Communicable Diseases

 Communicable disease: Infectious disease caused by pathogens which can spread between
people either directly or indirectly.
 Non-Communicable Diseases: non- infectious diseases that develop within a person from
genetic or environmental factors and cannot be spread between people.

Pathogens: Micro-organisms that causes disease. They can infect plants or animals, spreading
through either direct contact, by water or by air.

There are 4 types of pathogens:

Bacteria Virus Fungi Protist

Produce toxins – Live & reproduce Are eukaryotic cells – Are eukaryotic cells –
damage cells and rapidly inside cell - cell can be either can be either
tissues - ill damage unicellular or unicellular or
multicellular multicellular
Reproduce rapidly in Viruses are not living Multicellular fungi Some of them are
binary fusion (every organism and have often have long classified as parasites
20 minutes) regular shape thread-like structures meaning that can live
called hyphae on or inside another
organism
Can produce by Not classed as cell Hyphae often spread as they survive and
themselves because don’t have over plants or even get benefits at the
cytoplasm and other penetrate human skin expense of the other
organelles causing diseases organism.
Causes symptoms as Causes symptoms as Hyphae can also Often transported by
high temperature, high temperature, produce spores which vectors like insects
headaches and rashes. headaches and rashes. then reproduces new transporting the
fungi protists between
different host
organisms (Vectors
don’t get disease
themselves)
Some are harmless They move into cells They travel from the When protists
and really useful to and use the roots of an infected (malaria by
use, we can use them biochemistry of it to plant to the roots of a mosquitoes)
to make food like make many copies of healthy plant through symptoms go away
yoghurt and cheese itself meaning that soil or water. they often come back
they can’t reproduce which is known as
by themselves. ‘recurrent episode’
(they cannot live
outside their host)

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Pathogens can spread by: Spread of diseases can be reduced or
prevented by:
- Physical contact - touching - Vaccination: By injecting a small
contaminated surfaces e.g., kissing, amount of harmless pathogen into an
contact with body fluids, direct skin to individual’s body, they can become
skin, microorganism from faeces bodily immune to it so it will not infect them.
waste, infected plant material left in Meaning that they cannot pass it on
field. - Antibiotics: Medicine that help to cure
- Coughing or sneezing bacterial disease by killing infective
- Contaminated food/water - drinking or bacteria inside the body
coming in contact with dirty water - Improving hygiene: Hand washing,
- By air – pathogens can be carried in the using disinfectants (a chemical to
air and then breathed in (a common destroy microorganism), isolating raw
example is the droplet infection, which meat,v using tissue and handkerchief
is when sneezing, coughing or talking when sneezing.
expels pathogen in droplets which can - Destroying vectors: Using pesticide or
be breathed in) insecticide (substance to destroy
insects) and removing their habitat
- Uses of contraception: Using condoms,
not sharing needles.
- Isolation of infected individuals:
reducing contact with infected
individuals

Communicable Non-communicable
Tuberculosis (air borne - bacteria) Diabetes (pancreas malfunction)
HIV (blood and fluids - virus) Cancer (genetics/ environmental)
Chicken pox (air borne & fluids - Heart Disease (genetics/ environmental)
virus)
Measles (air borne - virus) Stroke (genetics/ environmental)
Small pox (body fluids - virus) Respiratory Diseases (e.g., asthma) (genetics/ environmental)
Cholera (water borne - bacteria) Arthritis (genetics/ environmental)
Typhoid (water borne - bacteria) Sickle cell anaemia (genetics)
Influenza (air borne – virus) High blood pressure (genetics/ environmental)

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Viral diseases

Measles & Influenza (flu)

Spread by  Inhalation of droplets from coughs/sneezes

Symptoms  Fever, red skin rash
 (serious - blindness, brain damage, fatal)
Prevention  Vaccination
 Isolate infected individuals

HIV / AIDs; human immunodeficiency virus (Can increase the chance of infection such as pneumonia)

Spread by  Exchange of body fluids e.g. blood when share needles

 Unprotected sexual contact with infected person
Symptoms  Flu-like illness; fever, tiredness, aches
 Virus attack & remain hidden in immune system
 AIDs (last stage of HIV) occurs when immune system becomes so badly
damaged - WBC deal with other infections
Prevention  Antiretroviral drugs to control attack
 Use condoms
 Don't share needles
 Use bottle to feed children with HIV +ve mother

Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)

Spread by  Contact between healthy & infected plants & vectors

Symptoms  Give distinctive 'mosaic' pattern of discoloration on leaves because viruses
destroy cells
How affect  Less chlorophyll - less photosynthesis - less glucose
growth of  Less respiration - less energy released for growth
plants?  B) Less amino acids/cellulose for growth
Prevention  Remove infected leaves
 Good field hygiene
 Good pest control
 Wash tools

Bacterial Disease

Salmonella (food poisoning)

Caused by  Food prepared in unhygienic condition - food contaminated with salmonella

from raw meat
 Eat uncooked food - bacteria not killed by heat
Spread by  Bacteria ingested in food - disrupt balance of natural gut bacteria
Symptoms  Fever, abdominal cramps, vomiting & diarrhoea
 8-72hrs
Prevention  Vaccination

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  Cook meat thoroughly
 Keep raw meat away from cooked food
 Avoid washing raw meat - spread bacteria around kitchen
 Wash hands after using toilet

Gonorrhoea - sexually transmitted disease (STD)

Spread by  Unprotected sexual contact with infected person

Symptoms  Thick yellow / green discharge from vagina / penis
 Pain on urinating
Prevention  Use condom
 Reduce no of sexual partners
 Antibiotics
Treatment  Antibiotic penicillin

Fungal disease

Rose black spot

Spread  In environment by wind & water

Symptoms  Purple / black spots develop on leaves
 Weaken plant & affect growth coz reduce area available for photosynthesis -
turns yellow & drop early
Treatment  Use fungicides, chop off infected leaves
Prevention  Remove / burn affected leaves / stems / use fungicide

Protist disease

Malaria

Spread by  Mosquitos (act as vectors because they transmit disease); parasitic protist
(need a host to survive)
Symptoms  Recurrent episode of fever; Fatal
 Shaking when protists burst out of blood cells
 Headaches, vomiting, diarrhoea
Treatment  Take antimalarial drugs - kill parasites (live on or inside another organism) in
blood
Prevention  Use mosquito nets - avoid being bitten
 Insecticides - kill mosquitoes
 Remove standing water - prevent mosquitoes breeding

Human Defence System

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Non- specific defence system:

Skin  Acts as a physical barrier

 It produces antimicrobial substances to kill pathogens
 Good microorganisms known as skin flora compete with the bad
microorganisms for space and nutrients
 Scab – seals a cut, preventing microorganism entry
Nose  Hairs and mucus prevent pathogen entering the lungs
Trachea  Secrete mucus in order to trap pathogens
and  Cilia wafts mucus upwards to throat so it can be swallowed
bronchi
Stomac  Glands in stomach wall produces hydrochloric acid that kills any pathogens in
h mucus, or food and drink
Tears  Enzymes called lysozyme in tears destroy microorganisms.

A large part of the specific immune system is white blood cells, which can act in three different
ways:

White Blood Cell called This destroys the pathogens, meaning they can no longer make a
phagocyte engulf and person ill therefore less damage to the cells.
digest pathogen
through a process called
phagocytosis
B cell or Lymphocyte Each pathogen has an antigen on their surface, which is a structure
another type of white which a specific complementary antibody can bind to. Once antibodies
blood cell produces begin to bind to the pathogen, the pathogens start to clump (gets
specific antibodies close) together, resulting in it being easier for white blood cells to find
(special protein) by them. If you become infected again with the same pathogen, the
identifying the antigen specific complementary antibodies will be produced at a faster rate due
on the pathogens to memory cell. The individual will not feel the symptoms of the illness.
They are said to be immune.
White blood cell They neutralize the effect of toxins release by the pathogen.
(Lymphocytes) produces
specific antitoxins

Vaccination
How prevent?

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  Contain small amount of dead or inactive forms of pathogen
 Stimulate WBC to respond & produce antibodies quickly specific to pathogen in large
quantities to kill pathogen
 Reduce spread of infection - people immune Key information
 Prevent illness in an individual
Sometimes a first
vaccination needs to
Herd immunity be followed by a
second vaccination
 Immunising large proportion of population sometimes later to
 Reduce spread of infection / pathogens produce further
antibodies through
white blood cells.
MMR vaccine - protects against measles, mumps & rubella

Epidemic – a large outbreak of a disease spreading across countries

When a person is infected with a pathogen, they typically feel ill until their white blood cells produce
the specific antibody needed to combat the infection.

Upon a secondary exposure to the same pathogen, the antibodies can be produced much more
quickly, allowing the pathogen to be destroyed before symptoms are felt.

Vaccinations mimic the initial infection, so that when the person encounters the actual disease, they
experience no symptoms, similar to how they would during a secondary infection.

Advantages of vaccination Disadvantages of vaccination

 Vaccination have eradicated many  They are not always effective in
diseases so far e.g., smallpox and providing immunity
reduced the occurrence of many e.g.,
rubella
 More immunity  Side effects
 Epidemics can be prevented through  Bad reaction (such as fevers) can occur
herd immunity in response to vaccines (although vary
rare).

Memory cells- Cells which recognize a pathogen, if it re-infects the body, enabling a quick immune
response.

In a farm animals are vaccinated against salmonella

Explain how:

The immune systems of animals respond to a vaccination

The immune response in farm animals prevent outbreak of food poisoning in humas. (4)

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Vaccination of animal

 (animal’s) white blood cells / lymphocytes produce antibodies (against Salmonella / vaccine /
antigens)
 antibodies are specific / complementary / correct to Salmonella / antigens
 (specific) antibodies bind to Salmonella / antigens

Secondary response in animal

 if infected (specific) antibodies are produced quickly or in large numbers

 (so) white blood cells or antibodies would kill (live) Salmonella
 (so) fewer / no bacteria / pathogens / Salmonella in animals or in animal products (meat /
milk / eggs)

Prevention of food poisoning in humans

 (so) fewer / no bacteria / pathogens / Salmonella eaten or in (named) food

 (so) number of bacteria never reaches a high enough level for infection to develop
 (so) fewer toxins produced (in humans).

For Level 2 students must link immune response in animals to prevention of an outbreak in humans.

Antibiotics & Painkillers

Antibiotics e.g. penicillin

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  Cure bacterial diseases by killing infective bacteria inside body
 Damage bacterial cells - kill bacteria
 They cannot kill viruses as they use body cells to reproduce
 So, virus is inaccessible to antibiotics

Overuse - speed up development of resistant strains of bacteria

How bacteria become resistant?

 Mutation can occur during reproduction resulting in certain bacteria no longer being killed
by antibiotics
 Some resistant to antibiotics - survive
 Increase population of resistant strain
 Reproduce by binary fission
 Pass gene for resistance offspring

Why resistant strain spread? How to reduce resistant strain?

 People not immune to it  Reduce use of antibiotics for mild
 Treatment is not effective infection
 Patient complete course of antibiotics -
kill all bacteria
 Restrict agricultural use of antibiotics
 Stop overusing antibiotics

Painkillers e.g. aspirin, paracetamol

 Treat symptoms
 Don’t kill pathogens

Discovery and Development of

Drugs
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Drugs - chemical that affect body chemistry

Discovery - traditionally drug extracted from plants & microorganisms

Plants Aspirin (painkiller) from willow

Digitalis (treat heart condition) from foxgloves
Microorganis Penicillin (antibiotic) from mould
m Discovered by Alexander Fleming from Penicillium mould

Development - testing new drugs

1. Pre-clinical trials in lab of new drugs on cells, tissues & live animals
 Test for toxicity, dosage & efficacy
2. Clinical trials - test on healthy volunteers & patients at very low doses
 Monitor for safety & side effects
 If drug is found to be safe, further clinical trials are carried out to find the optimum dose for
the drug
3. Double-blind trial
 Placebo & drug is randomly allocated to large number of patients in groups
 Doctors & patients don't know who has new drug or placebo so
 Data won't be affected by knowledge; no bias
 To verify efficiency & determine correct dose
4. Peer review of data & analysis of result
 Prevent false claims
 Check results are valid, avoid bias

Placebo

 Tablet with no drug / chemical & has no effect

 Used to compare & prove effectiveness of drug

Placebo effect

 People expect treatment to work so they feel better even though it doesn't do anything

Monoclonal antibody
 Why trial is reliable? Large no of ppl A good medicine is :
 Why stopped early? Sufficient  Effective – it prevents or cures the
information gained disease it is aimed at
 Why manufacturers don't take  Safe – no side effects / toxic
part? They could cheat  Stable – use and store medicine
 Repeat experiment - improve under normal condition
reliability  Successfully taken into and
 Why data is unreliable? Ppl lies removed from the body – it needs
 Factor similar in volunteers - age & to reach the target in your body.
sex

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Monoclonal antibodies

 Produced from single clone of cells

 Specific to one binding site on an antigen
 Target specific chemical / cell in body

Production of monoclonal antibodies

1. Vaccinate mouse to stimulate mouse lymphocytes to make a particular antibody

2. Scientists obtain mice lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell that make antibodies but
cannot divide)
3. Combine with tumour cells (do not make antibodies but divide rapidly), to form a cell
called a hybridoma.
4. Clone the hybridoma which can divide rapidly and produce the same specific antibody.
5. The antibodies are collected and purified

Uses of Monoclonal antibodies

Pregnancy  Pregnancy testing stick

test  There are two sections of the stick.
 The first section has mobile antibodies complementary to the HCG
hormone- these antibodies are also attached to blue beads.
 The second section has stationary antibodies complementary to the HCG
hormone which are stuck down to the stick.
 The purpose of control area in a pregnancy strip is to show the strip
working
 (as) urine passes through reaction zone
 HCG hormone binds to the mobile HCG antibody (in the reaction zone)
 (passes up the stick) HCG hormone binds to the immobilised HCG
antibodies in the results zone
 (the other) antibodies which do not attach to HCG
 bind to antibodies in control zone
 blue dye appears in both control and results zones (to show positive result)
Diagnosis  Monoclonal antibody binds to radioactive substance, a toxic drug / chemical
of disease - stop cell grow & divide
e.g. cancer  Trigger immune system to attack cancer cell directly
- How?  Deliver substance to cancer cells without harming other cells in body
Measuring  Measure & monitor level of hormones & other chemicals in blood to detect
& pathogens / drugs
monitoring
Research  Locate / identify specific molecules in cell / tissue
How?
 Monoclonal antibody binds to fluorescent dye
 If molecules present - antibodies bind to molecules

Describe how mAbs and a fluorescent dye could be used to see any Candida albic an, a type of
pathogen on a slide. (3)

 Bind fluorescent dye with mAbs

 place it on slide

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  mAbs will bind Candida Albicans and show up under the microscope.

A monoclonal antibody has been produced to treat pancreatic cancer.

Explain how the monoclonal antibody works to treat pancreatic cancer. (3)

 monoclonal antibody is attached to radioactive substance / toxin / drug / chemical

 monoclonal antibody will (only) attach to / target (antigen on) cancer cells / tumour
 (so) radioactive substance / toxin / drug / chemical will (bind to cancer cells and) stop them
growing / dividing

Describe how scientists make mAbs using the cell created when a mouse lymphocyte and a tumour
cell combine (3)

 (cell) is cloned
 many (identical) cells are produced
 all the cells make the same antibody
 the antibody is (collected and) purified

Plant Disease
Plants can also be affected by viral, bacterial, fungal pathogens & insects (e.g. aphids)

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Aphids

Sharp mouthparts – penetrate into phloem vessels for phloem sap

Attack in huge no. – deprive plant cells – damage & weaken plant

Act as vectors – transfer pathogens

Prevention – pesticides, enclosed spaces e.g. greenhouses, aphid-eating insects e.g. ladybirds

Mineral deficiency (non-communicable disease)

Symptoms of plant disease

 Stunted growth – because nitrate deficiency

 Spots on leaves e.g. rose black spot (fungi)
 Areas of decay / rotting e.g. rose black spot / blights
 Abnormal growths e.g. crown galls (bacterial)
 Malformed stems & leaves – because aphid infestation
 Discoloration e.g. chlorosis because magnesium deficiency / mosaic patterns coz tobacco
mosaic virus
 Presence of visible pests e.g. aphids
 Treatment / Prevention – pesticides / antifungal treatments, remove diseased plants prevent
spreading

Identifying diseases

 Using disease descriptions in gardening manual / online & compare them

 Taking infected plants to lab to identify pathogen using DNA analysis
 Use testing kits containing monoclonal antibodies to identify pathogens

Plant may have yellow leaves and stunted growth due to nitrate ion deficiency. Explain 3 other
possible reasons for the yellow leaves and stunted growth. Do not refer to nitrate ions in your
answer. (6)

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  Magnesium ion deficiency
 So not enough chlorophyll to harvest light
 So, less photosynthesis
 So not enough glucose to make protein for growth or not enough glucose to release energy
for growth.
 Infection by pathogen
 So, leaves become yellow
 So, less photosynthesis
 So not enough glucose to make protein for growth or not enough glucose to release energy
for growth.
 Infected by aphids
 Remove sugar from phloem
 So not enough glucose to make protein for growth or not enough glucose to release energy
for growth.
 Lack of available light
 So, chlorophyll breaks down
 So not enough glucose to make protein for growth or not enough glucose to release energy
for growth.

A gorse plant has nodules on its roots, Bacteria which convert nitrogen gas into soluble nitrate ions
live in the nodule tissue.

Suggest how the nodules benefit the bacteria. (2)

 Bacteria obtain glucose from the plant

 Glucose used for respiration

Explain how the nodules benefit the gorse plant. (2)

 Gorse plant obtain nitrate ions

 Nitrate ion needed for amino acid/protein

Plant defence Response

Physical – act as barrier to prevent pathogens entering

 Cellulose cell walls

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  Tough waxy cuticle on leaves
 Layers of dead cells around stems – fall off with pathogens
 An advantage of leaves falling off the plant in a dry environment is the plant will not lose as
much water.

Chemical

 Antibacterial chemicals – kill bacteria e.g. mint

 Poisons – deter predators / herbivores (organisms that eat plants) e.g. foxgloves

Mechanical

 Thorns & stinging hairs – difficult / painful for herbivores to eat hence deters them e.g. roses
 Leaves drop / curl when touched – knock insects off / frighten animals e.g. mimosa pudic
 Mimicry – mimic unhealthy plants – deter herbivores, mimic butterfly eggs – butterflies don’t
lay eggs e.g. variegation
 Plants can have patterns that appear to look like butterfly eggs, so butterflies do not lay their
eggs here in order to avoid competition
 Species from the ‘ice plant family’ have a stone and pebble like fungicide appearance in
order to avoid predation.

Fungi defence response

 Produces antibiotics
 Kills bacteria

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