10.1 Series Resonance Circuit

A circuit in which inductance L , capacitance C and resistance R are connected in series, and
the circuit admits maximum current corresponding to a given frequency of a.c., is called series
resonance circuit.

The impedance (Z) of an RLC circuit is given by

2
 1 
Z = R + L −
2
…(1)
 C 

At very low frequencies, inductive reactance XL = L is negligible, but capacitive reactance

( XC = 1/ C ) is very high.

As frequency of alternating e.m.f. applied to the circuit is increased, X1 goes on increasing

and X c goes on decreasing. For a particular value of  ( = t , say )

X L = Xc

1 1
i.e., r L = or r =
r C LC

1 1
2 vr = or v r =
LC 2 LC

At this particular frequency v f as XL = Xc , therefore, from (1)

Z = R 2 + 0 = R = minimum

E0 E0
i.e. impedance of RLC circuit is minimum and hence the current I 0 = = becomes
Z R
maximum. This frequency is called series resonance frequency.

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 15

The Q factor of a series resonant circuit is defined as the ratio of the voltage developed across
the inductance or capacitance at resonance to the impressed voltage, which is the voltage
applied across R .

i.e.,

voltage across L or C
i.e. Q=
applied voltage ( = voltage across R )

Q=
(r L ) I = r L
RI R

or Q=
(1/ r C ) I = I
RI RCr

1
Using r = , we get
LC

L 1 1 L
Q= =
R LC R C

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 16

 1 LC 1 L
or Q= =
RC R C

1 L
Thus Q = …(1)
R C

  
The quantity  r  is regarded as a measure of the sharpness of resonance, i.e., Q factor of
 2 
the resonance circuit is the ratio of resonance angular frequency to bandwidth of the circuit
(which is a difference in angular frequencies at which power is half the maximum power or
current is I0 / 2 .

10.2 Average Power in RLC circuit or Inductive Circuit

Let the alternating e.m.f. applied to an RLC circuit be,

E = E0 sin t …(1)

If alternating current developed lags behind the applied e.m.f. by a phase angle  , then

I = I0 sin( t −  ) …(2)

dW
Power at instant t, = EI
dt

dW
= E 0 sin  t  I0 sin( t −  )
dt

= E0 I0 sin t(sin cos − cos sin )

= E0 I0 sin 2  cos  − E0 I0 sin  cos  sin 

E 0 I0
= E 0 I0 sin 2 t cos  − sin 2sin
2

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 17

If this instantaneous power is assumed to remain constant for a small time dt, then a small
amount of work done in this time is.

 EI 
dW =  E 0 I0 sin 2  t cos  − 0 0 sin 2sin  dt
 2 

Total work done over a complete cycle is

E 0 I0
W =  E 0 I0 sin 2 t cos  dt − 
T T
sin 2sin dt
0 0 2

E 0 I0
W = E 0 I0 cos   sin 2dt −
T
sin   sin2 tdt
T

0 2 0

T

T

T
As sin 2 td = and sin tdt = 0
0 2 0

T
 W = E0 I 0 cos  
2

 Average power in the inductive circuit over a complete cycle.

W E0 I 0 cos  T E0 I 0
P= =  = cos 
T T 2 2 2

P = Ev I v cos  …(3)

Hence average power over a complete cycle in an inductive circuit is the product of virtual
e.m.f., virtual current and cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and current.

Note:

The relation (3) is applicable to all a.c. circuits. cos  and Z will have appropriate values for
different circuits.

For example:

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 18

 R
(i) In PL circuit, Z = R 2 + X L2 and cos  =
Z

R
(ii) In RC circuit, Z = R 2 + XC2 and cos  =
Z

(iii) In LC circuit, Z = XL − Xc and  = 90o

R
(iv) In RLC circuit, Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C ) and cos  =
2

Ev
In all a.c. circuits, I v =
Z

10.3 Power Factor of an A.C. Circuit

We have proved that average power/cycle in an inductive circuit is

P = Ev I v cos  …(1)

Here, P is called true power, ( EV , IV ) is called apparent power or virtual power and cos  is
called power factor of the circuit.

true power (P)

Thus, Power factor = = cos  …(2)
apparent power ( E v I v )

R
= [ from impedance triangle]
R + ( XL − XC )
2 2

Resistance
Power factor = cos  =
Impedance

In a non-inductance circuit, XL = XC

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 19

 R R
 Power factor = cos  = = = 1,  = 0o
R2 R

This is the maximum value of power factor. In a pure inductor or an ideal capacitor,  = 90o .

Power factor = cos  = cos90o = 0 .

Average power consumed in a pure inductor or ideal a capacitor, P = Ev I y cos90o = Zero.

Therefore, current through pure L or pure C , which consumes no power for its maintenance
in the circuit is called Idle current or Watt less current.

In actual practice, we do not have an ideal inductor or ideal capacitor. Therefore, there does
occur some dissipation of energy. However, inductance and capacitance continue to be most
suitable for controlling current in a.c. circuits with minimum loss of power.

12. Transformer

A transformer which increases the a.c. voltage is called a step-up transformer. A transformer
which decreases the a.c. voltages are called a step-down transformer.

12.1 Principle

A transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction, i.e., whenever the amount of
magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the neighbouring coil.

12.2 Construction

A transformer consists of a rectangular soft iron core made of laminated sheets, well insulated
from one another, figure. Two coils P1P2 (the primary coil) and S1 S2 (the secondary coil) are
wound on the same core, but are well insulated from each other. Note that both the coils are
also insulated from the core. The source of alternating e.m.f. (to be transformed) is connected
to the primary coil P1P2 and a load resistance R is connected to the secondary coil S1 S2

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 20

through an open switch S . Thus, there can be no current through the secondary coil so long as
the switch is open.

For an ideal transformer, we assume that the resistances of the primary and secondary windings
are negligible.

Further, the energy losses due to magnetic hysteresis in the iron core is also negligible. Well-
designed high capacity transformers may have energy losses as low as 1% .

12.3 Theory and Working

Let the alternating e.m.f. supplied by the a.c. source connected to primary be

E p = E0 sin t …(1)

As we have assumed the primary to be a pure inductance with zero resistance, the sinusoidal
primary current Ip lags the primary voltage E p by 90o . The primary's power factor,
cos  = 90o = 0. Therefore, no power is dissipated in primary.

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 21

The alternating primary current induces an alternating magnetic flux B in the iron core.
Because the core extends through the secondary winding, the induced flux also extends
through the turns of the secondary.

According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. the induced e.m.f. per turn ( Etro ) is
the same for both, the primary and secondary. Also, the voltage E p across the primary is equal
to the e.m.f. induced in the primary, and the voltage Es across the secondary is equal to the
e.m.f. induced in the secondary. Thus,

d  B E p Es
Etum = = =
dt n p ns

Here, n p ; ns represent total number of tums in primary and secondary coils respectively-

na
Ea = E p …(2)
np

If ns  n p ; Es  E p , the transformer is a step up transformer. Similarly, when ns  np ; Es  E p .

ns
The device is called a step down transformer. = K represents transformation ratio.
np

Note that this relation (2) is based on three assumptions

(i) the primary resistance and current are small,

(ii) there is no leakage of magnetic flux. The same magnetic flux links both, the primary and
secondary coil,

(iii) the secondary current is small.

Now, the rate at which the generator/source transfer energy to the primary = Ip E p . The rate at
which the primary then transfers energy to the secondary (via the alternating magnetic field
linking the two coils) is Is Es .

As we assume that no energy is lost along the way, conservation of energy requires that

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 22

I p E p = Is E s

Ep
 Is = I p
Es

From (2),

Ep np
=
Es ns

nP Ip
 Is = I p = …(3)
ns K

For a step up transformer, Es  E p ; K  1 I s  I p i.e. secondary current is weaker when

secondary voltage is higher, i.e., whatever we gain in voltage, we lose in current in the same
ratio.

The reverse is true for a step-down transformer.

 ns  Es  ns 
From eqn. (3) I p = I s   =  
 np
  R  np 

1 n  ns 
Using equation (2), we get I p =  Ep  s  
R  np  n p
  

2
1n 
Ip =  s  E p …(4)
R  n p 

Ep
This equation, has the form Ip = , where the equivalent resistance Req is
Req
2
 np 
Req =   R …(5)
 ns 

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 23

Thus Req is the value of load resistance as seen by the source/generator, i.e., the
source/generator produces current I p and voltage E p as if it were connected to a resistance
Req−1

Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output to the input power.

Output power EI
i.e.,  = = s s
Input power Ep I p

In an ideal transformer, where there is no power loss,  = 1 (i.e. 100%) . However, practically
there are many energy losses. Hence the efficiency of a transformer in practice is less than one
(i.e. less than 100% ).

12.4 Energy Losses in a Transformer

Following are the major sources of energy loss in a transformer:

1. Copper loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the copper coils of a transformer. This
is due to Joule heating of conducting wires. These are minimised using thick wires.

2. Iron loss is energy loss in the form of heat in the iron core of the transformer. This is due to
the formation of eddy currents in the iron core. It is minimised by taking laminated cores.

3. Leakage of magnetic flux occurs in spite of the best insulations. Therefore, the rate of change
of magnetic flux linked with each turn of S1 S2 is less than the rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with each turn of PP
1 2 It can be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils

one over the other.

4. Hysteresis loss. This is the loss of energy due to repeated magnetisation and demagnetisation
of the iron core when a.c. is fed to it. The loss is kept to a minimum by using a magnetic
material that has a low hysteresis loss.

5. Magnetostriction, i.e., humming noise of a transformer.

Therefore, the output power in the best transformer may be roughly 90% of the input power.

Class XII Physics www.vedantu.com 24