PHYSICS

SECOND TERM SCHEME OF WORK (SS2)

1. Revision of last term's work/Resumption test

2. Machines: Types of machines(Levers, Pulleys, Screws, Wheel and axle, Inclined plane, etc ); Uses; Force
ratio (M.A), Velocity ratio (V.R) and efficiency of a machine; Mathematical relationship between the
terms.
3. Friction between two surfaces: Advantages and Disadvantages of friction, simple experiment using
spring balance to determine the coefficient of friction between two surfaces.
4. Heat Energy: Temperature and its measurement; constant volume gas thermometer, Liquid-in-glass
thermometer, Resistance thermometer and Thermocouple; Absolute scale of temperature; Pressure
law; molecular explanation of temperature.
5. Heat energy measurements: Concept of specific heat capacity; its measurement and its significance.
Latent heat: Concept of latent heat; measurement of specific latent heat of fusion and of vaporization.
6. Effect of pressure and impurities on melting and boiling point; Evaporation, Boiling and Sublimation;
Applications in refrigerator, air conditioner and pressure cooker; Relative humidity and dew point.
7. Midterm test and Midterm break
8. Gas Laws: Measurement of gas pressure; Barometers in practical use.
9. Waves: Production of Mechanical waves; Types of waves - Longitudinal and Transverse waves and
properties of waves; Propagation of waves.
10. Propagation of waves: Energy transmitted in waves; Waveforms: Description and graphical
representation; Mathematical relationships of frequency, wavelength, period and velocity; Standing or
Stationary waves; Light waves - Sources of light, light and matter; Transmission of light; Rectilinear
propagation of light: Shadows, eclipses and pin-hole camera.
11. Revision, Examination and Result processing.
 WEEK 2
MACHINES
A machine is a device by means of which work can be done easily or conveniently. In physics, It is
defined as a device by means of which a force(effort) applied at one point can be used to overcome
another force(load) at some other point.
Our everyday observations shows that:
1. It is easier to remove the cap of a bottle of coke with an opener than without it
2. It is easier to convey some gallons of water with a wheelbarrow than conveying them by hand
3. A car lifting jack lifts a car with a very little effort
4. It is easier to roll a drum of oil up an inclined plane to the floor of a lorry than to raise the drum.
In these cases, the opener, wheelbarrow, jack and inclined plane all serve as simple machines as
they make difficult tasks much easier.

TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING MACHINES

Mechanical Advantage or Force Ratio(M.A): The mechanical advantage of a machine is defined as the
L
ratio of load to effort. Mathematically, M . A=
E
where L is the load (in Newtons) and E is the effort (in Newtons). Mechanical advantage has no unit
because it is a ratio of two forces. The mechanical advantage of a machine tells us how much the
applied effort is multiplied to overcome the given load. it is usually greater than one and it depends on
the friction in the moving parts of the machine. it also depends on the quality of construction of the
machine. A machine without friction is called an ideal machine; such a machine does not exist in real
life.

Velocity Ratio (V.R): This is defined as the ratio of the distance moved by effort to the distance moved
ED
by load in the same time interval. Mathematically, V . R=
LD

Velocity ratio has no unit because it is a ratio of similar quantities. The velocity ratio of a machine is
independent of friction in the machine, that is, it does not depend on friction in the machine. It depends
on the geometry of the moving parts of the machine.

Efficiency (Ɛ or e or ): The efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of the useful work done by the
machine to the work put into the machine as expressed in percentage.
Mathematically,
Useful work done by machine work output work obtained
Ɛ= × 100 %= ×100 %= × 100 %
work put into the machine work input work supplied

Recall that work = force × distance; hence, work output = (L × Ld) Joules and work input = (E ×Ed) Joules.
it should be noted that the efficiency of a machine cannot be 100% because part of the energy supplied
to the machine is spent in doing work against friction and in moving some parts of the machine.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE, VELOCITY RATIO AND EFFICIENCY

work output
Ɛ= ×100 %
work input

L × LD
Ɛ= ×100 %
E × ED

L LD
Ɛ= × ×100 %
E ED
 L LD 1
Recall that, =M . A and that =
E ED V . R

M.A
:. Ɛ= ×100 %
V .R

TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
1. Explain the meaning of the following statements:
a. The mechanical advantage of a machine is 5
b. The velocity ratio of a machine is 6
2. Explain why the efficiency of a machine is usually less than 100%
3. A machine has a velocity ratio of 6 and is 80% efficient. what effort would be needed to lift a load of
300N with the aid of this machine?
4. A man applied a force of 7500 Joules to a machine to lift a load of 200kg through a vertical height of
3.0m, calculate the efficiency of the machine(g = 10m/s2).
(leave about 25 lines in your note for solution)

TYPES OF MACHINES
The types of machines include:
1. The lever
2. The pulley
3. The inclined plane
4. The screw
5. The wheel and axle
6. The wedge
7. The gear
8. The hydraulic press
THE LEVER
The lever is a simple machine that operates on the principle of moments. it consists of three main parts
namely; Load, Effort and Fulcrum (or Pivot). There are three classes of levers. The class of a given lever
depends on the relative positions of the load, effort and fulcrum.
FIRST CLASS (OR FIRST ORDER) LEVERS
In first class levers, the fulcrum is between the load and the effort. Examples of first class levers are:
Scissors, Crowbar, Pincers, Claw hammer and Chemical balance.

E L

SECOND CLASS LEVERS

In second class levers, the load is between the effort and the fulcrum.
E

F
L
Examples are: wheel barrow and nut-cracker

THIRD CLASS LEVERS

In third class levers, the effort lies between the load and the fulcrum. examples are the tongs, forceps
and the human fore arm.
E

F L

THE PULLEY
This is one or more wheels on axles with a rope over each wheel. Pulleys are used to raise or lower
heavy loads.
SIMPLE PULLEY
Two types of simple pulleys exist. They are:
The fixed pulley
The moveable pulley

The fixed pulley

Effort

Load
With a simple fixed pulley, one lifts a load at one end of the rope by exerting a downward pull at the
other end of the rope.
The M.A is (1) one i.e. the effort applied is equal to the load overcome. The beauty of the machine lies in
the fact that it is more convenient to pull downwards than to lift the load up directly. The V.R of the
simple pulley is one (1) because the distance moved by effort is equal to distance moved by the load in
the same time interval.
 THE MOVABLE PULLEY

Effort

LOAD

The moveable pulley reduces the effort needed to raise a load because it has two strings (ropes). each
string support half the load and thus the effort needed to raise the load is half the weight of the load.
The V.R of the pulley is two because for every distance moved by the load, the effort moves two times
the distance.
BLOCK AND TACKLE SYSTEM OF PULLEYS
In practice, simple pulleys can be combined to form a system of pulleys used for lifting loads. They are
used by builders for hauling(lifting) heavy loads to high floors and for loading and unloading ships. The
aim of combining pulleys is to obtain a larger M.A and V.R. The V.R of a system of pulleys equals the
number of pulleys.

Fixed
pulleys
E

Moveable
pulleys

LOAD
 THE INCLINED PLANE
This is a type of machine which is used to raise heavy loads such as a drum of oil up a sloping plank to
the high floors of lorries. The sloping plank is an example of an inclined plane.

L
E
h
W
K

Suppose a load of weight W is rolled steadily up an inclined plane by applying a constant force (effort)
which moves a distance L = the length of the inclined plane. At the same time, the load is raised through
a vertical height h = the height of the plane.
L 1
The V.R of the plane is given by V . R= =
h sin ❑

CALCULATIONS
0
1. A plane inclined at 30 to the horizontal is used as a simple machine. what is its V.R?
2. The efficiency of a plane inclined at an angle of 300 to the horizontal is 35%. calculate the force parallel
to the plane required to push a load of 110N uniformly up the plane.
3. A man pulls up a box of mass 70kg using an inclined plane of effective length 5m onto a platform 2.5m
high at uniform speed. if the frictional force between the box and the plane is 100N, draw the diagram
of all the forces acting on the box when it is in motion and calculate the:
i. Minimum effort applied in pulling up the box
ii. V.R of the plane
iii. M.A of the plane
iv. efficiency of the plane.
(LEAVE ABOUT 30 LINES IN YOUR NOTE FOR SOLUTION)

THE SCREW
The screw can be thought of as an inclined plane wrapped round a cylinder to form a thread. A simple
example of the screw is a nut and bolt. As the nut is turned, it moves along the thread of the bolt as if it
is travelling up an inclined plane.
r

Tommy bar
Thread p = pitch
pitch

Base
 When a screw is turned through one complete revolution by the application of an effort, the load moves
a distance equal to one pitch. The pitch is the distance between successive or consecutive threads.
in the screw jack, a common screw device used to lift a motor car along vertical screw threads into a
heavy base by applying an effort on the handle called the Tommy bar. For every complete turn of the
Tommy bar, the effort acts through a distance equal to the circumference of a circle of radius r, where r
is the length of the Tommy bar. At the same time, the load is raised through one pitch.
2r
hence, the V.R is expressed as V . R=
p
This machine has a low efficiency which can be increased by lubricating the screw.
TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
1. The pitch of a screw jack 0.5cm, the arm is 50cm long and its M.A is 250. What is the efficiency? ( =
3.142)

2. A motor car of mass 1000Kg is raised to a height of 30cm by using a screw jack whose pitch is 3mm and
its tommy bar is 40cm. If the efficiency of the jack is 65%, Calculate the:-
i. V.R of the jack
ii. M.A of the jack
iii. The effort applied
iv. The work done by effort (Take g = 10m/s2,  = 22/7)
(leave about 45 lines in your note for solution)

THE WHEEL AND AXLE

The wheel and axle is a simple machine that can vary a rotary motion into a linear motion and vice
versa. It is used to draw out water from deep wells.
wheel

axle

it consists of an axle of radius r, fixed to a wheel of larger radius R, a long rope with a free end where the
effort is to be applied is wound round the wheel. The load to be lowered or raised is tied to a rope
wound round the axle in the opposite direction to that of the wheel.
The axle and wheel turn simultaneously such that when the wheel moves through one complete
revolution, the axle also makes one complete revolution. Hence, the effort also rotates through a
2R R
distance equal to the circumference of the axle in the same time interval so, V . R= =
2r r

The radius of the wheel is usually greater than the radius of the axle.
 CALCULATIONS

1. A wheel and axle is used to raise a man of weight 700N by the application of an effort of 200N.
if the radius of the wheel and axle are 400mm and 100mm respectively, determine the
efficiency of the machine.
2. The radii of wheel and axle are 100cm and 20cm respectively. if the efficiency of the machine is
85%, find the load that an applied force of 100N to the wheel will raise.
(leave about 34 lines in your note for solution)
 WEEK 3
SOLID FRICTION
Friction is the force which acts at the surface of separation between two objects or surfaces in contact
and tends to oppose the motion of one over the other. Friction does not only occur in solids, it also
occurs in fluids(liquids and gases). friction in fluids is termed viscosity. friction occurs because no surface
is perfectly smooth.
STATIC AND DYNAMIC FRICTION
Static friction is defined as the minimum force which must be overcome before a body can just start to
move over another. it is also known as limiting friction.
Dynamic friction is the force that must be overcome for a body to slide over another with a constant
speed. it is also known as kinetic friction. Note that static friction is usually greater than dynamic friction.

DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF STATIC FRICTION USING THE INCLINED PLANE METHOD

R F

W Sin
K
W

A piece of solid block is weighed and its weight noted. it is placed on an inclined plane which is gradually
raised until the block just moves. The angle of inclination  of the plane is measured. The procedure is
repeated about four times but with different weights on the block so as to get different values of .
sin❑ and cos ❑ are evaluated after which a graph of sin❑ is plotted against cos ❑ . The slope of the
graph gives the coefficient of static friction between the block and the inclined plane.
sin ❑
mathematically, μ= =tan❑
cos ❑
ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
1. it makes motion to be stable
2. it is used in the production of electric charges
3. it helps in the gripping of belts in machines
4. it enables motor vehicles to stop when brakes are applied
5. it aids grindstones to be effective

DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
1. it reduces the efficiency of machines
2. it produces heat in engines
3. it causes wear and tear
4. it causes unwanted noise
5. it reduces the speed of moving objects

METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION

1. by using a lubricant like grease or oil
2. by using ball or roller bearings
 3. by streamlining
4. by smoothening the surfaces

LAWS OF SOLID FRICTION

1. Friction opposes the relative motion between two solid surfaces in contact
2. friction is independent of the area of the surface in contact
3. it depends on the nature of the surfaces in contact
4. the limiting frictional force is proportional to the normal reaction

FR
F=μR where μ is the coefficient of friction.

TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
1. A metal block of mass 5kg lies on a rough horizontal platform. if a horizontal force of 8N applied to
the block through its centre of mass just slides the block on the platform, calculate the coefficient of
limiting friction between the block and the platform.
2. A body of mass 25kg moving at 3m/s on a high horizontal floor is brought to rest after sliding through
a distance of 2.5m on the floor. calculate the coefficient of sliding friction between the mass and the
surface.
3. A block placed on an inclined plane remains at rest when the plane is inclined at an angle of 30 0 to
the horizontal, calculate the coefficient of friction.
4. A block of mass 10kg rests on a horizontal table. what force is required to make the block move when
it is pulled horizontally? (μ = 0.4, g = 10m/s2 ).
(leave about 20 lines in your note for solution)
 WEEK 4
HEAT ENERGY
TEMPERATURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT

Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. it is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the molecules of a body. The temperature of a body tells us how hot or cold the body is
at any point in time.
On a cold harmattan morning, one can say that the temperature is low, and then say that the
temperature is high on a hot sunny afternoon. furthermore, if we put a kettle of cold water on a lighted
stove and leave it for some time, the water feels hotter to the touch. The heat from the flame has added
something to the water; we say that the temperature of the water has increased. This implies that
whenever the temperature of a body rises, the body has gained heat. Temperature and heat are related
but they are not the same.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
HEAT TEMPERATURE
It is a form of energy It is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a
body
It is a measure of the total energy supplied to a body It is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
molecules of a body
It is measured in units of joules It is measured in units of Kelvin
It is measured with a calorimeter It is measured with a thermometer

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
Temperature is measured by means of a thermometer. The instrument makes use of a physical property
that changes with temperature. A substance whose physical property changes with temperature is
called a thermometric substance. examples of thermometric substances include mercury, alcohol, gas,
resistance wire, bimetallic strip and pyrometers.

TYPES OF THERMOMETER
1. Liquid-in-glass thermometer
2. The gas thermometer
3. Thermoelectric thermometer
4. Resistance thermometer
5. Bimetallic thermometer
6. Optical pyrometer

Liquid-in-glass thermometer: There are two types of liquid-in-glass thermometers. they are:
 The mercury in glass thermometer and
 The alcohol in glass thermometer
The type most commonly used is the mercury-in-glass thermometer which is used in school
laboratories and hospitals. The liquid-in-glass thermometer measures temperature by measuring the
change in volume of a fixed mass of liquid when its temperature changes.

MERCURY-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER
Upper fixed point Mercury
 This consists of a bulb, which contains mercury and a narrow bore through which the mercury rises
with temperature change. These are contained in a thick-walled glass tube. The change in the length
of the mercury column is measured on a scale marked in units of temperature on the thick-walled
glass. The bulb is the mercury reservoir and it is cylindrical in shape.
The sensitivity of the instrument can be increased by using:
 bulb made of thin glass- this will enable the liquid in the glass to assume the temperature of
the surrounding quickly
 narrow capillary tube of uniform bore- this makes it possible for small temperature changes to
cause large change in the length of the mercury column in the tube
 liquid with a high volume expansivity.

PROPERTIES OF A GOOD THERMOMETRIC LIQUID

A liquid to be used in a thermometer should have most of the following properties:
1. it should be a good conductor of heat
2. it should be easily visible
3. the freezing point should be low
4. it should have a high boiling point
5. the interval between its freezing point and boiling point should be large
6. it should have a uniform expansion with temperature
7. it should not stick to glass.
Water is never used as a thermometric liquid because it does not have any of the above properties.

ADVANTAGES OF MERCURY OVER ALCOHOL AS A THERMOMETRIC LIQUID

MERCURY ALCOHOL
It does not wet glass It wets glass
It is opaque and can easily be seen It is transparent and cannot be seen easily
It is a good conductor and expands uniformly and rapidlyIt is a poor conductor and does not indicate a
temperature change immediately. it does not
expand uniformly as mercury
Mercury does not vaporize and distil at fairly low It vaporizes and distils at fairly low temperatures
temperatures
It boils at 3570C and can be calibrated by using the steamIt boils at 780C and cannot be calibrated by using
point the steam point.

ADVANTAGES OF ALCOHOL OVER MERCURY AS A THERMOMETRIC LIQUID

ALCOHOL MERCURY
It freezes at -112oC and can therefore be used for
It freezes at -39oC, hence it is not suitable for
measuring very low temperatures measuring very low temperatures
Its expansivity is higher than that of mercury Its expansivity is less than that of alcohol

CLINICAL THERMOMETER
This is a modified liquid-in-glass thermometer which is used to measure the temperature of the
human body, which is about 37oC. it has a short range and a constriction, which is a special feature
of this thermometer. When the thermometer is inserted in the armpit of a patient, the mercury
expands, pushes past the constriction and rises to indicate the body temperature of the patient.
When the thermometer is removed, the mercury column does not contract into the bulb, but rather
breaks at the constriction. The mercury thread above the constriction remains in place and can be
read at leisure. To return the mercury to the bulb, the thermometer has to be shaken sharply.
Because of the fine bore of the thermometer, the mercury column is not easy to be seen. This
disadvantage is overcome by using a thick stem, which acts as a cylindrical lens which magnifies the
thread of the mercury for easy viewing.
it is not advisable to sterilize a clinical thermometer in boiling water because, the clinical
thermometer has a temperature range of 35oC to 43oC while water boils at 100oC. If the
thermometer is placed in boiling water, the liquid in it will expand beyond the temperature range it
can withstand, hence it will be damaged.
Mercury column
Celsius scale
Constriction

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

Gas thermometers are used at research laboratories , where a very high degree of accuracy in
temperature measurements are required. The thermometric substance is gas (Hydrogen or Helium).

A
B

E
Mercury
Gas

Water

The thermometric property is the change in pressure of this gas at constant volume with
temperature.
The thermometer consists of a large glass bulb, G containing hydrogen or helium. The glass bulb is
connected to a narrow glass tube attached to a mercury manometer. when the bulb G is heated to
a particular temperature, the gas in it expands, the mercury in tube A is pushed down while the
mercury in tube B is pushed up. The manometer is moved up and down to bring the mercury level
in tube A to a fixed mark X. This ensures that the volume of the gas in G is kept constant. The
pressure P of the gas is the atmospheric pressure H plus or minus the difference , h in the levels of
mercury in A and B i.e. P=H ± h. H is read with the aid of a fortin barometer.
The thermometer is graduated by placing the bulb in pure melting ice and in steam and the gas
pressure measured in each case. These two extreme values are used to plot a graph of pressure
versus temperature. it is found to be a straight line graph, which on extrapolation, cuts the
temperature axis at -273oC. This temperature is known as the absolute zero temperature, the
lowest temperature attainable. The pressure of the gas is zero at this temperature, also, the gas
molecules have zero kinetic energy.
 The graph can be used to read off accurate temperature values from the measured pressure
readings.

ADVANTAGES OF THE GAS THERMOMETER

1. it is very sensitive
2. it gives accurate readings
3. it is consistent
4. it can measure temperature over a wide range

DISADVANTAGES OF THE GAS THERMOMETER

1. it is bulky
2. it is not suitable for measuring temperatures of small volumes of liquids or solids
3. it requires the knowledge of temperature at fixed points before it can be used

RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
A resistance thermometer uses the change in the electrical resistance of a conductor to measure
temperature. it is suitable when a wide range of temperature measurements are required e.g. from
-200oC to 1100oC.
The thermometer consists of a long, thin platinum wire wound round a spool made of mica. The ends
of the wire are connected to a Wheatstone bridge, a resistance measuring device. If the resistance at
00C is R0 and the resistance at 1000C is R100, then the temperature corresponding to a resistance R is
R❑ − R0
given as ¿ ×100 ℃
R 100 − R 0

CALCULATION
If the electrical resistance from a platinum at 00C is 10.5Ω and 12.8Ω at 1000C, calculate the
temperature when the resistance is 11.75Ω assuming that the change in the electrical resistance of
the conductor is proportional to the change in temperature.
(LEAVE 7 LINES IN YOUR NOTE FOR SOLUTION)

TEMPERATURE SCALES
T here are three common scales of temperature. They are:
1. The Celsius or centigrade scale: The scale uses the freezing and boiling points of pure water at
760mmHg as its fixed points. The lower fixed point is 00C while the upper fixed point is 1000C.
The fundamental interval is the difference between the upper and the lower fixed points i.e. 100.
2. The Fahrenheit scale: In this scale, the lower fixed point is 320F while the upper fixed point is
2120F. The fundamental interval is divided into 180 equal parts.
3. The Kelvin or Thermodynamic or Absolute scale: This is taken as the S.I unit of temperature. it was
derived by Lord Kelvin. The ice point is 273K while the steam point is 373K. The fundamental
interval is therefore, 100.

CONVERSION OF TEMPERATURE SCALES

Conversion between the Celsius and the Fahrenheit scales can be done using the equation:
F −32 C
= Where F is the temperature value in Fahrenheit while C is the value in Celsius.
9 5

The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale by the equation:

T =273+C where T is the temperature in Kelvin and C is the temperature in Celsius.
 Upper
2120F 1000C 373K fixed
point

interval
Fundamental
interval
Fundamental
interval
Fundamental
273K Lower
320F 00C
fixed
point
Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin
scale scale scale

CALCULATIONS
1. A thermometer has its stem marked in mm instead of 0C. The lower fixed point is 30mm while the
upper fixed point is 180mm. calculate the temperature in 0C when the thermometer reads 45mm.
2. A thermometer which is not accurately calibrated indicates -0.5 0C at the lower fixed point and 1060C
at the upper fixed point. What temperature does the thermometer register when the true
temperature is 600C ?
(leave 16 lines for the solutions)
 WEEK 5
MEASUREMENT OF HEAT ENERGY
Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from a hot body to a cooler one as a result of their
difference in temperature. Heat energy is also known as thermal energy and it is measured in units of
joules.
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (SHC)
It can be experimentally that the quantity of heat supplied or absorbed by a body is directly
proportional to the mass of the body and the rise (or fall) in temperature of the body. It also depends
on the nature of the body.
The above statements can be represented mathematically as
Q ∝ M ......................................(1)
Q ∝(❑2 −❑1) ..............................(2)
Combining equations (1) and (2) gives:
Q ∝ M (❑2 −❑1 )..............................(3)
Removing the sign of proportionality in (3), we introduce a constant
Q=CM (❑2 −❑1 ) ..............................(4)
Q = quantity of heat absorbed or released in joules
M = mass of the body in Kg
2 = final temperature in Kelvin or 0C
1 = initial temperature in Kelvin or 0C
(❑2 −❑1 ) = change in temperature in Kelvin or 0C
C = constant of proportionality known as specific heat capacity.
from (4),Q=CM (❑2 −❑1 )
Q
:. C=
M (❑2 −❑1)

if M = 1Kg and(❑2 −❑1 ) = 1K or 10C, C=Q

The specific heat capacity of a body is the quantity of heat energy required to change the
temperature of a unit mass (1kg) of the body by 10C or 1K. Its unit is joules per kilogram per Kelvin
written as J / KgK or J Kg−1 K −1. The specific heat capacity of a body depends on the nature of the
body. If the heat energy under consideration is the heat needed to raise the temperature of the
entire mass of the body by 10C or 1K, it is referred to as heat capacity. The heat capacity of a body is
the quantity of heat energy required to change the temperature the entire mass of a body by 1 0C or
1K. its symbol is CP and its unit is Joules per Kelvin.
mathematically, C P =MC
i.e. Heat capacity=mass × specific heat capacity

TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
1. Explain what is meant by the statement: The specific heat capacity of Aluminium is 900 J Kg−1 K −1.
2. How many joules of heat are given out when a piece of iron of mass 50g and SHC 400 J Kg−1 K −1
cools from 800C to 200C.
3. Calculate the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 20kg of brass by 10K. (SHC of
brass = 380 J Kg−1 K −1).
4. Find the mass of copper block with heat capacity of 50J/K. (SHC of copper = 400 J Kg−1 K −1).
leave 25 lines in your note for the solutions

CALORIMETRY AND METHOD OF MIXTURES

 A Calorimeter is a container or vessel designed to measure quantity of heat. It is usually made of a good
conductor like copper or Aluminium so that it can assume the temperature of its content quickly. The
calorimeter is designed such that heat losses by conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation are
greatly reduced. Heat losses due to convection and evaporation are reduced by providing a lid usually
made of wood. The lid contains holes to take a thermometer and a stirrer.
Heat losses by conduction is minimized by insulating the calorimeter with a poor conductor of heat.
Heat losses by radiation is minimized by highly polishing the inside and outside of the calorimeter. The
process of reducing heat losses in a calorimeter is known as lagging.
Method of mixtures is a method in which hot substances are mixed with cold substances until they
reach the same temperature. The hot substance loses heat while the cold substance gains heat. The
heat lost by the hot substance equals the heat gained by the cold substance. This holds true only when
no heat is exchanged with the surroundings or when the losses are theoretically neglected.

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE SHC OF A SOLID BY METHOD OF MIXTURES

Thermometer

Calorimeter

The solid in form of a metal block whose SHC is to determine its weighed and its mass noted as M1(Kg).
An empty calorimeter with a stirrer is weighed and its mass noted as M2(Kg). The calorimeter is then
half filled with water after which it is reweighed and its new mass noted as M3(Kg). The initial
temperature of water in the calorimeter is taken using the thermometer and noted as 1(0C). The solid is
attached to the string and then suspended in a beaker of boiling water. It is left in the boiling water for
some time to ensure that it attains the temperature of the boiling water i.e. 1000C. After some time, the
solid is quickly transferred to the calorimeter and the mixture is stirred gently.
The final steady temperature of the calorimeter and
contents is then read and noted as 2(0C).
DEDUCTION
Neglecting heat exchange with the surroundings,
Heat lost by solid = heat gained by calorimeter and stirrer + Heat gained by water
M 1 C 1 ( 100 −❑2 )=( M 3 − M 2 ) CW ( ❑2 −❑1 ) + M 2 C2 (❑2 −❑1)

( M 3 − M 2 ) CW ( ❑2 −❑1) + M 2 C 2(❑2 −❑1)

:. C 1=
M 1 ( 100 −❑2 )
Using the above equation, the SHC of the solid, C1, can be determined provided the SHC of water, CW,
is known.

PRECAUTIONS
1. The calorimeter should be well lagged.
2. The solid should be transferred quickly to the calorimeter.
3. The mixture should be well stirred.
 DETERMINATION OF THE SHC OF A LIQUID BY METHOD OF MIXTURES
The experiment is the same as that of determining the SHC of a solid but in this case, a metal of known
SHC is used while the liquid whose SHC is to be determined is used in the place of water.

CALCULATIONS
1. A copper calorimeter of mass 100g contains 190g of water at 25 0c. A copper ball of mass 75g at 100 0c is
gently dropped in the water. If the final temperature of the mixture is 30 0C, Calculate the SHC of copper.
(SHC of water = 4200 J Kg−1 K −1).
2. A metal of mass 200g is removed from a furnace at temperature  and immediately immersed into 150g
of water at 00c. If all the heat is taken up by water and temperature rises to 10 0c. Determine the
temperature of the furnace (SHC of metal = 900 J Kg−1 K −1, SHC of water = 4200 J Kg−1 K −1).

(LEAVE 42 LINES FOR SOLUTION)

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINATION OF THE SHC OF A SOLID BY ELECTRICAL METHOD

Thermometer To electricity supply

Heater
Metal Lagging
block

Two holes are bored into the metal (in the form of a block) whose SHC is to be determined. The block is
then weighed and its mass noted as M(Kg). A thermometer is inserted into one of the holes and an
electric heater connected to a source of power is inserted into the other hole. A little oil may be put into
the holes to ensure good thermal contact.
The metal is surrounded with a lagged jacket to prevent heat exchange within the surroundings. The
temperature of the block is taken using the thermometer and noted as 1 (0c). The metal is then
electrically heated by switching on the heater until its temperature rises to 2 (0c). The time of flow of
current is determined using a stop watch and noted as t (s).
Deduction
Neglecting heat exchanges with the surroundings,
Heat supplied by current = Heat gained by metal.
IVt=MC (❑2 −❑1 )

IVt
 C=
M (❑2 −❑1)

Where I is the current in amperes supplied by the heater and V is the pd in volt.
Recall that P=IV
Pt
Where P is the power rating of the heating Coil in watts. We can write C=
M (❑2 −❑1)
Using the above equation the SHC of the metal can be determined.

TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
 1. An electric heater rated 50W is used to heat 100g of water in a calorimeter from 50 oC to 100oC.
Calculate the time for which the current flowed. Neglect the SHC of the calorimeter and take the
SHC of water as 4200 J Kg−1 K −1.
2. The following data were recorded in an experiment to determine the SHC of a certain metal.
Mass of metal = 1.5kg; Rating of heating coil = 75.0W; Time of heating = 4 minutes; Initial and final
temperatures were 270C and 470C respectively. What is the SHC of the metal?
(Leave 12 lines in your note for solution)

LATENT HEAT
When a solid (e.g. ice) is continually heated, its temperature rises steadily until a particular temperature
is reached when the solid starts to melt. During the melting (fusion) process, the temperature of the
solid remains constant despite the fact that heat is being added to it. This heat which does not manifest
as a rise in temperature but remains hidden in the liquid is known as latent heat of fusion or melting.
Another instance where the heat supplied does not lead to a rise in temperature is during
vaporization. When heat is continually supplied to water, its temperature rises until it reaches 100 0c.
At this temperature, the water starts turning into vapour. The temperature remains constant at
1000C until all the water has vaporized. During this change of state, the heat supplied does not lead to a
rise in temperature. We call it latent heat of vaporization.
Latent heat cannot be detected by a thermometer because it does not manifest itself as an increase or
decrease in temperature. Liquids and gases have latent heat stored in them in form of potential energy.
Latent heat can be defined as the heat which is absorbed or given out during a state of change
of a substance without a corresponding change in temperature.
Latent heat can be of fusion or of vaporization. If only a unit mass of the substance is then taken into
account, we have specific latent heat. The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of
heat required to convert a unit mass of the substance from solid to liquid at its melting point without a
change in temperature. Its unit is joules per kilogram (J/Kg). When discussing a change in state, we can
write Q=ML ; where Q = quantity of heat supplied or removed in joules, M = mass of substance in
kilogram and L = specific latent heat of fusion of the substance. Similarly, The specific latent heat of
vaporization of a substance is the quantity of heat required to change 1Kg of the substance at its boiling
point from liquid to vapour without change in temperature.
The unit is joules per kilogram (J/Kg) and its symbol is L.
The equation Q=ML also holds true for vaporization.
TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
1. Explain what is meant by the statement: "the specific latent of fusion of ice is 3.4 × 10 5 J/Kg."
2. How much heat is required to change 2Kg of ice at 0 0c to water at the same temperature? (SLH of fusion
of ice 3.6 × 105 J/Kg).
3. Calculate the total energy required to evaporate completely 2Kg of ice that is initially at -10 0c.
SHC of ice = 2.2 × 103 J Kg−1 K −1,
SHC of water = 4.18 × 103 J Kg−1 K −1,
SLH of fusion of ice = 3.34 × 105 J/Kg
SLH of vaporization of steam = 2.26 × 106 J/Kg

(LEAVE 17 LINES FOR SOLUTION)

 EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE SLH OF FUSION OF ICE

Thermometer Ice block

Stirrer

Water

Lagging

Calorimeter
An empty calorimeter with a stirrer is weighed and its mass noted as M1(Kg). The calorimeter is then
half filled with water at a temperature of about 5 0C after which it is re-weighed and its new mass noted
as M2(Kg). The exact temperature of the water in the calorimeter is read and recorded as 1. The
calorimeter is inserted into a lagged container. Pieces of dry ice are gently dropped into the water in the
calorimeter and the water stirred gently to ensure that a uniform temperature is attained. The addition of ice
continues until the temperature of the mixture drops to about 5 0c below room temperature. The final steady
temperature of the mixture is read using the thermometer and noted as 2 (0c). The calorimeter and its content
is weighed again and the new mass recorded as M3 (Kg).
Deduction
Neglecting heat exchange with the surroundings,
Heat loss by calorimeter and water = Heat gained by ice.
 M 1 C 1 ( ❑1 −❑2 )+ ( M 2 − M 1 ) C W ( ❑1 −❑2 )=( M 3 − M 2 ) L+ ( M 3 − M 2 ) CW (❑2 − 0)

M 1 C 1 ( ❑1 −❑2) + ( M 2 − M 1 ) CW ( ❑1 −❑2) − ( M 3 − M 2 ) C W (❑2 −0)

:. L=
( M 3− M 2)

Using the above equation, the SLH of fusion of ice ,L , can be determined provided that C1 and Cw are
known.
C1 = SHC of calorimeter and Cw = SHC of water.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Only dry pieces of ice should be used
2. Ice should be added gently and continuously stirred
3. Ice should be added in small quantities
4. The calorimeter should be lagged to prevent heat exchange with the surroundings

CALCULATIONS
1. What quantity of heat is required to change 5Kg of ice of 0 0c to water at 100c of fusion of ice = 3.36 ×
105J/Kg. SHC of water 4.2 ×102 J Kg−1 K −1.

2. An empty copper calorimeter weighs 0.05Kg. It weighs 0.25Kg, when half filled with water at 20 0c.
0.02Kg of dried ice are added and the final temperature of the mixture after all the ice have been melted
is 1200c. Find the SLH of fusion of ice. (SHC of water = 4200 J Kg−1 K −1, SHC of Copper = 400 J Kg−1 K −1)
 (leave 22 lines for solution)

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF STEAM

An empty calorimeter with a stirrer is weighed and its mass noted as M1(Kg). The calorimeter is then half filled
with water after which it is reweighed and its new mass noted as M2(Kg). The exact temperature of the water in
the calorimeter is read and recorded as 1(oC). The calorimeter is inserted into a lagged container. Steam from a
boiler is dried by passing it through a steam trap. The emerging dry steam is then passed into the water in the
calorimeter. A screen is usually placed between the boiler and the calorimeter to prevent the calorimeter from
receiving heat directly from the boiler. The passing of dry steam into the calorimeter is continued until the
temperature of the water rises by about 300C. The water is continuously and gently stirred until a final steady
temperature is attained. The final steady temperature is taken using the thermometer and recorded as 2(oC). The
calorimeter and its content is then reweighed and the new mass noted as M3(Kg).
DEDUCTION
Neglecting heat exchange with the surroundings,
Heat gained by calorimeter and water = Heat lost by steam

M 1 C 1 ( ❑2 −❑1 )+ ( M 2 − M 1 ) C w ( ❑2 −❑1) =( M 3 − M 2 ) L+ ( M 3 − M 2 ) Cw (100 −❑2)

Therefore,
M 1 C 1 ( ❑2 −❑1) + ( M 2 − M 1 ) C w ( ❑2 −❑1 ) − ( M 3 − M 2 ) C w (100−❑2)
L=
(M 3 − M 2)

Using the above equation, the SLH of vaporization of steam , L, can be determined provided C1 and CW are
known.
C1 = SHC of calorimeter and CW = SHC of water.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Only dry steam should be used.
2. The mixture should be gently and continuously stirred to ensure a uniform final temperature
3. The calorimeter should be lagged to prevent heat exchange with the surroundings.
CALCULATIONS
1. A piece of copper of mass 300g at a temperature of 9500C is quickly transferred to a vessel of negligible
thermal capacity containing 250g of water at 250C. If the final steady temperature of the mixture is 1000C,
calculate the mass of water that will boil away. (SHC of copper = 4.0 × 102 JKg-1K-1, SHC of water = 4.2 × 103
JKg-1K-1, SLH of vaporization of steam = 2.26 × 106 JKg-1).
2. 6.2g 0f steam at 1000C was passed into a copper calorimeter of mass 90g containing some water at 10.20C.
The final steady temperature was 42.00C. Find the original mass of water in the calorimeter. (SHC of
copper = 0.4 Jg-1K-1, SHC of water = 4.2 Jg-1K-1, SLH of vaporization of steam = 2260 Jg-1).
(LEAVE ABOUT 40 LINES FOR SOLUTION)
 WEEK 6
MELTING AND FREEZING POINTS

The melting point of a solid is defined as the constant temperature at which the solid starts changing into
liquid form. The freezing point of a liquid is the constant temperature at which the liquid starts to solidify. It
can be shown that the melting point of a substance is equal to its freezing point.

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE MELTING POINT OF A SOLID (NAPHTHALENE)

A boiling tube filled with naphthalene is supported vertically inside a beaker of hot water. A thermometer is
inserted into the tube. As the beaker is being heated, the temperature of the melting naphthalene is read
and recorded at regular intervals (say, 30 seconds). The heating is continued until all the naphthalene is
melted. The beaker of hot water is then taken away and the tube of melted naphthalene allowed to cool in
the air. The temperature of the cooling naphthalene is read and recorded at regular intervals (say, 30
seconds). In each case, a graph of temperature is plotted against time. The shapes of the graphs are as
shown below.

EVAPORATION
When water or any other liquid is exposed in a vessel, it slowly evaporates, that is, it goes spontaneously
into the gaseous state. Evaporation is a process where a liquid turns spontaneously into vapour below the
boiling point. Evaporation takes place at all temperatures and different liquids evaporate at different rates.
Liquids that evaporate easily are said to be volatile e.g. petrol, methylated spirit and alcohol. Volatile liquids
are used as solvents in perfumes and in dry-cleaning fluids where quick drying is required.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF EVAPORATION

1. Temperature: The rate of evaporation increases with an increase in temperature.

2. Pressure: As the pressure decreases, the rate of evaporation increases. At high pressure the rate of
evaporation is reduced.
3. Area of liquid exposed: The greater the surface area of liquid exposed, the faster the evaporation.
 4. Wind and dryness of the air: Evaporation occurs at a faster rate in dry air than in moist air. This
explains why wet clothes dry faster during harmattan. The dryness of the harmattan air around the
wet clothes causes rapid evaporation of moisture from the wet material. Also, wet clothes placed
near a blowing fan dry very fast. when wind blows, the moisture around the wet material is removed
faster.
5. Nature of the liquid: Liquids with low boiling points evaporate faster than those with high boiling
points.
6. Humidity: If the concentration of water vapour in the atmosphere is high, the rate of evaporation will
be low. when the concentration of water vapour in the atmosphere is low, the rate of evaporation
increases.
MOLECULAR/KINETIC THEORY EXPLANATION OF EVAPORATION
According to the kinetic theory, a liquid is made up of molecules, which are always in constant random
motion with varying speeds. Molecules with high enough speeds near the surface have enough kinetic
energy to break away from the attraction of other molecules. These molecules escape from the liquid
surface and exist as vapour. Few of these molecules may however return to the liquid.

COOLING BY EVAPORATION
Evaporation causes cooling. In rural areas, cold drinking water is provided by storing the water in earthen
pots. The earthen pot contains tiny pores through which water seeps. when this water evaporates, it
absorbs the necessary latent heat from the water in the pot thus producing a cooling effect on the water in
the pot.
Whenever a volatile liquid e.g. methylated spirit is spilled over any part of our body, that part of the body
feels cold as the spirit evaporates. This is because the latent heat of vaporization of the liquid is taken from
the body, thus it feels cold.
When we sweat as a result of exercise or hot surroundings, the evaporation of the sweat causes our body
to feel cool, because the latent heat of vaporization is extracted from the body. This results in cooling.
Before an injection is given to a patient, methylated spirit is usually dabbed on the skin of the patient. As
the spirit evaporates, it cools the skin and numbs it so that the pains from the needle prick is not felt much.

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT EVAPORATION CAUSES COOLING

A beaker containing some ether is placed on a wooden block on which some water have initially been
sprinkled. Air is rapidly blown into the ether through a small straw pipe so that the ether evaporates.
As the evaporation takes place, the temperature of the water below the beaker falls to 0 0C and
subsequently freezes, fusing the beaker to the block of wood. The latent heat required to change ether to
vapour state is obtained from the water.
 THE REFRIGERATOR
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF THE REFRIGERATOR
The working principle of the refrigerator utilizes the cooling effect of evaporation. A volatile liquid (e.g.
Liquid ammonia or freon) called the refrigerant is contained inside coiled copper pipes or tubes which
surround the freezing chamber. As the liquid evaporates, it absorbs latent heat from the surroundings
thereby cooling the inside of the refrigerator and its content. The evaporation is enhanced by a pump
which reduces the pressure. The vapour produced is removed by a pump which compresses it into a
condenser, which is attached outside the refrigerator and fixed with metal cooling fins. The compressed
vapour condenses and gives out latent heat which is quickly removed by conduction into the cooling fins.
The heat is finally removed by convection and radiation to the surrounding.
The condensed vapour goes back into circulation around the freezing chamber. It evaporates again and the
process is repeated thus setting up a continuous circulation of liquid and vapour.
In the refrigerator, there is a thermostat which switches the pump motor on and off at intervals, so that the
rate of vaporization and the consequent degree of cooling is controlled.

BOILING

When we heat a container holding some liquid, the liquid evaporates. As the heating is continued, the
temperature of the liquid increases and the rate of evaporation also increases. At a certain temperature,
rapid evaporation begins to occur across the entire volume of the liquid. The liquid is then said to boil.
During boiling, air bubbles formed inside the liquid rise to the surface. The temperature of the liquid
remains steady during boiling. This steady temperature is known as the boiling point of the liquid.
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the pure liquid boils when the atmospheric
pressure on it is 760mmHg. It is also defined as the temperature at which the pure liquid changes to the
gaseous state without any change in temperature when the atmospheric pressure is 760mmHg. We can
also define the boiling point of a liquid as the temperature at which its saturated vapour pressure is equal
to the external atmospheric pressure.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EVAPORATION AND BOILING

EVAPORATION BOILING
It takes place only on the surface of the liquid It takes place throughout the entire volume of the liquid
It can take place at all temperatures It takes place at a particular temperature for a given
Pressure
Evaporation causes cooling Boiling does not cause cooling
Wind increases the rate of evaporation Wind has no effect on boiling
This is a change from liquid to vapour below the normal
This is a change from liquid to vapour at the boiling point
boiling point

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE BOILING POINT OF A SMALL QUANTITY OF A LIQUID

Some mercury is introduced into a J-tube and the entrapped air is removed. Some liquid is introduced into
the shorter length of the J-tube above the mercury. The J-tube, thermometer and stirrer are inserted into a
beaker of water. The beaker and its contents are heated and the water stirred continuously. At a stage
when the levels of mercury in the two limbs of the J-tube are equal, the temperature is read. At this
temperature, the saturated vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure, and this is
the boiling point of the liquid.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Stir the water in the beaker to ensure even temperature
2. Ensure that a pure sample of the liquid is used

EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON BOILING POINT

An increase in pressure at the surface of a liquid raises the boiling point of the liquid and conversely, a
decrease in pressure lowers the boiling point of the liquid. This can be demonstrated by the following
experiment.
Water in a thick round bottomed flask is heated until it boils. The water is allowed to boil for about five
minutes to ensure that all the air is driven out by the steam. The flask is corked tightly and inverted over a
sink. When the water stops boiling, some cold water is poured over the bottom of the flask. It is seen that
the boiling recommences once more; the boiling stops if the pouring of cold water over the flask ceases.
The cold water over the flask cools the vapour inside and causes it to condense. This reduces the pressure
on the water surface. The reduced pressure then lowers the boiling point of the liquid, which starts to boil
once more at a lower temperature.
At high altitudes, water boils at low temperature, because the air pressure is reduced. At very high
mountains, the boiling point can be so low that food cannot be cooked properly.
A practical application of the effect of pressure on boiling point is in the pressure cooker.

THE PRESSURE COOKER

This consists of a strong metal saucepan with a tight fitting lid. A load pin valve on the lid controls the flow
of steam produced when the water in the container is heated. Food cooks very fast in a pressure cooker,
because the increased pressure of the entrapped gas above the liquid raises the boiling point of the liquid
inside the cooker.
The high temperature which is produced enables food to be cooked very fast and also saves fuel.
Mountaineers and other people who go where atmospheric pressure is low use pressure cookers so that
they can cook food properly at high altitudes.

EFFECT OF IMPURITIES (DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES) ON BOILING AND FREEZING POINTS

An impurity (or dissolved substance) in a liquid raises the boiling point of the liquid but lowers its freezing
point. For instance, salt water has a higher boiling point than pure water. for this reason, food is cooked
slightly more rapidly in salt water than in pure water.
An impurity in a liquid lowers the freezing point of the liquid. A
mixture of water and common salt freezes at a temperature lower than 0oC. Pure water normally freezes
at 0oC but because of the presence of salt (impurity), the freezing point of the mixture is lowered. A
mixture of salt and water is called a freezing mixture. A freezing mixture is used to cool other substances
when small scale cooling is needed.

EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON FREEZING OR MELTING POINT

A piece of ice block is seen to melt if sufficient pressure is applied to it. This is because an increase in
pressure lowers the melting point of ice or the freezing point of water. Usually an increase in pressure
lowers the freezing point of any liquid which expands on solidifying. But for substances which contract on
solidifying (e.g. paraffin wax) an increase in pressure results in higher freezing point..
When ice is subjected to a high pressure it melts, but when the pressure is removed, the ice refreezes.
The phenomenon is known as regelation or refreezing.
If a piece of wire with loads at both ends is allowed to pass through ice block, it will be observed that the
ice block is not cut into two.
 The increased pressure caused by the weighted copper wire lowers the melting point of ice. Hence the
wire falls through the ice formed. The pressure above the wire decreases and thus the freezing point of
the melted ice rises. Thus the water above the wire freezes again. In this way, the wire passes through the
block without cutting it into two.
Two ice cubes pressed against each other for some time is found to stick together when the pressure is
removed. The explanation is that ice melts if sufficient pressure is applied to it. This is because an increase
in pressure lowers the melting point of ice. When the two ice cubes are pressed together, the melting
point of ice is lowered, so they melt to form a thin layer of water between them. On releasing the
pressure, the water formed freezes because a decrease in pressure raises the freezing point. Hence the
two ice cubes stick together.

SUBLIMATION
Under certain conditions, some substances like iodine crystals and dry ice can go directly from solid to
vapour or gaseous state without passing through the liquid state. This process is called sublimation.

SATURATED AND UNSATURATED VAPOUR

When a liquid evaporates in a closed container, the vapour accumulated above the liquid exerts a
pressure. According to the kinetic molecular theory, the molecules of the vapour are in constant motion
and will hence exert a pressure just like the molecules of a gas. This pressure is called the vapour pressure
of the liquid. When the enclosed space above the liquid is saturated with vapour molecules and can hold
no more molecules, the pressure exerted by this saturated vapour is said to be the saturated vapour
pressure (s.v.p) of the liquid.
A saturated vapour is a vapour that is in contact with its own liquid within a confined space.
The vapour is said to be saturated when the number of molecules escaping from the liquid per unit time is
equal to the number returning to the liquid per unit time. The saturated vapour is thus said to be in a
state of dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid. The s.v.p of a liquid increases with temperature.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SATURATED AND UNSATURATED VAPOUR

SATURATED VAPOUR UNSATURATED VAPOUR
It is in contact with its own liquid It is not in contact with its own liquid
Its pressure is independent of its volume Its pressure depends approximately on its volume
Number of molecules escaping from liquid per unit Number of molecules escaping from liquid per unit
time equals the number returning to the liquid per time is greater than the number returning to the
unit time liquid per unit time
Its pressure does not increase uniformly with Its pressure increases uniformly with temperature
temperature

Has 100% relative humidity Has relative humidity less than 100%

RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND DEW POINT

There is always some water vapour present in the atmosphere. This is due to evaporation from oceans,
seas, rivers, lakes and other large expanses of water. The water vapour content of the atmosphere is
known as its humidity. Air that contains a lot of water vapour in it is said to be humid. Relative humidity is
a term used to describe how humid or moist the air is. At low humidity in an environment, the human
skin is usually dry and rough as is the case during harmattan.
Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour in a given volume of air to the mass
of water vapour required to saturate the same volume of air at the same temperature. It is usually
expressed as a percentage. Relative humidity values are used by meteorologists in making weather
forecasts. Relative humidity is measured using an instrument known as the wet-and-dry bulb hygrometer.

CALCULATION
it is found that the mass of water vapour in a given volume of air at 200C is 0.05g. Calculate the relative
humidity of the air if the air requires 0.15g of water vapour to saturate it at that temperature.
(leave about 5 lines in your note for solution)

DEW POINT
Air contains water vapour. If this air is cooled, a temperature will be reached when the air becomes
saturated with the water vapour present. This temperature is called the dew point. If the air is further
cooled, tiny droplets of water will condense on any cold surface. The tiny condensed water is called dew.
Dew point is defined as the temperature at which the vapour pressure in the air is just sufficient to
saturate it.
Dew point is dependent upon prevailing atmospheric conditions like temperature, wind and the amount
of water vapour in the atmosphere.
When a bottle of ice cold water is brought out from a refrigerator into a warm room, it quickly cools the
air immediately around it to below the dew point. Hence moisture or dew forms on the outside of such a
bottle due to condensation of water vapour on the cold surface.
This kind of condensation process is responsible for dew, mist, fog, clouds, rain, etc

MIST AND FOG

When moist air near the surface of the land cools until it reaches dew point, water vapour originally
present in the air begins to condense around tiny suspended dust particles in the air. They form
suspended water droplets in the atmosphere. A collection of these suspended water droplets constitute a
mist. Mist reduces visibility. In severe mist situation, we have a fog. under foggy situations, motorists
have to drive slowly and visibility can be so reduced that it becomes necessary to drive with the vehicle
head lamps switched on even in the day.
CLOUDS AND RAIN
A thick mist when formed high up in the atmosphere is known as a cloud. As warm moist air rises over the
land or sea during the day, it becomes cooler as it moves higher and higher in the atmosphere. If this
cooling process continues long enough the air may become saturated, causing the water vapour to
condense as tiny water droplets. A combination of several such water droplets constitute a cloud.
Instability in the condition of the cloud may cause rain fall. Certain types of clouds known as cirrus clouds
form at great heights. They are composed of ice crystals due to the very low temperatures prevalent at
such altitudes.
 WEEK 8
THE GAS LAWS
The gas laws expresses the relationship between the pressure, temperature and volume of a gas in simple
terms. In studying the gas laws, we keep one of the three parameters constant while studying the other
two.
BOYLE'S LAW
Boyle's law states that the pressure of a given (or fixed) mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume
provided that the temperature remains constant.
Mathematically,
1
P∝ ----------------------------------------------- (1)
V
K
P= ------------------------------------------------(2)
V
K=PV ----------------------------------------------(3)
K is a constant of proportionality. Equation (3) can be re-written as P1 V 1=P2 V 2
P = pressure in units of Nm-2, mmHg, atmospheres, pascal e.t.c and V = volume in cm3.
P1 and P2 are initial and final pressures respectively while V 1 and V 2 are initial and final volumes
respectively.

EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY BOYLE'S LAW

Air is trapped at the closed end of the tube B. The atmospheric pressure is noted and recorded as H.
Keeping B steady, the open arm of the apparatus R is raised or lowered and the mercury head h, is read
directly from the metre rule. The corresponding length L of the trapped air is read from the scale. This
procedure is repeated for at least four more readings. The length of the air column in the closed tube is
proportional to its volume since the tube is of uniform cross-sectional area. The pressure P of the air is
proportional to H ± h (Where H +h corresponds to the pressure when R is above Q and H −h when R is
below Q). The results are tabulated.
1
A graph of P against is plotted. A straight line graph passing through the origin is obtained. This shows
V
that pressure is inversely proportional to volume, thus verifying Boyle's law.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Only dry air is used.
2. Air bubbles in the mercury are eliminated.
3. Take readings when the mercury levels are steady
 GRAPH OF BOYLE'S LAW

CHARLES'LAW

Charles' law states that the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature provided that the pressure is kept constant.
Mathematically,
V ∝T --------------------------------------------(1)
V =KT ------------------------------------------(2)
K
V= --------------------------------------------(3)
T
V1 V2
= ------------------------------------------(4)
T 1 T2

V1 and V2 are the initial and final volumes respectively whileT1 and T2 are the initial and final absolute
temperatures respectively.
EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY CHARLES' LAW

A mass of dry air is entrapped in a uniform capillary tube, sealed at one end, by means of a mercury
pellet. Both the tube and a thermometer are then firmly attached to a half-metre rule and placed in a
water bath. The water is stirred and its temperature at a steady state is noted. The corresponding length
of the entrapped air is also noted and recorded. The water is gradually heated and stirred uniformly until
another steady temperature is attained and recorded. The corresponding length of the air column in the
capillary tube is again read and recorded. The experiment is repeated to obtain more sets of readings.
A graph of length against temperature is plotted. Since the volume of the tube is proportional to its
length, the graph shows that the volume of the entrapped air increases directly with increase in
temperature at constant pressure.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Only dry air is used
2. Parallax error is avoided in reading the thermometer and the rule
3. The water is gently stirred to ensure a uniform temperature
4. The tube and thermometer are attached firmly to the rule.

GRAPH OF CHARLES' LAW

THE PRESSURE LAW

The pressure law states that the pressure of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature provided that the volume is kept constant.
Mathematically,
P ∝T -------------------------(1)

P=KT ----------------------(2)

P
K= ------------------------(3)
T

P 1 P2
= ----------------------(4)
T1 T 2
The symbols have their usual meanings.

THE GENERAL GAS LAW

The general gas law is a combination of the three gas laws studied earlier. The expression for the
PV
general is =K
T

P1V 1 P2V 2
Therefore, =
T1 T1

The symbols have their usual meanings.

EXPLANATION OF THE GAS LAWS USING THE KINETIC THEORY

BOYLE'S LAW
 When the volume of a fixed mass of gas is reduced at constant temperature, the gas molecules have
less space to occupy and the molecules collide with the wall of the container more often, hence the
pressure increases.
Conversely, if the volume increases, then the molecules have more space in which to move and they
collide with the walls of the container less often. This leads to reduced pressure.

CHARLES' LAW
When the temperature of a fixed mass of gas is increased, the pressure goes up because the
molecules strike the walls of the container more frequently. To keep the pressure constant, the
volume must be increased so that fewer bombardments per unit time is made on the walls of the
containing vessel. Thus, an increase in temperature at constant pressure leads to an increase in
volume

PRESSURE LAW
When the temperature of a fixed mass of gas is increased at constant volume, the molecules
acquire kinetic energy. The molecules therefore travel with an increased velocity thereby hitting the
wall of the vessel at shorter intervals than before. The result is that on impact, the rate of change of
momentum increases thus increasing the pressure.

CALCULATIONS
1. The pressure of a fixed mass of an ideal gas at 270C is 3 Pa. The gas is heated at a constant
volume until its pressure is 5 Pa. Determine the new temperature of the gas leaving your
answer in 0C.
2. The temperature of 900 cm3 of an ideal gas at a pressure of 114 cmHg is 270C. Calculate its
new volume at 78 cmHg and 00C.
3. Air at a temperature of 5270C and pressure of 30 atmospheres is admitted into the cylinder of
an engine. Calculate the pressure of the gas when it has expanded to five times its volume and
cooled to 1270C as it leaves the engine.
4. When the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is doubled at constant temperature, the volume of
the gas is (A) increased four times (B) doubled (C) unchanged (D) halved
5. Dry oxygen is trapped by a pellet of mercury in a uniform capillary tube which is sealed. The
length of the column of oxygen at 27oC is 50 cm. If the pressure is constant, at what
temperature will the length be 60 cm.
6. The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is 2.0 × 105 Nm-2 at a known temperature. Assuming that
the temperature remains constant, what will be the pressure of the gas when the volume is
halved?
7. A gas occupies a certain volume at 27oC. At what temperature will its volume be three times
the original volume assuming that its pressure remains constant.
8. A given mass of gas at a temperature of 300C is trapped in a tube of volume, V. Calculate the
temperature of the gas when the volume is reduced to two-third of its original value by
applying a pressure twice the original value.
(leave about 50 lines for solution)

MEASUREMENT OF GAS PRESSURE

Gases exert pressure which arises from collisions of its molecules with the walls of the container.
The pressure exerted by a gas is known as gas pressure. To measure gas pressure, use is made of
an instrument called a manometer. A manometer consists of a U-tube containing a liquid which
could be water, oil or mercury.
MANOMETER
The simplest form of a manometer is a U-tube containing some liquid, usually mercury, water or oil.
The pressure exerted by a confined gas changes the levels of mercury in the manometer. The total
pressure of a gas is the total pressure it exerts, including the effect of atmospheric pressure.
When the manometer is not connected to any gas supply, the liquid levels in the left and right side of
the manometer are equal since atmospheric pressure acts on both surfaces of the liquid.
When one end of the tube is connected to a gas supply, the pressure exerted by the gas changes the
levels of the mercury column. If the gas pressure (from the gas supply) is greater than the
atmospheric pressure, it will drive down the liquid level in the right side of the manometer.

The pressure of the gas, Pgas can be calculated by:

Pgas = atmospheric pressure + pressure of mercury column
P gas=P atm + ρgh .
If the gas pressure (from the gas supply) is less than the atmospheric pressure, it will drive down the
liquid level in the right side of the manometer. The pressure of the gas, Pgas = atmospheric pressure -
pressure of mercury column.
P gas=P atm − ρgh .

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The pressure due to the atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure. The instrument used for
measuring atmospheric pressure is called a barometer. There are different types of barometers.

THE SIMPLE MERCURY BAROMETER

A simple barometer is made of a glass tube, sealed at the top. It contains mercury, and the base of
the tube dips into a beaker, and below the surface of the mercury in the beaker.
Atmospheric pressure pushes down on the mercury in the beaker, which in turn pushes mercury up
the tube. If the space above the mercury in the tube is a vacuum, then nothing is pushing down on
the top of the mercury in the tube, and atmospheric pressure will push the mercury up until the
pressure of the column of mercury balances the atmospheric pressure. The height h from the top of
the mercury in the beaker, to the top of the mercury in the tube can be used to calculate atmospheric
pressure.
The height h is approximately 760 mm of mercury. Mercury barometers are no longer made because
mercury is a highly poisonous liquid metal with a poisonous vapour.
 THE FORTIN BAROMETER
The fortin barometer is a type of mercury barometer which has a higher accuracy. It consists of a
vertical glass tube enclosed in a metal case with glass windows through which the mercury level can
be seen at the top and at the bottom of the metal case. It has a mercury reservoir, which is not
contained in a leather bag. A screw at the lower end of the bag is used to lower or raise the level of
mercury in the leather bag until it touches the tip of a fixed ivory index at the bottom, which is the
zero of the millimetre scale. The height of the mercury level is then measured from the tip of the
ivory index to the level of mercury in the barometer tube.

The instrument has a fixed millimetre scale as main scale and a movable vernier scale for reading the
mercury level accurately. A levelling screw at the base is used to ensure that the ivory index just
touches the level of the mercury in the reservoir; to ensure that the height reading in the scale is
measured from the zero mark.

THE ANEROID BAROMETER

An aneroid barometer does not use any liquid. It consists of a sealed metal chamber in the form of a
flat cylinder with flexible walls. The chamber is partially evacuated and a spring helps to prevent it
from collapsing.
The chamber expands and contracts in response to changes in atmospheric pressure. The movement
of the chamber walls is transmitted by a mechanical lever system which moves a pointer over a
calibrated scale.
The aneroid barometer can be used as an altimeter (to determine altitude) by mountaineers or pilots
to determine an airplane's altitude. The scale can be calibrated to give readings of altitude equivalent
to range of values of atmospheric pressure.
An aneroid barometer is also used as a weather glass to forecast the weather. Rain clouds form in the
areas of lower pressure air, so a fall in the barometer reading often means that bad weather is
coming.

WEEK 9
WAVES
A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy from one point to the other in a medium without any
transfer of the particles of the medium itself between these points.
On the other hand, a wave motion is a process of transferring a disturbance in form of kinetic energy
from one point to the other in a medium without any transfer of the particles of the medium itself.
Waves are encountered when small stones are dropped in succession on the same spot in the middle
of a pool or basin of water. Ripples are seen spreading outwards from the point of disturbance in a
circular pattern. These continuous ripples are called water waves. Waves can also be generated on a
string by fixing the string to a rigid support at both ends and then plucking the string gently. Light and
sound are forms of wave motion.
MECHANICAL AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Mechanical waves are waves that require a material medium for their propagation. examples include
water waves, sound waves and waves generated in springs and strings.
Electromagnetic waves are waves that do not require a material medium for their propagation. They
can travel through a vacuum. examples are light waves, radio waves, X-rays, gamma rays, e.t.c

TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL WAVES

Two types of waves can be distinguished based on the direction of particle vibration with respect to
the direction of travel of the wave. They are: Transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
Transverse waves are those waves in which the direction of travel of the wave is perpendicular to the
direction of the vibration of the medium. Examples include water waves, waves generated by a string,
light waves and radio waves.
A transverse wave can be represented by a series of up and down movements. That is, some portions
of the waves are displaced upwards while adjacent sides are displaced downwards.
The region of maximum upward displacement is called crest while the region of maximum downward
displacement is called trough.
 Longitudinal waves are waves in which the direction of travel of the wave is the same as the direction
of the vibration of the medium. sound waves are longitudinal waves.
In longitudinal waves, the vibrating particles behave like a spiral spring that has series of compressed
and spaced out regions travelling along it. These are referred to as compressions and rarefactions.

Compressions and rarefactions in a longitudinal wave corresponds to crests and troughs in a

transverse wave.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF A WAVE
Any wave, be it transverse or longitudinal can be represented graphically as shown in the figure
below. The graph is obtained by plotting the displacement of the vibrating particle (y) about a mean
position against time (t).

TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING WAVES

1. AMPLITUDE: This is the maximum displacement of the wave particle from its mean or rest or
equilibrium position. Its symbol is A and its unit is the metre (m).
2. FREQUENCY: This is the number of complete oscillations or vibrations or cycles made by the wave
particles per unit time (or in one second). Its symbol is f and its unit is the Hertz (Hz). It can also be
expressed in units of cycles per second. Some multiples of the hertz are: 1KHz = 1000Hz, 1MHz =
n
106Hz, 1GHz = 109Hz. Mathematically, f =
t
3. PERIOD: This is the time taken for a wave particle to make one complete cycle about a point of
t
reference. Its symbol is T and it has the same unit as time. Mathematically, T = . t = time and n =
n
number of oscillations. The above expression shows that period is the inverse or reciprocal of
frequency. This gives the relationship or connection between period and frequency which is
1
expressed mathematically as T =
f
4. WAVELENGTH: This is the distance between two successive crests or troughs of a transverse wave or
two successive compressions or rarefactions of a longitudinal wave. It is also defined as the distance
travelled by the wave in one complete cycle. Its symbol is  and its unit is the metre.
5. WAVE SPEED OR VELOCITY: This is the distance covered by a wave per unit time. Its symbol is V and
its unit is metres per second.
6. CYCLE: A cycle is a complete to and fro oscillation of a vibrating body.
7. PHASE: Particles are said to be in phase if they are on equal states of disturbance. Particles which are
at the same vertical distance from their mean or rest positions and moving in the same direction are
also in phase.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN V, f AND 

Distance travelled x
The speed of a wave, V, is given by the expression V = =
Corresponding time taken t
In one period, the wave will cover a distance which corresponds to its wavelength.
I.e. when T = 1 second, x = .
1
.: V = ❑ =× =× f
T T
CALCULATIONS
1. In a ripple tank experiment, a vibrating plate is used to generate ripples in water. If the distance
between two successive troughs is 3.5 cm and the wave travels a distance of 31.5 cm in 1.5 seconds,
calculate the frequency of the vibration.
2. Sixty complete waves pass through a particular point in 4 seconds. If the distance between three
successive troughs of the wave is 15 cm, calculate the speed of the wave.
3. The period of a wave is 0.02 second. Calculate its wavelength if its speed is 330 ms -1.
4. What is the frequency of a radio wave of wave length 150 m if the velocity of radio waves in free
space is 3 × 108 ms-1.
5. A progressive wave has a wavelength of 50 cm. Calculate the phase difference between points at a
distance of 20 cm apart.
6. The distance between two points in phase on a progressive wave is 15 cm. If the speed of the wave is
0.20 ms-1. Calculate its period.
7. A wave of wavelength 0.30 m travels 900 cm in 30.0 seconds. Calculate its frequency.

(leave 35 lines in your note for solution)

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF WAVE MOTION

EQUATIONS OF WAVES
The following equations represents the motion of any progressive wave.
1. y= A sin ❑

2. y= A sin ωt

3. y= A sin 2 πft

2t
4. y= A sin
T

2 Vt
5. y= A sin
❑
2x
6. y= A sin
❑
2
7. y= A sin
❑
( x − Vt )

2
8. y= A sin
❑
(Vt − x )
In the above equations, y is the vertical displacement of the wave;
A represents the amplitude of the wave;
ω represents the angular velocity of the wave;
t represents time;
x represents the horizontal displacement of the wave;
The other symbols have their usual meanings.

CALCULATIONS
1. The equation y=5 sin (3 x − 4 t) , where y is in millimetres, x is in metres and t is in seconds,
represents a wave motion. Determine the (i) frequency (ii) period (iii) speed of the wave.
2. The equation of a certain progressive wave is represented by y=3 sin ❑(200 t −5 x). what is the
frequency of the wave?
x
3. The equation y=2sin ❑(2000t − ) represents a wave train in which y is the vertical
17
displacement of a particle at a distance x from the origin and t is time. For this wave, calculate (i) the
amplitude (ii) the wavelength (iii) the velocity (iv) the frequency and (v) the period.
(leave 30 lines in your note for solution)

PROPERTIES OF WAVES
Waves have some or all of the following properties.
Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction, Interference, Polarization.
Reflection of wave occurs when an advancing wave encounters a barrier and bounces back to the same
medium.
Refraction of waves is the change in the speed and direction of a wave as it moves from one medium to
another of different densities.
Diffraction is the spreading of waves round corners or around obstacles.
Interference is the effect produced when two waves of equal frequency, amplitude and wavelength from
two close sources travelling in the same direction in a medium are superposed one on the other.
Polarization is the confinement of the vibration of a wave to a single plane. Only transverse waves can be
plane polarized.
 WEEK 10
LIGHT WAVES
Light is a form of energy that causes a sensation of vision. It is the visible part of the electromagnetic
spectrum and travels with a speed C = 3 × 108 ms-1. Light energy is also called luminous energy.

SOURCES OF LIGHT
There are numerous sources of light. These sources can be natural or artificial. The sun, stars and fireflies
are natural sources. Such sources emit light of their own accord and are said to be luminous. Candle light,
electric light, gas light e.t.c are artificial sources of light.
Non luminous bodies do not emit light of their own accord rather they depend on luminous objects to
illuminate them. One notable example of a non luminous object is the moon.

LIGHT AND MATTER

When light energy is incident on an object, it may be transmitted, reflected or absorbed. In some cases, a
combination of the above phenomenon takes place depending on the nature of the object. A transparent
object transmits most of the light energy falling on it. It reflects and absorbs only a small fraction of the
light energy. examples of transparent objects are plane glass, a body of clear water.
A perfectly opaque body absorbs all the light energy falling on it while transmitting or reflecting none.

RAYS AND BEAMS OF LIGHT

A ray is a path or direction along which light energy travels. It is represented by a straight line with an
arrow head. The arrow head indicates the direction of propagation of the ray. A collection of rays of light
form a beam of light.

There are three types of beams namely; Parallel beam, convergent beam and divergent beam.
A parallel beam is a collection of light rays which are parallel to one another.
A convergent beam is one in which the rays of light meet at a point. A convergent beam can be obtained
by placing a converging lens in the path of a parallel beam of light.
A divergent beam is one in which all the rays come from a point and diverge outwards.

RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

In a homogenous transparent medium light travels in a straight line and this is known as rectilinear
propagation of light. This can be demonstrated by the following experiment:

Take three cardboards A, B and C and make a pinhole at their centres. Place a burning candle on one side
of the cardboard A and arrange the cardboards in such a way that the three pinholes and the candle
flame are in a straight line. The candle flame will be visible through the pinhole of the cardboard C.
Now slightly displace any one of the cardboards and try to see the flame through the pinhole of the
cardboard C. The flame will not be visible. From this it is clear that light travels in a straight line.
Two natural effects that are direct consequence of the rectilinear propagation of light are the formation
of shadows and eclipses.
SHADOWS
A shadow is a dark region formed behind an opaque object when it is placed in the path of light. A
shadow is only formed when a light source, an opaque object and a screen are present. Shadows are
formed because light rays travels in straight lines. When light rays arrive at an opaque obstacle, the rays
just grazing the edges of the obstacle produce the outline of a shadow. The type of shadow formed
depends on the size of the source of light. If it is a point source of light the shadow formed is sharp and
uniformly dark. This is called umbra. The reason for the dark region is that there is complete absence of
light behind the object when the light source is so small.

When the light source is extended, the shadow formed is made up of two parts- the innermost part or
umbra, which is a region of full shadow and an outermost part which is a region of partial shadow called
penumbra.
 ECLIPSES
An eclipse is a shadow resulting from the obstruction of light from the sun by either the moon or the
earth.
When the Sun, Moon and Earth come into a straight line, an eclipse occurs. This does not happen very
often because the moon's orbit is inclined to that of the earth. A Total eclipse occurs when all the moon
or sun is blotted out. A partial eclipse is when only a portion of the sun or moon is covered.

SOLAR ECLIPSE (ECLIPSE OF THE SUN)

A solar eclipse occurs when the moon comes between the sun and the earth. When this happens, the
moon's shadow is cast on the earth and since the sun is an extended source, the shadow of the moon
formed on the earth comprises of a region of total darkness(Umbra) and a region of partial darkness
(Penumbra). People living in the umbra region experiences total darkness because they cannot see the
sun at all. People living in the penumbra region observe partial eclipse as they can see only a part of the
sun.

ANNULAR ECLIPSE
This type of eclipse occurs when the moon comes between the sun and the earth. This is different from a
solar eclipse because during annular eclipse, rays of light at the moon's edges intersect before reaching
the earth which causes a ring of light to be formed round the shadow of the moon.

ECLIPSE OF THE MOON

An eclipse of the moon occurs when the earth is between the sun and the moon. The moon then passes
through the shadow of the earth. Eclipse of the moon may be partial or total.
 THE PINHOLE CAMERA

This is the earliest and simplest camera used. It works on the principle of the rectilinear propagation of
light. It consists of a box with a pinhole on one side and a screen made of tracing paper on the opposite
side. The pinhole side is pointed at the object to be viewed. The pinhole selects one ray of light from each
point on an object to form an image of it on the screen.
The image formed by the pinhole camera is always inverted. The image is also not so bright since the
amount of light entering the camera is small. The size of the image depends on the distance of the object
from the pinhole to the screen.
The image formed on the screen is larger when the object is closer to the pinhole. Also the image is larger
but less bright when the screen is further from the pinhole.
If there are two pinholes in the camera, each pinhole selects its own rays of light from the object thus
leading to the formation of two images on the screen.
If the size of the pinhole is increased, the image formed is blurred but bright. This is because a cone of
rays is let through the pinhole instead of a single ray. Furthermore, a large pinhole is equivalent to
multiple pinholes, each forms its own image so that the images overlap and are seen as a single blurred
image.

MAGNIFICATION
The magnification produced by the pinhole camera is defined as the ratio of the size of the image to the
size of the object.
mathematically,
¿ IMAGE IMAGE HEIGHT ¿
M= = =DISTANCE OF IMAGE ¿ PINHOLE PINH
¿ OBJECT OBJECT HEIGHT DISTANCE OF OBJECT ¿

ADVANTAGES OF THE PINHOLE CAMERA

1. It requires no focusing as object at various distances are in focus on the film
2. It produces no distortion as the lens camera does.

DISADVANTAGES
1. It takes a long time for an image to be developed on the film as the amount of light passing through
the hole is small.
2. It produces inverted images
3. The images formed are usually not bright and sometimes blurred.

CALCULATIONS
1. A man 1.8m tall stands 3m away from a pinhole camera. If the distance between the pinhole and
the screen of the camera is 0.3m, calculate the height of the image of the man produced by the
camera.
2. An object is placed at a distance of 40cm from the hole of a pinhole camera. If the height of the
object is 20 cm and the length of the camera is 10cm, calculate the magnification and also, the
height of the image.
 (leave 10 lines in your note for solution)

TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT
Light can travel through a vacuum or free space. Light from the sun reaches us after travelling a great
distance through space. Light can also pass through certain material media. A material that allows light to
pass through it (transmits light) is said to be transparent. Plane glass and clean clear water are examples
of transparent bodies.
Opaque bodies do not transmit light. For this reason, we cannot see through them. They can only absorb
or reflect light. A perfectly opaque body is one that absorbs all the rays of light that falls on it and reflects
none.
A translucent body transmits light, but the percentage transmitted is small with the result that objects
cannot be seen clearly through them. examples are frosted glass, tissue paper, and waxed paper.