Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment if a cell or organism to maintain

optimum condition for enzymes and cell to function in response to internal and external changes.

Negative feedback is a mechanism that detect changes in the body and respond accordingly to
restore optimum conditions/level through nervous and hormonal communications.

In the human body Homeostasis controls:

 Body temperature (37C) – Glucoregulation

 Glucose and blood concentration – thermoregulation
 Water levels – Osmoregulation

These automatic control systems may involve nervous or endocrine (chemical) response:

 Nervous: Fast electrical impulses which are fast but short lasting.
 Endocrine: Hormones/chemicals carried in blood which is slow but long lasting.

All control systems include:

 Receptors – Cells which detects stimulus (change in environment) and coverts them into
electrical impulses (skin, nose, tongue ear and eye).
 Coordination centre – receive and process information from receptors through CNS, e.g.
brain, spinal cord and pancreas.
 Effectors – Restore optimum levels by bringing about a response through contraction of
muscles or secretion of hormones/chemicals/enzymes through glands

Internal Pathway of control system

conditions Stimulus Receptor Coordination Effector
centre
Body Change in Skin Brain Skin or muscle
temperature temperature Hypothalamus
Water levels Change in water Brain Pituitary gland Kidney
level in blood
Blood glucose Change in blood Pancreas Pancreas Liver
levels glucose level
The Human Nervous System
Central nervous system (CNS): Type of effector Response effector
 Brain and spinal cord makes
 Coordinates response of effectors e.g., Muscle Contraction
Gland Secretion of
muscle contracting or glands secreting
chemicals/enzymes
hormones.

Stimulus –> receptor –> coordinator (CNS) –> effector –> response

Reflex Actions
 Automatic and rapid
 Over short period of time
 Don’t involve conscious part of brain
 Affects only one part of body
 Involve nerve cells and impulses

Stages of reflex action (6 marks)

Stimulus –> Receptor –> Sensory neuron –>

Synapse –> relay neuron in central nervous system –> Synapse –> motor neuron –> effector –>
response

 Stimulus detected by receptor

 Receptor converts stimulus into electrical impulses
 Receptor sends electrical impulses along sensory neuron and reaches synapse
 Chemical is released by sensory neuron
 Chemical diffuses across synapse and attaches to relay neuron in CNS to simulate electrical
impulses
 Impulses passes along relay neuron and reaches synapse
 Chemical is released by relay neuron
 Chemical diffuses across synapse and attaches to motor neuron to simulate electrical
impulses
 Impulses passes along motor neuron to an effector
 Effector brings about a response through muscle contraction or chemical secretion.

Reflex action time investigation

 Student A sits with his elbow resting on the edge of the table
 Student B holds a ruler with the bottom of the ruler level with the thumb of student A
 Student B drops the ruler
 Student A catches the ruler and records the distance
 Steps 1 to 4 are then repeated
 Reflex actions are useful because rapid responses protect body from damage or pain
 An action is not conscious when not connected to brain or coordinated only by spinal cord.
The Brain

The brain controls complex behaviour.

It is made of billions of interconnected
neurones and has different regions
that carry out different functions

Functions of components of the brain:

 Cerebral Cortex – Control consciousness, intelligence, memory and language; it is the outer
part of the brain
 Cerebral cortex is split into 2 hemispheres: the left hemisphere controls the muscles on the
right side of body and the right hemisphere controls the left side muscles of the body.
 Cerebellum – Controls muscular activity and balance; rounded structure towards the
bottom/back of the brain
 Medulla – Control unconscious actions such as breathing or heart rate; Found in the brain
stem in front of the cerebellum.
 Hypothalamus – Regulates vital bodily functions such as temperature, hunger, thirst; located
at the base of the brain near the pituitary gland.

Difficulties of brain investigation and treatment:

 It is complex and delicate DID YOU KNOW?

 High risk of causing more damage Damage to the front part of
 Drugs given to treat diseases cannot always reach the the brain disturbs ability to
brain because of the membranes that surround it make decisions
 It is not fully understood the specific functions of each
part of the brain Damage to the back part of
 Difficult to treat brain disorders the brain disturbs vision

Methods of finding out how much the brain is damaged:

Neuroscientist (studies the nervous system) map regions of brain to particular functions by:

1. Studying patients with brain damage – different areas of brain damage cause different
psychological and behavioural effects.
2. Electrode stimulation – electrically stimulating different parts of brain
3. MRI scan - A magnetic resonance imaging scanner can be used to create an image of the
brain. This can be used to show which part of the brain is affected by a tumour, or which part
is active during a specific task.

The Eye
Eye: A sense organ containing receptors sensitive to light intensity and colour.

Functions

Retina  Contains light receptor, rods (cells – black and white; more sensitive to
light) and cones (cells – colour; don’t work well in low light).
 Layer of light sensitive cells found at the back of the eye.
 When light hits the cells are stimulated
 Impulses are sent to the brain which interprets the information to
create an image
Optic nerve  A nerve that leaves the eyes and leads to the brain
 Carries sensory neurons from retina to brain to create an image
Sclera  Tough outer coat and layer which supports the structure inside the eye
Cornea  Focuses light on retina
 The see-through layer at the front of the eye
 It allows light through and the curved surface bends and focuses light
onto retina
 Transparent
 No blood vessels – oxygen diffuses into it by outside air
Iris  Muscle that surrounds the pupil
 Controls amount of light entering the eye
Ciliary muscles  Control shape of the lens
Suspensory  Attach lens to ciliary muscles
ligaments
Lens  Can change its shape controls how light focuses on the retina
Fovea  Special spot on the retina consists of cone cells
 In this region light is focused more clearly

Pupil reflex in response to light

Accommodation
To focus on near object To focus on distant object

 ciliary muscles contract  ciliary muscles relax

 suspensory ligaments loosen  suspensory ligaments are pulled tight
 lens is then thicker & refracts light rays  lens is then pulled thin & only slightly
strongly refracts light rays

Eye defects – rays of light do not focus on retina

Types Myopia (short sightedness) Hyperopia (long sightedness)

 Lens too curved  Lens too flat
 Distant object is blurry  Cannot refract light enough

Treatments

Spectacle lenses  Refract light rays so they can focus on retina

Myopia Hyperopia

Conv
Concave lens bends light so light ex lens brings rays together so
focuses on retina light focuses on retina
Contact lenses  Hard or soft – lasts for different lengths of time
Laser surgery Myopia Hyperopia
 Reduces thickness of  Change its curvature
cornea  So, it refracts light more
 So, it refracts less light strongly
Replacement lens  Treat hyperopia by replacing it with artificial lens
 Could damage retina

Control of body temperature

Thermoregulation

How is body temperature kept constant? (6 marks)

 Body temp monitored by thermoregulatory centre (TC)

 TC contains thermoreceptor
 Thermoreceptor in skin send nervous impulses to TC, giving info about skin temp

If core body temp too high (higher than 37C)

 Blood vessels supplying blood to skin dilate [Vasodilation]

 So, more blood flows near skin surface
 More heat loss
 Sweat glands release more sweat to cool body

If core body temp too low (lower than 37C)

 Blood vessels supplying blood to skin constrict [Vasoconstriction]

 Less blood flows near skin surface
 Less heat loss
 Muscles may shiver to release heat energy
 Hair may stand on end to create an insulating layer, trapping warm air

It is important to control body temperature because:

 Enzymes work best

 So chemical reactions are fastest
 Prevent damage to cells
Hormonal Coordination in
Humans
Human endocrine system

 Composed of glands which secrete chemicals called hormones into bloodstream

 Hormone transported in bloodstream to target organ where it produces an effect

A hormone is a chemical messenger produced by endocrine gland.

Hyperthyroidism: Caused by an overactive thyroid

gland.

What would happen in the body of a person with

hyperthyroidism: (3 marks)

 Too much thyroxine is released into

blood
 Which raises basal metabolic rate
(BMR)
 Causing increase formation of glycogen,
rate
of respiration, breakdown of proteins

Pituitary gland  Acts as a ‘master gland’

 Secretes hormones into blood in response to body conditions
 Act on other glans to stimulate them to produce different hormones
 Not part of the brain
 In men – stimulate testes
 In woman – stimulate ovaries
Thyroid gland  Secretes thyroxine
 Controls metabolic rate, heart rate and temperature
 If thyroxine too low pituitary gland will release TSH (thyroid stimulating
hormone which stimulates thyroid to produce more thyroxine)
Adrenal gland  Secretes adrenaline
 Prepares body for stressful conditions / ‘fight or flight’ response
Pancreas  Secretes insulin
 Controls blood glucose level
Ovary  Secretes oestrogen
 Produce and release eggs
 Cause changes at puberty & control menstrual cycle
Testis  Secretes testosterone
 Produces sperm
 Cause changes at puberty & stimulates sperm production
Control of blood glucose level
Pancreas produces insulin and glucagon to restore optimal blood glucose level in a negative feedback
cycle:

If blood glucose level too high:

 Pancreas would detect it

 Pancreas produces insulin to causes glucose to move from blood into cells
 In liver & muscle cells, excess glucose is converted to glycogen for storage and later usage.
 Optimum blood glucose level is restored

If blood glucose level too low:

 Pancreas would detect it

 Pancreas produces glucagon stimulates…
 Glycogen in liver and muscle cells are converted back to glucose and releases into
bloodstream
 Optimum blood glucose level is restored

Description Treatment
Type 1  Pancreas fails to produce enough  Insulin injections to replace insulin
diabetes insulin that isn’t made
 Characterized by high blood  Pancreas transplant
glucose level  (Dis – Pancreas could be rejected)
 Glucose is excreted with urine  It is also advised to limit the intake
and lots of urine is produced of simple carbohydrates which
leaving the individual very thirsty contain lots of glucose
Type 2  Body cells no longer respond to  Carbohydrate controlled diet
diabetes insulin produced  Exercise
 Risk – obesity  Drugs can be given

 Insulin cannot be taken as a tablet because it digested/broken down

 A high blood glucose level can harm body cells as a result of osmosis because:
 Water movement out of cell from dilute to concentrated solution through partially
permeable membrane
 Cell shrinks

 Glucose can’t be stored in cell because its soluble (able to be dissolved especially in water)
 Glycogen is an insoluble form of glucose
 Glucagon is a hormone that triggers the release of glycogen.
Maintaining water & Nitrogen
Balance
 Water leaves body through lungs during exhalation – regulate water level
 Water, ions & urea lost from skin in sweat – regulate the level of ions
 There is no control over water, ion or urea loss by the lungs or skin
 Excess water, ions & urea are removed through kidneys in urine – remove waste products
 If body cells loses or gain too much water by osmosis they do not function efficiently.

Digestions of protein
 Excess protein is converted to amino acids
 Excess amino acids deaminated & form ammonia
 Ammonia is toxic so converted to urea in liver
 Urea filtered by kidney & released into blood
 Urea in urine stored in bladder for safe excretion

Blood circulation in the kidneys:

 Blood cycles through the kidneys constantly:

 Blood enters through the renal arteries
 Blood exits through the renal veins

(Nephrons: The functional units of the kidney, visible under a microscope, play a key role in urine
formation.

The Nephron: Structure and Function

 Nephrons consist of two main parts:

 Tubules (yellow): Carry the filtered fluid that will become urine.
 Blood Vessels (red): Provide the blood supply to the nephron.

Filtration

Glomerulus: A tangle of blood vessels where the filtration process begins.

Bowman’s Capsule: The starting point of the nephron’s tubule where the filtered fluid enters.

Filtration Process:
  Small substances such as water, amino acids, urea, glucose, and ions are filtered from
glomerulus into Bowman’s capsule.

 Larger substances like cells and proteins are not filtered.

 About 20% of the blood plasma is filtered through the Bowman’s capsule as it passes
through glomerulus.

Selective Reabsorption

 As the fluid moves along the tubule, the kidneys

reabsorb necessary substances back into the blood
vessels.

o Glucose and Amino Acids: Almost all are reabsorbed as they are essential.

o Water and Ions: Only some are reabsorbed based on the body's needs.

o Urea: None is reabsorbed, as it is a waste product.

Nephron and Their Roles in Urine Formation

As the filtered fluid moves through the nephron, it passes through several parts:

1. Bowman’s Capsule:

o This is the starting point, where the filtered fluid from the blood enters after the
glomerulus.

o It collects small substances like water, glucose, and urea from the blood.

2. Proximal Convoluted Tubule:

o This is where most reabsorption happens.

o Useful substances like glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed back into the blood
here.

3. Loop of Henle:

o The Loop of Henle helps in concentrating the urine by reabsorbing water and salts.

o It allows the body to retain water when needed, making urine more concentrated.

4. Distal Convoluted Tubule:

o Here, further regulation of ions (like sodium and potassium) happens.

o This part of the tubule helps fine-tune the composition of the urine.

5. Collecting Duct:

o The final part of the nephron.

 o It collects the fluid (now considered urine) from multiple nephrons and sends it
down to the ureter.)

How urine is produced by kidneys. (5 marks)

 Tubule carries filtered fluid that becomes urine
 Urea filtered by kidney & released into blood
 Reabsorption of all glucose, some ions by active transport & water by osmosis as needed by
body back into blood
 Urea present in urine

Functions of kidneys in maintaining water balance of body

 Filtration - high pressure in blood forces small molecules (glucose, urea, ions, water) out of
blood into tubules
 Selective reabsorption - all glucose for respiration & enough water & ions to make con in
body constant, no urea reabsorbed
 Formation of urine - anything remaining in tubules forms urine & passes down into bladder

How to keep water concentration constant?

 If water concentration in blood too high
 Detected by osmoreceptor in hypothalamus
 Less ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) released by pituitary gland
 Less water reabsorbed from kidney tubules to blood
 Less water in blood – more urine
 If water concentration in blood too low
 Detected by osmoreceptor in hypothalamus
 More ADH released by pituitary gland
 More water reabsorbed from kidney tubules to blood
 More water in blood – less urine

Kidney failures:
 Waste substances build up in the bloodstream
 Unable to regulate water and ion levels
 Causes sickness
 Even death!!! omg
Treatments for Kidney Failure
Organ Transplant Use Kidney Dialysis
How it works
Advantages Disadvantages  Unfiltered blood taken from blood
 Keep blood  May be vessel in arm
concentration rejected by  Blood pump keep blood moving
constant patients’  Mixed with blood thinners / anti-
 Prevent high immune coagulant to prevent clotting
blood system  Inside dialysis machine, blood & dialysis
pressure  Long term fluid separated by partially permeable
 Cheaper in drug use membrane. Blood flows in opposite
long term  Hazards of direction to dialysis fluid, allowing
operation exchange occur
 Shortage of  Excess ions & water diffuse across
donors partially permeable membrane
 Though after a while when equilibrium
is reached, nothing will diffuse anymore
 To prevent this dialysis is constantly
replaced with new fluid pumping in
from the bottom and older fluid passing
out of the top
 Clean blood flows through bubble trap
to get rid of bubbles
 Clean blood returns to blood vessel in
arm

Dialysis Fluid
 Same concentration of glucose, amino
acids & ions - no net movement of
glucose out of blood
 No urea - steep concentration gradient
from blood down to fluid - more urea
leaves blood

Advantages Disadvantages
 Available to  Limit salt &
all patients protein
 No need for intake
immune-  Risk of blood
suppressant clot
drugs  Regular
dialysis
sessions
Hormones in Human
reproduction
During puberty reproductive hormones/adolescents cause secondary sex characteristics to
develop. E.g., facial hair in men and breasts in woman triggered by reproductive hormones which
are mainly testosterone for men and oestrogen for woman.

Ovaries contains egg and is connected to the uterus by the fallopian tubes, after ovulation an egg is
transported along the fallopian tubes to the uterus, if the egg was fertilized then it would implant
into the uterus lining otherwise it would break down and pass out.

Menstrual Cycle
Ovulation is:

 Release of egg from ovary, at puberty egg begin to mature and one is released every 28 days.

Follicle stimulating  Stimulates egg maturation in the ovary

hormone (FSH)  Stimulates the ovaries to produce oestrogen
Oestrogen  Thickens the lining of the uterus - maintains uterus lining
 As oestrogen increase, it inhibits FSH & stimulate release of LH
Luteinising hormone  Stimulate release of egg (ovulation)
(LH)
Progesterone  Maintains uterus lining & inhibits both FSH and LH
 Stimulates the production of thick mucus in the cervix preventing
sperm to enter

Stage 1: Day 1-5  Menstruation occurs

 Bleeding happens, due to the:-
 Uterus lining breaks down
Stage 2: 4/5-14  Uterus lining start to build up
 Becomes a thick spongy layer
 Prepares uterus lining for a fertilized egg, since if the egg was
fertilized then it would implant into the uterus lining
Stage 3: at day 14  Ovulation – takes place in single day
Stage 4: 14-28  Maintains uterus lining Key Information

At the end of the cycle if no egg was

fertilized meaning if no fertilized egg
made it to the uterus, then the uterus
lining would break down and back to
stage 1 repeating the whole cycle
again.

However, if an egg was fertilized then it

would implant into the uterus lining
and slowly develop into a foetus,
hence the cycle won’t repeat and the
menstrual cycle would stop since the
woman is now pregnant.
Contraception
How oral contraceptives / hormonal methods of contraception prevent eggs mature?
 Contraceptive pill contains oestrogen (stop FSH) & progesterone (stop FSH & LH) - stop
ovulation
 Injection, implant or skin patch release progesterone - inhibit maturation & egg release for a
no of months/years

Advantage - reliable

Disadvantage - doesn't protect against STDs

How can non-hormonal methods of contraception control fertility?

 Barrier methods e.g. condoms & diaphragms - prevent sperm reaching egg
 Spermicidal agents - kill or disable sperm
 Intrauterine devices (IUD) - prevent implantation of embryo or release of hormone
 Abstaining from intercourse when egg is in oviduct (natural method)
 Sterilisation (surgical methods)

In women - female sterilisation - oviducts are cut to prevent egg from reaching uterus

In men - vasectomy - sperm tubes are cut to prevent sperm from leaving penis

Describe benefits & possible problems that may result from use of hormones to regulate human
reproduction. You should refer to fertility drugs & contraceptives in your answer. (4)

Advantages Disadvantages
Oral contraceptives  Prevent egg release  Prolonged use may
 Regulate menstrual prevent later ovulation
cycle  Headache/nausea
Fertility Drugs  Can stimulate egg  Multiple births
release

There are mechanical, chemical, surgical and natural contraceptive methods used to
prevent a pregnancy.
Mechanical
Example Method Advantage Disadvantage
Male A barrier that prevents Easily obtained. Protects Unreliable is not used
condom sperm entering the against STIs (e.g. HIV). properly
vagina
Female A barrier that prevents Easily obtained. Protects Unreliable is not used
condom sperm passing up female against STIs (e.g. HIV). properly
 reproductive system
Chemical
Example Method Advantage Disadvantage
Contraceptive Taken regularly by the Very reliable Female needs to remember to take
pill female. Prevents Ovulation the pill. Side effects include wight
by changing hormone levels. gain, mood swings or an increased
risk of blood clots. Does not
protect against STIs
Contraceptive A small tube placed under Very reliable. Does not protect against STIs. Can
implant the skin of the upper arm. Can work for prevent menstruation.
Releases hormone slowly up to 3
over a long period of time. years.
Prevents ovulation.

Surgical
Example Method Advantage Disadvantage
Vasectomy Sperm tubes are cut Virtually 100% reliable Difficult or impossible
preventing sperm to reverse
entering the penis.
Female Oviducts are cut Virtually 100% reliable Difficult or impossible
sterilization preventing fertilization. to reverse

Natural
Example Method Advantage Disadvantage
Rhythm Sexual intercourse is No chemicals Not as reliable as other methods,
method avoided around the time are used especially if the menstrual cycle is
of ovulation irregular.

The use of hormones to treat infertility

Fertility drugs are given to woman to help them get pregnant.

 The process of IVF

FSH & LH given to mother to matures & release eggs
 Egg collected from mother's ovary & mixed by sperm from father in the lab. Fertilisation
occurs.
 Fertilised egg divides & develop into embryos in an incubator
 When they're tiny balls of cells, one or two embryos are inserted into mother's uterus
Key Information
Disadvantages of IVF
Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm
 Low success rate / more likely to have faulty chromosome injection: If father has a
if too old/ expensive low sperm count then
 Emotionally & physically stressful sperm is injected into egg
 Multiple births cause possible harm to mother & babies cell with very tiny needle.
 Unethical as possible life is destroyed
Plant Hormones
Plants need hormones to coordinate and control growth. They are needed for tropisms. Examples of
these include phototropism, the response to light, and gravitropism or geotropism, the response to
gravity. Hormones move from the place they are made to where they are needed in order to produce
the appropriate response.

Where is the plant hormone made?

 In the root tip

Which hormone and how does it control the responses of plants to light and gravity?

 Auxin
 Unequal distributions of auxin cause unequal growth rates in plant roots & shoots
 Higher con of hormone causes faster growth in shoot but slower growth in roots

Why does plant produce hormones?

 To coordinate & control growth and responses to light (phototropism) & gravity (gravitropism
or geotropism)

Describe how light affect the direction of growth of shoots. (4)

 When shoot tip is exposed to light

 More auxin accumulates on shaded side
 This causes cells elongate faster on shaded side as it has a higher concentration of auxin
 Shoot grow towards light (phototropism)
 This is a +ve tropism (plant grows towards stimulus)

Explain how phototropism helps plant to survive. (3)

 Plant can get as much light as possible

 More photosynthesis takes place
 Allow more energy to be generated

Describe how gravity affect the direction of growth of shoots & roots. (4)

When shoot grow sideways (shoot)

 More auxin on lower side due to gravity

 This causes cells elongate faster on lower side as it has a higher con of auxin
 Shoot bends upwards (-ve gravi/geotropism) and grow away from the ground.
 This is beneficial as light levels are likely to be higher further away from the ground.
When root grow sideways (roots)

 More auxin on lower side due to gravity

 Extra auxin inhibits growth
 Cells on top elongate faster
 Root bends downwards (+ve gravi/geotropism)
 This is beneficial as there are more likely to be increased levels of water and nutrients lower
down, and it provides stability for the plant.

When the auxin distribution becomes equal on both sides it grows straight in that directions.

 You can investigate the effect of light or gravity on newly germinated seedlings by varying
conditions.
 Placing in cardboard box and shining light from one side
 Attaching a petri dish containing the seedlings to a wall (effects of gravity) Two other plant
hormones are gibberellins and ethene.
 Gibberellins are important to stimulate seed germination.
 Ethene is involved in cell division and the ripening of fruits.
Use of Plant Hormones
Humans can use plant hormones to alter plant growth. They are used in areas such as agriculture and
horticulture for many reasons: to increase yield, obtain desirable features and to lower costs.

Auxin
1. As weed killers
 Many weeds are broad-leaved
 Weedkillers, containing auxin, have been synthesised so they only affect broad-leaved plants
 The increased amount of auxin causes the cells to grow too rapidly
 This results in the weed dying

2. As rooting powders
 Plants with desirable features are cloned to make more plants with the same feature
 One way to clone a plant is to take a cutting from the original plant
 Rooting powder containing auxin is applied to it and it is placed in the ground
 Roots grow and the new plant begins to grow very quickly

3. To promote growth in tissue culture

 Another way to clone a plant is to use tissue culture
 Cells from the plant are taken are placed in a growth medium containing lots of nutrients
 Hormones such as auxins are added
 The cells begin to form roots and shoots

As ethene controls ripening, it is used in the food industry.

 Fruit is picked when it is not ripe

 It is firm which means that during transport it gets less bruised and damaged
 When it is needed to be sold, it is exposed to ethene and warmer temperatures
 Ethene is involved in controlling cell division and stimulates enzymes that result in fruit
ripening.
 This reduces wastage as more fruit is suitable to be sold and it does not ripen too early

Gibberellins are used for:

1. Ending seed dormancy

 Dormancy is a period in an organism's life cycle when growth, development, and (in animals)
physical activity are temporarily stopped.
 Induces germination
 Multiple crops are grown per year
 Starts growing at the same type
 In the brewing industry, the germination rate of barley seeds is increased to make malt.
2. Promoting flowering
 Instead of requiring certain conditions such as longer days and low temperatures to flower,
applying this hormone allows it to flower in any conditions and with bigger flowers.

3. Increasing fruit size

 The seeds in fruit produce gibberellins to increase fruit size.
 This means that seedless fruit is generally smaller.
 Seedless fruit can be sprayed with gibberellins to increase their size.