PROJECT MANAGEMENT

COURSE OUTLINE

Introduction to project management

 Meaning of the terms project and project management
 Characteristics of a good project
 Types of project
 Importance of project management
 Principles of project management
 Role of communication in project management
 Role of project manager

Project management cycle

 Project management cycle
 Theories of project management cycle

Project identification
 Meaning of project identification
 Sources of project ideas
 Factors influencing selection of communication project
 Methods used in project identification
 Steps in project identification
 Challenges in project identification

Project planning and designing

 Meaning of terms project planning and designing
 Steps in project planning
 Factors to consider in project planning and designing
 Project planning techniques
 Project logical framework/planning matrix

Project risk management

 Concept of risk management
 Risk analysis
 Performing risk analysis
 Managing risks
 Performing risk management
 Implementing risk management

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Project implementation
 Meaning
 Factors to consider in project implementation
 Role of project manager in project implementation
 Procurement and contracting procedures
 Challenges in project implementation

Project monitoring
 Meaning
 Characteristics of an appropriate monitoring system
 Importance of monitoring a project
 Stakeholders perspectives of monitoring
 Challenges in monitoring project

Project evaluation
 Meaning
 Project performance indicators
 Steps in project evaluation
 Tools and techniques in project evaluation
 Challenges in project evaluation

Project appraisal
 Meaning
 Components
 Techniques used in project appraisal
 Challenges in project appraisal

Project termination
 Meaning
 Ways of terminating a project
 Impact of project termination
 Challenges of project termination

Project sustainability
 Meaning
 Reasons for sustaining a project
 Factors that lead to project failure
 Factors that lead to project sustainability
 Project sustainability options
 Challenges in project sustainability

Report writing
 Meaning of project report
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  Factors to consider in project report writing
 Formats of a project report
 Importance of project report presentation
 Challenges faced in project report writing

Communication participation in project management

 Communication participation in needs assessment
 Communication participation in decision making
 Communication participation in resource mobilization
 Communication participation in managing projects

Emerging trends in project management

Introduction to Project Management

Project
- Is any human activity that achieves a clear objective against a specified time?
- A project is a set of related tasks that are coordinated to achieve a specific
objective in a given time limit and with uniqueness in relation to achieving a
specific objective, accomplishing a definite role within a time limit and can be
well coordinated alongside involving many people or a team.
- According to W.B, the term project is a concept that broadly means the use of
resources for a specific productive purpose.
- According to W.B, a project is seen as an investment; however, a project is for a
piece of work i.e. one whole thing. In liberal understanding of a project is that it
is a discrete of investment policy, measures and other actions designed to achieve
a specific development objective or a set of objectives within a designated
period.
- Project management is a special approach that encompasses all the peculiarities
ensuring the success of the project.
- These peculiarities ensure that the project is completed within a stipulated time
and that its performance satisfies its intended purpose.
Programme
- Is a set of related projects. A project program means a list of activities
for a project showing the dates for starting and finishing them can also be
called a schedule.
Intervention
- Is the process of involving man, money and materials in a situation in
order to improve or help it.

The intervention process involves two parties:-

Interventional party – individuals involved in improving the situation into a more desired
status.
a) Target party – direct beneficiaries of the activities of the project
b) Development
- It is a process of improving the well being of people’s living
- Standards in terms of education, health and related human potentiality.

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 - It should be holistic and multi-dimensional involving the participation of
the people who should own the project themselves.
- Development involves activities and programs that help people more from
low to higher standards of living as their needs are met satisfactorily.

Management
- It is the art of performing a task, maintaining its integrity and ensuring that
- It is done and performed as desired within time, cost, budget fixed.
- Project management therefore foresees and predicts dangers and problems
and plan, organize and control activities so that projects are completed as
successfully as possible.
Target
- Are the targeted results and targeted beneficiary in a project. Any project
aims at affecting a particular people with its specific results aimed to solve
a group’s problem.
- It is important to note that a project may target a particular group in a
community e.g
women group.
Problems Anything that can hinder
Demand Great desire to possess something
Need It is a desire to acquire something necessary
Should have evaluation that are used to build on future projects

Characteristics of a Good Project

i. Is should have a time frame
ii. It should have a fixed set of objectives that achieved the project seam to exist.
iii. It should be flexible to allow changes that may not have an impact
iv. It should be result oriented/productive i.e. it should aim at binging a change in the
society
v. It requires team work i.e. the team should consist of members belonging to the
different disciplines e.g in construction engineers, accountants, social scientists are
required.
vi. It should be made to the orders of the customers’ i.e. requirements and control
within a project must be executed as given by the customers.
vii. It should be well planned (conceived) to reduce risks and uncertainties
viii. It should be carried out through a series of interdependent task i.e. a number of
repetitive tasks that needs to be accomplished in a certain sequence in order to
achieve the project objective.
ix. The execution of the project must be controlled to ensure that the desired results
are achieved (quality)
x. The project must be completed within a given budget.
xi. It should have activities that are tailored around a clear purpose
xii. Should be consistence with the customs of the community

Types of projects

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 - In recent years, more and more activities have been tackled on a project basis.
Project teams and project management have become common in most
organizations. The basic approaches to project management remain the same
regardless of the type of project being considered.
- You may find it useful to consider projects in relation to a number of classifications

Engineering and construction

- These projects are concerned with producing a clear physical output i.e. roads,
bridges, buildings etc
- The requirement of a project team is well defined in terms of skills and background
as well as the same procedures that need.
- Most of the problems that may confront the project team are likely to have
occurred before; therefore their solutions may be based upon experiences.

Introduction of new systems

- These projects would include computerization projects and introduction of new
systems and procedures including financial systems.
- The nature and constitution of a project team may vary with the subject of the
project. This is because different skills may be required and different end users
may be involved.
- Major projects involving a system analysis may incorporate clearly defined
procedures within an organization.

Responding to deadlines and change

- An example of responding to a deadline is the preparation of an annual report by a
specified date.
- An increasing number of projects are concerned with designing organizational or
environmental changes involving developing new products and services.

Other types of projects include:-

a) Normal projects
- In this case adequate time is allowed in implementation. All the phases are allowed
to take the time that they should normally take. This type of project requires
minimum capital cost and no sacrifice in terms of quality.

b) Crush projects
- Here, additional capital costs are incurred to gain time. Maximum overlap of phases
is encouraged and compromised in terms of quality; savings in time is normally
achieved through procurement and construction where time is bought from vendors
and constructors by paying them extra money.
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 c) Disaster project
xiii. Anything needed to gain time is allowed in this project. Quality, short of failure is
accepted around the dock work is done at the construction site. Capital cost will go
very high before the project time will get reduced.

NOTE
A project can either be categorized as small scale, medium or large scales. They may also
fall under different sectors i.e. public and private sectors.

IMPORTANCE OF PROJECT DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

i. Project development is the 1st phase in any project therefore it serves a very
important purpose of any project. These includes:-
ii. Important ideas about the project are conceived, discussed and approved by the
project team.
iii. It helps in deciding what kind of project is most needed, given the development
requirement at a particular time and place.
iv. The project team can pre-determine the sources of raw materials in terms of quality
and quantity.
v. The size and the capacity of the project is determined
vi. Manpower and organizational patterns are determined
vii. Financial analysis is done i.e. sources of finance are determined and evaluation of
financial viability is done.
viii. It improves the quality of life of the targeted people/parties

PRINCIPLES OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

- The completion of a project is the primary objective. A project must be completed
100% no lapse regard is accepted. In this regard we need to observe the following
principles:-

1) Commitment principles
- An equitable commitment between principles and resources and project delivery
team must exist before a viable project is realized.
2) Success principle
- The measures of a project success in terms of the processes and products must be
defined at the beginning of a project as a basis for project management decision
making and post project evaluation.
3) Principles of management
- Policies and procedures that are effective must be in place for the conduct and
control of the project commitment.
4) Single point response principle
- A single channel of communication must exist between the project sponsor and the
project team leader for all the decisions affecting the product scope.
5) Principles of cultural evaluation
- Management must provide an informed supportive cultural evaluation to ensure that
the projects delivery terms are able to work within the limits of their capacity.
6) Principle of strategy
- Encompassing 1st learning than doing in a focused set of sequential progressive phases
must be in place.
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 7) Transparency and accountability and report principle
8) Principle of sustainability
9) Principle of ownership and principle of needs assessment

ROLES OF A PROJECT MANAGER

i. The project manager has multiple roles to play within their work. These roles can be
summarized into 3 main categories.
ii. As a chief executive
iii. All projects involve the execution of a variety of activities utilizing physical and
human resources to achieve specific objective.
iv. Within a project, someone must have authority of controlling these resources and be
accountable for the success or achievements. This is usually the project manager.
v. As a chief executive the project manager is expected to make things happen by
active intervention.
vi. He/she cannot wait for changes to occur but must actually create them

As a leader
- The manager has a role of exerting authority and influence directly the people
working either for the project he has or in the local evaluation.
- He/she defines the ethics, values and the norms of the project team, establishes
the atmosphere of the project/organization and the way the various project
activities are approached.

As a diplomat
- He/she negotiates the relationship between the project and its evaluation
- Here, he/she is required to ensure adequate support of the project in terms of
resources, supplies and services
- He also ensures political support without that the project is likely to fail.
- The manager’s role as a diplomat requires high level of sensitivity, good negotiation
skills and the ability to feel for a situation.
- A successful manager should be able to understand the relationship of the project
to its evaluation.

Other role of project managers

- To control and organize labour needed by the project
- To lead people and organize assignment at a given point in time
- To monitor performance, costs and efficiency of all elements of the project and the
project as a whole.
- To complete the project on schedule or on time and within cost, this being the
overall standards by that the performance of the project manager is evaluated
- To solve the problems that arises in the project or within the project team.

Functions of a project manager

a) A good manger also has a character based functions and includes:-
b) Developing the vision – he/she should have a sharp focus to vision and draw others
to it, ensure project relevance, set objectives and remain inspirational.
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 c) Maintaining commitments – he/she should communicate constantly the project
rational in order to rekindle the five.
d) Integrator – he/she coordinates activities, provides overall project system, provide
complete task definitions, defines the end and provides the performance criteria
e) Change agent – in this case, he/she insist on accuracy and honesty, uses people’s
management skills, instills the sense of urgency.
f) Resource provider – he provides human resource, facility, finance as well as defines
the resource requirement
g) Conflict management – he ensures conflict resolution, smooth progress in the
organization. He also anticipate bottlenecks and problems

Role of the communication in the project management

- Identify their needs so as to suit the project objectives
- Help in identification of resources that can help in the project
- Participate in monitoring and evaluation of the project activities
- Assist in decision making
- Resource contribution e.g finance, human labour etc
- To ensure sustainability of the project

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE

- A cycle is a sequence of events that a project follows
- These events/stages or phases can be divided into several equally valid ways
depending on the executing agencies or parties involved.

Theory of project management cycle

- Stakeholders can define project management as the realization of concepts and
goals through efficient, effective, transparent, accountable and responsible
administration of any given activity.
- All stakeholders should be regularly consulted in matters affecting a project to
ensure coordination of project activities.
- Project management cycle implies a process oriented to project management
system covering the whole project cycle from project conception to project
conclusion.
- It involves a combination of the various project cycle phases with corresponding
management tasks. It is an effective decision making process to ensure certain
action occurs at the right time within the life of a project.

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 Project Project
conceptio identifica
n tion

Evaluatio Project
n and preparati
feedback on

Participat Project
ory, appraisal
monitorin
g and
reporting

Project Project
impleme selection
ntation

Plan for Negotiati

impleme on and
ntation financing

1) Project conception
- At this stage an idea regarding a required intervention in a specific area to address
unidentified problem is formed or developed through discussions by local leaders in a
community and specialists as needs bases issues and crystallized into a proposal.
- The projects can therefore be conceived based on market demand, resource
availability and opportunity to make profitable used of available resources,
technology, natural calamity and political consideration

2) Project identification
- This stage refers to the process where all potential projects arising from ideas
crystallized in the 1st stage above are determined.
- An individual or communication representative to an agency capable of identifying an
institution to provide the necessary support to realize the expectation may submit
the information in the proposal for project conception.
- The type of information provided at this stage is usually general and descriptive

3) Project preparation
- This stage involves a more thorough exercise of collecting data and information on
the proposed project.
- At this stage of the cycle, the objective of the project is defined and alternative
solutions described.
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 - The project preparation contains the design of a set of operational proposal i.e.
technically, financially and economically feasible. The decision is made on the scope
of the project on location, size, site etc

4) Project appraisal
- This involves a further analysis of the proposed project. At this stage a critical review
of the proposal is undertaken. The systematic and comprehensive review is usually
undertaken by an independent team of experts in consultation with the stakeholders
of the project.
- This provides an opportunity to re-examine every aspect of the project plan to assess
whether the proposal is justified before large sums of money are committed.
- They appraisal may also change the project plan and develop a new plan.

5) Project selection
- After appraisal, a viable or a suitable project proposal is chosen for implementation
based on the priorities of the stakeholders and the available resources. For instance
treasury may impose ceiling on ministries with a big portfolio of investment calling
for prioritization of core and lower priority project.

6) Negotiation and financing

- Once the project to be implemented is agreed upon for donor funded projects,
discussions are held on funding and associated aspect of funding i.e. conditionality
for grants, repayment period and interest rates if loans are borrowed.
- They must also discuss the flow of funds, contributions from stakeholders and
beneficiaries and if there is any co-financing or not. These results in an agreement
document of the project that binds all the parties involved during the
implementation of a project.

7) Planning for implementation

- This is the stage either before actual implementation or before the start of a new
implementation phase of the project. The exercise is conducted at the level of a
project and involves implementers, the funding agency or all stakeholders.
- The exercise involves enabling the project management to address the important
implementation issues i.e. project objectives, financial arrangement, the scope of the
project, the implementation schedule etc given the overall resource structure and the
working evaluation.
- The likelihood of further changes occurring either in design or in physical and policy
evaluation to affect the project is also discussed during the exercise, the team should
clearly define the objectives and the hierarchy of objectives.

8) Implementation stage
- This is a crucial stage of any project since the objective of the earlier effort in the
stage above was to have project to be undertaken. At this stage activities of the
project are actually carried out and funds are disbursed to facilitate the activities. The
management should ensure that the project is carried out according to design.
- However, depending on the physical and policy evaluation, this may be needed for
responsibility in response to ground.
- Monitoring of progress and reporting therefore becomes crucial.
- Implementation is a process of refinement or learning from experience and can
actually be considered as a “min cycle” within the larger project. The implementation
forms the life of a project. The investment period refers to when major project

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 investments are undertaken and it could take 1-3 years depending on the nature of the
project from the time it is terminated.

9) Monitoring and reporting

- This should be an ongoing activity during implementation. The beneficiaries, through
implementing staff, the supervising staff and the project management staff can carry
out the monitoring.
- The aim should be to ensure that the activities of the project are being undertaken on
schedule to facilitate implementation as specified in project design.
- Any constraints in operationalizing the design can quickly be detected and corrective
action taken. This would enable the management to be proactive rather than being re-
active in correcting mistakes during implementation.

10) Evaluation
- This state involves a systematic review or examination of success and failure in the
project experience during the project life in order to learn how to plan better.
- This implies that evaluation is a continuous exercise during the project life and is much
related to project monitoring.
- Evaluation can also be undertaken when the project is at the first step in a re-planning
effort.
- Careful evaluation is also undertaken before any follow up project. Evaluation can be
done internally or by external reviewers.
- Some organizations have a monitoring and evaluation unit. The main aim of evaluation
is to determine the extent to that the objectives are being realized.

Highlight 5 stages in project management cycle

PROJECT IDENTIFICATION
- In project identification, potential set of interventions arising from ideas crystallized
in the conception stage are determined and individual or communication
representative to an agency capable of identifying on institution to provide the
necessary support to realize the expectation may submit the in information in the
proposal for project conception.
- Usually some objective judgment is applied to assess the proposal or set or proposals
to establish if the proposal can proceed to the next stage in the cycle.

Problem identification

- This is a very crucial process in the formative stages of any project development
undertaking and it forms the basis of project justification and rational i.e. the core of
the project existence and definition.
- Problem identification refers to the process of assessing the problems people
encounter in the community and prioritizing them.
- Projects grow out of problems or opposite. Problem identification can also refer to
finding out those issues affecting people and those that limit them to function
maximamlly.

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 - These issues are summed up into a problem statement. It specifies the problem at
hand that need to be addressed, ideas to solve the problem are generated and
produced as a document describing the project in sufficient details coveting all aspects
necessary for consideration by project team.
- The problem to be solved becomes the objective of the project

Sources of Project Ideas

- These ideas are usually hatched through discussion by local leaders in a community and
specialists as need based issues are crystallized into a proposal.

The projects can therefore be conceived based on:-

a) Market demand – either domestic or overseas
b) Resource availability – opposite to make profitable use of available resources
c) Technology – i.e. to make use of available technology
d) Natural calamity – in order to address the adverse effects of natural events i.e
drought, floods etc
e) Political consideration

Project Ideas Can Also Originate From Other Sources

i. National level – these are projects with form part of a broad national program
ii. Sectoral level – various sectors may decide to concentrate on development projects
in one area because of the potential in that area
iii. NGO`s – there are many NGO`s operating in local areas, they can come up with
profit ideas aimed at benefiting the people.
iv. Leaders – politicians as people’s representatives also come up with profit ideas
v. Local people – the local people are the intended beneficiaries of the proposed
project. The projects initiated by the people themselves have strong support from
them and stand a better chance of success.

Factors influencing the selection of community projects

- The project ideas generated from the community level are many but the available
financial resources and the staff do not allow for implementation of more than a few
projects at a time.
- These projects are sorted out and only those given the highest priority are submitted
for implementation.
- Projects are selected with a particular objective, project selection should not be
assumed as an easy task.
- In essence, the basis of selecting a project is determined by the objective it should
fulfill the objectives or the problem it is meant to solve among other things.
- Project selection therefore is the process of evaluating individual projects or group of
projects and choosing to implement some of them so that the objectives of the
organization are achieved.

These factors include:-

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Policy framework
- This s the main guide to all matters involved in the project. it clarifies the overall
principles for the project attitude towards handling management work.
- Policy framework involves statements that have the backing and resources necessary
for its achievement.
- A project policy framework incorporates all stages of the project from completion to
operation stems until decommissioning.
- It also serves the purpose of coordinating the project activities. The policy
framework should be based on the following activities i.e. planning, execution.
- All the activities and tasks affecting the project require well laid down policies
describing all requirements and stakeholders.

To achieve the objectives of the project, the policy framework should:-

i. Determine the size of the project, the project team and the location of the
project
ii. Identify the status of the existing document and determine whether or not the
existing document is compatible and the proposed project activities
iii. Determine the range of project activities within the specific project.
iv. Identify the level of activities within the project and the method of work
allocation
v. Determine the responsibilities and the commitment of the project
management team.

- The policy framework should take into account structure to avoid overlapping and
duplication design to provide a uniform simple format and facility for documentation of
changes.
- Policy framework also ensures that all members of the project team have a job
description and that they comprehend and understand their job well.

Criteria
- These are procedures organization use to decide with creative idea to support. This is
because projects have different costs, benefits and risks. Project selection is usually a
task of senior management as it’s the crucial part of project life because the success
meets its goals.

Relevance
- Project selection is one of the many decisions closely associated without project
management. Decision aiding models are used to deal with all problems of relevance.
Such models are needed because they abstract the relevant issues about a problem. It
is said that realist cannot solve a problem but idealists can do. An idealist strips away
almost all the reality from a problem leaving only the aspects of “real” situation
without he/she wants to deal with. Reality is too far complex to deal with. The process
of carrying away the unwanted reality from the bones of a problem is called modeling
the problem.
- The model represents the problem structure i.e. the modeling foam.

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 - Projects are selected according to their relevance to the needs of the people or
community. It is imperative to consider that the projects are relevant based on the
situation on ground.

Feasibility
- In project selection, a feasibility report is inevitable as it covers important areas in any
report.
- The feasibility report covers
- The technical configuration of the project
- The performance requirement for the project
- Lost estimate for the project
- Techno-economic viability of the project
- An overall schedule implementation
- A feasibility report shows how possible it is to carry out a project
- The project manger may update and validate it before proceeding with the project.
- He is responsible for the completion of the project according to what is laid down in
the feasibility report
- According to the guidelines published by the planning feasibility

A feasibility report should include the following:-

 Raw material survey
 Demand study
 Technical study
 Product pattern
 Planted size
 Raw material requirement
 Location study
 Project capital cost estimate and source of finance
 Profitability and cash flow analysis
 Cost benefit analysis
 Process selection

Project feasibility study takes into account the following areas

i. Need for the project
ii. Availability of resources
iii. Available technology and use
iv. Location of the project
v. Infrastructural facilities and services
vi. Financial and economic benefit

PROJECT AREA ANALYSIS

- This is a comprehensive and a quality study of the area where a project is to be
initiated.
- The study is aimed at finding out whether an area is fit for a particular project.
- Projects are analysis is inevitable in the pre-feasibility study of any project.
- Pre-feasibility study is the initial process of deciding what kind of project is most
needed given the development requirement at a particular time and place

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 corresponding to this stage; the series of document is usually prepared with a report
referred to as an identification report.
- Project area analysis involves
- Mapping out the area of the project relating all the details with the type of desired
project, coming up with statistics bearing data including that of demographic.
- Locate your project by providing specific co-ordinates using the nearest big town, the
distance between the largest city/town must be given in km and in annex and maps
to give the result location.
- Provide historical background for the area
- Append information that will clarify certain issues i.e. National HIV charts on bar
graphs
- Give details of legitimacy on land ownership.

The pre-feasibility study is aimed at finding out-

1) Resources
 In project area analysis, we analyze the resources that are found in an area whether
they can be used in the project. In this case we analyze:-
 Human resources – this seeks to find out whether there are personnel qualified to
work or contribute to the project.
 Natural resources – these are God given resources i.e. water, trees, stones etc
 It is important to find their source and availability.
 Material resources – these are man-made resources. They include raw materials and
others resources i.e. money and equipment. It is necessary to find out whether local
resources are available to be used in the project, their sources and transportation
requirement.

2) Administrative infrastructure
 This involves analysis of administrative units in an area I.e. divisions, locations and
villages
 The types of local leaders and their roles are also studied
 The need to interact with the government and representatives of government is
probably inevitable.
 The project manager can expect to deal with bureaucracy at several district levels.

3) Economic infrastructure
 It is concerned with the process of production, distribution and consumption of goods
and services in the project area.
 It examines existing industries and other economic activities. Although there is a
great need for new projects in the developing countries, there is also lack of funds
from the normal sources expected in the developed countries.
 Many projects are funded externally. Project managers involved in the identification
preparation and appraisal stages of a funded project need to be fully aware of the
requirement of the grants or a warding agency to which they are making application
for funding.

4) Land use patterns

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 - In project area analysis you can’t ignore the question of land use patterns. This can
be tackled in project location studied.
- To meet targets relating to time and cost, it is necessary that the site has been
properly selected and cost. It is necessary that the site has been, properly selected
and the position taken care of before zero date.
- Normally the donors will dispatch a team of experts to inspect the site before they
sanction any money.
- Uncertainties associated with the land use patterns and particularly that of sub soil
conditions must also be removed before the zero date.
- Understanding of the land use patterns of a potential project site is very important
that’s why project sites are selected on several considerations that include:-
- Availability of land, soil characteristics and cost of land
- Sources of raw materials and transportation requirements
- Transportation and marketing
- Source and availability of water
- Availability of power/source and skilled manpower
- Social amenities in the area
- Availability of tax incentives
- Facilities of engineering and maintenance facilities
- Acceptance of project by local bodies

5) Social infrastructure
- Social infrastructure is amenities or facilities that support people in an area. They
include:-
- Hospitals, churches, cinema halls, schools, play grounds etc. You need to find out
whether they are available and their use.

6) Food path
- This is the study of the process of food preparation, harvesting, and storage in an area.
It involves how cultivation of land is done, planting, weeding, harvesting and storing
7) Population (demography)
8) Occupation

METHODS USED IN PROJECT IDENTIFICATION

i. Projects that eventually end up succeeding and making an impact in
transformational agenda are those that are built on definite purpose and
established on attained goals and objectives.
ii. These projects are need driven i.e. they set out to address a given problem.
iii. To identity such a project or set of projects activities, it is imperative that the
project promoter considers the use of methods that are all inclusive i.e. involving
all people who will be involved and benefit from the project activities
(stakeholders)

Some of these methods include:-

 Brainstorming
 Focus group discussion
 Cost versus benefit analysis
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  Transact walk
 Problem three analysis

Problem Analysis
- Problem analysis brings out ideas on particular problems to be solved or
specific needs to be met.
- It is a tool for understanding the problem in details by trying to identify the
route causes and the effects of the problem. The purpose is to organize the
disintegrated data into manageable.

Structures for the communication to assess and rank

The following methods can be used

Preference ranking – here the group members can discuss and agree on the ranking from
the most to the lease processing pressing problem. It helps to determine quickly the main
problems or preferences of individuals and enable the priority of individuals to be easily
compared.

Voting is a form of preference ranking

Problem P1 P2 P3 Total Priority ranking

Poverty 1 2 2 5 2
Water 3 3 3 9 3
Health 2 1 1 4 1

The table shows that health is the most serious problem.

Pair – wise ranking – this is whereby 2 problems are compared at ago to find out with one is
pressing to the development in an area. All the problems are compared against each other
to establish the most felt need.
Ranking provides a visual impression of whether development projects are addressing the
community need or not. It can be used to identify conflict of interest between individuals or
groups and how they perceive issues.

Problem W ED HE AGRI EMP SEC COMM. NO. of RANK

Times
preferred
Water X W W W W W W 6 1
Education X X H Ag Ed Sec Ed 2 4
Health X X X H H H H 5 2
Agriculture X X X X Ag Sec Ag 3 3
Employment X X X X X Emp Emp 2 4
Security X X X X X X Sec 3 3
Communication X X X X X X X 0 5
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Matrix scoring/Ranking – this is used to compare problems/solutions against selected
criteria. It is used to identify local criteria used in making choices for the ranking of
problems as well as understanding local preferences.

Some of the criteria can be:-

 Cost which is the least expensive

 Time which can be achieved in the shortest time
 Resources which can be accomplished with little or no outside support
 Sustainability which can the community manage on their own
 Effectiveness which is the most effective in achieving the objective

Flow diagram – they are used to explore impacts, cause effect and relationships on
problems or solutions. They are used to illustrate casual flows, impacts and linkages
between problems and solutions.
Problem three – once a problem has been identified, it can be analyzed using problem tree.
This is where the causes and effects of problems are analyzed.

Steps in Project Identification

Problem definition – starts with a more thorough exercise of collection of data and
information on the proposed project. In this stage personnel conduct the exercise with
technical and analytical skills in consultation with the target and beneficiary community.
Formulation of specific policies – the objectives of the project are defined and alternative
solutions described.
The identification contains the design of a set of operational proposals that is technically,
finally and economically feasible.

Decision – is made on the scope of the project location, size among others.
- The detail of feasibility study depends on the complexity of the project and on
how much is already known about the proposals. in fact a succession of
increasingly detailed feasibility studies is sometimes called for in complex
projects.
- The feasibility study provides opportunity to shape the projects to fit its
physical and social evaluated and exclude relatively poor alternative ways of
achieving the project goals.

Approaches Used In Project Identification

- Methods of data collection, project ideas, and sources of information for project
identification must be considered. This process is referred to as need assessment
method or approaches.

In Need Assessment, A Planner Must Ask the Following Questions

 Who are the beneficiaries of the project to be implemented?
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  Who are the stakeholders of the project?
 What are their needs?

The various approaches used to identify projects include:-

- Felt need approach – here the needs are articulated by the people to benefit from
the project. These are the actual needs of the people e.g the Kamba people need
water and food while in Kitale people require security.
- Nomadic need approach – this implies those needs that are established by the society
or the community and below with no individual should go. It is the planner’s role to
identify these minimum requirements and to solve these problems. The people’s
requirements should be identified and the nomadic needs should be solved according
to the society’s commission, needs and expectations.
- Expressed need approach – it is the same as the felt need; they are expressed by the
people or the target group. The only difference from the felt need approach is that
the planner is the one who identifies the problem.
- Comparative need approach – here the community may have a comparison of their
needs with other communities. These are needs with axe relative in that they are not
exactly important or they arise in the community.

Challenges in Project Identification

a) The technical nature of project identification stage requires a lot of technical
analysis and review to determine the most workable and feasible of the project
alternatives, some of the related challenges include:-
b) Lack of technical expertise to conceptualize and deapher the specification of
parameters that would measure feasibility.
c) Subjectivity consideration for establishing the site, length and even coverage of the
project.
d) Conflict: - in the issue of project ownership and conflict of interests
e) Legal impediments
f) Poor government policies
g) Inadequate resources
h) Norms, beliefs and traditions of the people
i) Community participation
j) Insecurity
k) Lack of community awareness (ignorance or illiteracy)

Factors That Assist In Problem Identification

 Symptom of the problem i.e. Invisible signs of a problem
 Impact of the problem: - the felt effect of the problem
 Contributing factors – factors contributing to the existence of the problem
 Affected persons – victims of the problem
 Relationship with other problems

PROJECT APPRAISAL
- The implication of the project on the study and the evaluation are more thoroughly
investigated, clarified and documented in project appraisal. Project appraisal
involves a further analysis of the proposed project. At this stage, a critical review
of the proposal is undertaken.
- The systematic and comprehensive review is usually undertaken by an independent
team of experts in consultation with the stakeholders of the project. This provides
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 an opportunity to re-examine every aspect of the project plan to assess whether
the proposal is justified before large sums are committed.

Components of project appraisal

1) Environment:
- The focus of project appraisal will revolve around technical assessment and
determination of how the intended project will affect and be affected by the
immediate physical and social evaluation.
- The impact of the project on overall evaluation has to be as positive as
possible i.e. preserving and conserving at best.

2) Economic and financial

- appraisal seeks to determine the feasibility and validity of the project based
on its overall cost as measured against its benefits (whether monetary or
not)
- A systematic and comprehensive review of cost implication is undertaken and
this is compared to other financial analysis of the projects activities are
weighed with the view of answering the question. Is the project worthy the
cost?

3) social, cultural and political

- Project appraisal looks at the extent to which the social, cultural and
political aspects of people’s lives will be affected by the implementation of
the project.
- A development project should as far as possible work towards the
enhancement.

Technical Methods Used In Project Appraisal

 The appraisal process builds on the project plan be may involve new information
if the appraisal team feels that some of the data used at preparation or some
assumptions are faulty.
 Similarly, the technical design, financial measures, commercial aspects,
incentives, economic parameters, managerial skills, organizational arrangements
are thoroughly scrutinized.
 Based on appraisal report, decisions are made about whether to go ahead with
the project or not. The appraisal may also change the project plan or develop a
new plan.
 After appraisal, the viable project proposals are chosen for implementation
based on the priorities of the stakeholders and the available resources.

Techniques used in project (appraisal)

Project appraisal is a comparative tool for project selection. They are either
 Financial methods
 Non-financial methods

1) Financial method is variously known as financial analysis, business case or project

financials. It include:-
a) Net present value
- It deals with how much money these projects make
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 b) Internal rate of return
- It is how rapidly money will be repaid
- Its calculation of the percentage rate of that project will be yield, wealth of
saving account.
c) Pay back period
- This is when the original investment in project will be received to benefits.

2) Non – financial method EIA (environmental impact assessment analysis)

- Whenever the process of getting financial data is difficult, expensive or time
consuming, using a weighted factor scoring method may be a reasonable
option for selecting the best alternative solution.
- E.I.A is a logical method of examining the actions of people and the effects of
the project and policies on the evaluation in order to help ensured the long
term sustainability of the earth as a habitual planet.

Steps In The Process Of EIA

i. screening
ii. scoping (define issues or identify major impact)
iii. baseline studies/survey
iv. impact prediction (if project will succeed/benefit)
v. prepare environmental impact statement
vi. monitoring and audit

Project appraisal and risk management

- Project appraisal or feasibility study is an important stage in the evolution of a
project.
- It is important to consider alternatives, identify and assess risks at a time when data
is uncertain or unavailable. It does not concentrate on mathematical analysis but
rather on the purpose and objectives of using a logical process of managing project
risks.

Investment
- The individual project however significance and potentially beneficial to the
promoting organization will only constituter part of corporate business. It is also
likely that, in the early stages of the project cycle, several alternative projects will
be competing for available resources.

Particular finance
- The progress of any project will therefore be subject to investment decision by the
parent organization that may allow the project to proceed.

Sanctions
- When a project is sanction, the investing organization is committing itself to major
expenditure and is assuming the associated risks. This is the key decision in the life
cycle of the project in order to make a well researched decision, the promoter will
require:-

Clear objectives
- The promoters objectives in pursuing this investment must be clearly stated and
agreed by senior management early in the appraisal phase, for all that follows is
directed at achievement of these objectives in the most effective manner.

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 - The primary objectives of quality, time and cost may well conflict and it is
particularly important that the project team know whether minimum time for
completion or minimum cost is the priority.
Market intelligence
- This relates to the commercial evaluation in which the project will be developed and
later operated. It is necessary to study and predict trends in the market and the
economy anticipate technological developments and the actions of competitors.

Realistic estimates/predictions
- It is easy to be over optimistic when promoting a new project. Estimates and
predictions made during appraisal will extend over the whole life cycle of
implementation and operation of the project.
- Consequently, single figure estimates are likely to be misleading and due allowance
for uncertainty and exclusion should be included.

Assessment of risk
- A thorough study of uncertainties associated with investment will help to establish
confidence in the estimate and allocate appropriate contingencies.

Project execution plan

- This should give guidance on the most effective way to implement the project and to
achieve the project objectives, taking account of all constraints and risks. Ideally,
this plan will define the likely contract strategy and include a program showing the
timing of key decisions to awards of contracts.

Project Appraisal and Selection

- With an understanding that project proposal is a process of investigation, review and
evaluation undertaken as the project or alternative concepts of project are defined.
- This study is designed to assist the promoter to reach informed and rational choices
concerning the nature and scale of investment. The core of the process is an
economic evaluation, based on a cash flow analysis of all costs and benefits that can
be valued in terms of money.
- The consequences of inadequate or unrealistic appraisal can be very expensive to the
project. Ideally, all alternative concepts and ways of achieving the project objectives
should be considered.
- The resulting proposal prepared for sanction must define the major parameters of
the project. The location, the technology to be used, the size of the facility, the
sources of finance, raw materials, forecasts in the market and predictions of the cost
benefit of the investment.

Program
- It will be necessary to decide when it’s the best time to start the project based on
the previous considerations. Normally this means as soon as possible because no
profit can be made until a project is completed. In deed may be that market
conditions or other commitment impose a program deadline.

Challenges in Project Appraisal

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  Personal qualifications – those appraising should be skilled
 Finance – funds required to carry out impact assessment
 Time – requires a lot of time in visiting the field
 Government policies

PROJECT PLANNING AND DESIGN

- Planning refers to what is to be done, how it is to be done and who is to do it.
- In its expanding role, the planning process should refer to making decisions in a
forecasted evaluation.
- Planning involve the determination of future course of actions i.e. how it is to be
done, why an action is to be taken, what is to be done, when it is to be done etc
- Project planning means an activity in which human, material and financial
resources are organized in a better way to undertake a unique work within a
specified time, cost and quality to achieve objectives. Anyone planning a project
of significant size will soon find that, there are a number of factors both inside
and outside the project organization that can have a profound effect on the
planer’s intentions.

External factors that can affect or wretch attempts at project planning include:-
 Act of god e.g earthquakes, floods, slides
 Fiscal policy – the policy of a national government in respect of taxation and
other financial measures
 Corporate strategy – i.e. decisions made by managers outside and above the
project organization
 Statutory regulations – legislations by national and regional government can
impose extra burdens on project designers and contractors that have to be
taken into account at the planning stage.

Characteristics of Planning
i. Planning is closely associated with the objectives of the organization
ii. Planning is concerned with looking into the future. It requires forecasting of
future situation in that organization has to function
planning involves the selection of the best alternatives i.e. To achieve
objectives
iii. Planning is comprehensive and includes every course of action in the
organization
iv. Planning is an interdependent process i.e. It coordinates activities of various
departments, sections and subjections
v. Planning is flexible as its based on future conditions that are dynamic.

Importance of Planning
a. All managerial actions depends on planning
b. It provides a guideline to all functions
c. Better planning ensures better utilization of the organization’s resources
d. It helps to focus attention on objectives thus all activities are performed to meet
these objectives within a specified time.
e. It minimizes cost because of the emphasis on efficient operations and consistency.
f. It reduces risks and uncertainties and prepares for any eventuality

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 g. It helps in identifying situations that may impact negatively in implementation of
the project.
h. It helps to determine available resources for the project implementation
i. It helps in control – control involves measurement of accomplishment of events
against plans and correction of deviations to assure attainment of objectives
according to plan.
j. It increases organization effectiveness – proper use of resources to accomplish
objectives.

Causes of Poor Project Planning

i. Lack of accurate information
ii. Problems of changer in technology, business conditions, consumer taste and
desires
iii. Poor project management discipline
iv. Lack of knowledge and skills in planning
v. Inadequate time for planning
vi. Wrong team members of the project
vii. Inflexibility in planning (inability to change)
viii. Absence of risk management – a good project must have a well defined risk plan

Components of a comprehensive Plan for a project

 Planning the project work – this spells out the activities related to the organization or
the project in a detailed schedule and sequential way
 Manpower and organization planning – i.e. determining human resource, work force
and labor required
 Planning for funds – this establishes the overall cost i.e. sources and uses of funds
within the project
 Planning the information system – i.e. ensuring to update and keep the data or
information catalogue for the project.

Project planning guidelines

o The project team should have a detailed project plan. The plan includes the
following:-
o Work schedule and guidelines
o Budgets, cost account and control system
o Detailed work breakdown structures and work packages
o Quality plans
o Areas if high risk, uncertainty and contingency plans
o Documentation plans
o Change, control and work review plans
o Personnel plans and resources utilization plans

Project guidelines involves

i. Project identification – this involves needs assessment in order to determine the
most felt need. The project identified should be the priority of the target group.
ii. Verification of feasibility report – after a need assessment report is completed,
which summarizes the problems and needs of the area, the strength and weaknesses
in terms of resources and opportunities available for development are also
identified.

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 iii. Identification of project objectives- once the project has been selected, the
objectives is stated clearly in measurable terms.
iv. Project team is identifies – these are people who are going to work in the project
and they need to possess relevant qualifications and experience.
v. Identify the project stakeholders – these are groups/individuals that have interest
for the project to be initiated.
vi. Establish the scope of work – these involves, knowing the nature of work to be
performed.
vii. Draw the standard of work or specification – this involves specifying the quality of
work that is expected to be performed. This information would be used to be
performed. This information would be used during monitoring and evaluation.
viii. Identify the project key stages – these are vital activities for the project that must
be performed at different times and their completion affect the entire project.
ix. Prepare the project bar chart – a bar chart is a diagrammatic representation of the
project implementation. It is a tool used to show how the project is to be
implemented from the start to end of the project.
x. Draw the project network critically – a project network is a diagrammatic
representation showing how much time the project is going to take on each activity
from the start to the end of the project.

Project Planning Process

a) Problem identification
- This is the 1st step in project planning. It involves identifying the problem that
interferes with the development in the communication.
- All projects are intended to solve or reduce some problems thus the need to
identify the problems and they should be felt needs.
b) Setting objectives
- Objectives are positive statements of the goals we want to achieve by
carrying out the project. These are general and specific objectives.
- General objective – is a statement about what we wish to success of the
general objective.
Objectives should be
 Specific
 Measurable
 Achievable
 Reachable
 Time bound

c) formulating alternative course of action and selecting the most appropriate

- At this stage, various alternative course of action are identified the various
alternatives are evaluated in the lights of objectives and other factors that
can affect planning e.g politics, demand, resources, government controls.
d) Feasibility analysis

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 - This is examining the feasibility report, examining each area and comparing it
with the alternative selected. it meant to ensure that the project selected is
relevant to the needs. It is at this stage that the plan is formulated.
e) Writing the plan
- A plan is a skill drawn before an action takes place so as to meet the same
goals and objectives. It shows what has to be done, who will do it and when it
will be done. It is used during project implementation.
f) Project budget
- A budget is a financial statement of a given period of time. It is a qualitative
and quantitative statement for the income for a given activity.

During the planning process, it is important to bear in mind that a project plan must be:-

Clear
- The over driving goals for all units of projects are clear enough to give
continuity and conditions to all of the tactical choices made during the life
time of the strategy.
Keep the initiative
- A good plan reserves freedom of activities or actions, support the
empowerment and enhances commitments.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PROJECT PLANNING

a) Length of the project
- Too lengthy projects need adequate resources and time allocation. The
overall end result must be considered.
b) Availability of resources
- These include both human and financial resources available. Quality
delivery is determined by the availability of adequate resources, time and
finance.

c) Objectives/user requirements
- The overall needs to be met have to be identified. This helps in formulating
the project objective and intention.
- A project officer examines the requirements deemed useful by the
intended target.

d) Fiscal policy and government policy

- The plans must be coordinated with the policies on land. Aspect i.e.
taxation must be considered to ensure the right amount is budgeted for a
given procurable goods.

e) Initial planning for proceeding project

- This gives an evaluation tool to justify the success of a given project.
Consider the reasons for success or failure of previous projects in order to
prepare for any risk of danger ahead.

Project Planning Techniques

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  This is the process through which the project activities are allocated specific time
for their completion. It shows all activities of the project in a logical order as they
will be implemented and the time to be spent in each stage.
 Project management has a special set of techniques. However project
management like any other functional management is not a technique only. The
techniques are the scientific but they are also the act of politics manager.
 For quite sometime project management was equated to project evaluation
review technique, pert. But it did not take long for them to get disillusioned. This
does not mean that pert has failed. It only reflects that it is a mixture of
techniques.
 In project scheduling and coordinating techniques pert plays a key in networking
techniques

1) Project Evaluation Review Technique (PERT)

- Pert is a model for project management designed to analyze and represent the
task involved in completing a given project .it is commonly used in conjunction
with critical pert method. Pert is a method used to analyze the involved task in
completing a project, especially the time needed to complete each task and
identify the minimum time needed to complete the total project
- In project scheduling pert plays a key role in networking techniques. In network
analysis we try to establish the activities and the time each activity will take.
- It is a representation of project activities and the specific time period they need
to be implemented. Pert is also a network by itself.

2) Critical Path Analysis Method

- Well planned projects have a critical path that key project activities fall in. If these
activities are delayed the will delay the whole project.
- CPA Is the longest time period that important activity of the project is going to
take. The activities that lie on the longest path of the project from the time of
starting to the completion are known as critical activities.
- These activities must be carried out and completed on time in order to operate
within the required period of time.
- Analysis of these activities is known as critical path analysis. It is important for
project managers to conduct a proper analysis to project requirement before
specifying a solution and writing a programme before testing it.
- To understand dependencies, is important in both simple and complex project i.e.
If activity can begin only when another activity is complete then we have a
dependency but with multiple teams operating dependencies become more
complex, this is because we still need to know exactly that components from one
team are required before another team can start on something else.
- Dependencies are developed by asking what can start once. This activity has
started: the conception is that dependencies run from the finish of one activity to
the start of succeeding activity.
- An activity network is therefore important as it shows the inter dependencies
between the tasks needed to develop the product and a critical path through the
project.

3) The Ganty Chart/Bar Chart

- This is another planning tool named after H.L Ganty, an industrial engineer who
pioneered their used.

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 - They provide a visual way of illustrating the sequence of activity in a project. They
show planned and actual progress for a number of activities displayed against the
horizontal time skill.

Advantages of Gant Chart

i. Helps to keep truck on how things are doing
ii. It is easier to make re-allocation of resources among the activities faster
iii. It can also be easily understood
iv. It can be easily maintained
v. It provides a clear picture of current state of the project

Disadvantages
i. They do not show dependencies very easily i.e. that activity has to be completed
before another one start.
ii. They are less useful for managing progress on a project.

4) Work Breakdown Structure (W.B.S)

- It is a traditional approach and has been used in many projects the basic idea is to
take the overall work of the project and break it down progressively into smaller
and smaller until we end up with individual tasks or work packages that we can
estimate equal.
- The work can probably be sub-divided into smaller work packages e.g a day’s work.
- The idea is to breakdown each activity until we arrive at tasks that are:-
- Fairly atomic i.e. Not readily lie themselves to further subdivision or assignment to
more than one person.
- Small enough to estimate with reasonable accuracy e.g half a day or 2 days
duration

- The danger of using a standard WBS is that each project has got some distinctive
features and it is not important has not ready to fit the project to a standardized
approach.
- If anything the standardized approach must be customized in each project.

IMPORTANCE OF WBS
i. There is thorough implementation leading to efficiency and effectiveness
ii. There is reduced work load
iii. It is time saving
iv. It enhances specialization
v. It helps to reduce conflict
vi. Priority areas are identified

5) Duty Specification
- This refers to the process of identification of individuals and specialized groups who
will perform duties as well as assigning them various responsibilities.

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Advantages
i. Reduces workload during project implementation
ii. Promotes project efficiency and effectiveness
iii. Saves time
iv. It leads to applying and development of expertise

Disadvantages
i. It leads to failure of communication because different specialists do not mix due to
lack of social common interest and understanding.

6) Time specification and management

- Time specification refers to scheduling that determines when activities are to be
done and how much is to be done. The period within that the project is to be
done must be specified and followed during implementation stage. In ideal
situation, a project will be considered very successful if it is completed in time,
within budget and performs exactly the way it was designed.
- Time estimate is made by making a work breakdown of the project, estimating
the time schedule for each work, putting them in proper sequence or series or any
other logical manner and matching them with available resources.
- There should be correct estimate of time taken by each activity.

Disadvantages
i. Unrealistic time estimate
ii. Late deliveries by contractors
iii. Defective design and subsequent modifications to suit the project requirement
increases time and cost
iv. Problems of resources

NB:-
The estimated time for the completion of a project is dependent only on the work content
or sequence. Resources and constrains will also influence it.

There are several approaches for estimating time duration

 Time study
 Previous project data
 Estimating approach
 Range estimates
 Time taken versus time required
 Estimates from contractors
 Allocated and committed time

7) Project logical framework

- It is a tool to aid projects and programs planning and management especially at
strategic and institutional level.
- Project logical framework consist of a 4 x 4 matrix with that summarizes the
project records their sanctions that under pins the strategy adopted and outlines
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 how the project may be monitored or arranged according to the hierarchy of
objectives or an ends means continuum logical framework approach is a set of
interlocking concept that must be used together in a dynamic fashion to permit
elaboration of a well designed, objectively described and valuable project.

PROJECT STRUCTURE

Logical Hierarchy

Wider/objectives/purpose

Immediate objectives/purpose

Output

Activities

EXAMPLE
We carry out all the activities necessary to support the family planning clinic then they will
provide family planning services to the community. If they have access to FP services then
they will use FP methods effectively. If they use FP methods increases, then the population
growth rate will fall.

Column I II III IV
Narrative summary OVI - MOV – IA –
Objectively Means of Verification Mea
Verifiable indicators

Goals
Purpose
Outputs
Activities

Column I Nutritive Summary

 The narrative summary defines the project structure; care should be taken to
distinguish between project activities, inputs, outputs purposes and goals
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  Goal/overall objective – is the ultimate objective of the project to that specific
project will contribute.
 It may not necessarily be reach till end of project implementation
 Purpose
 This is what the project is expected to achieve. It is the intended effect or impact of
project on target population.
 Output
 Are the likely results achieved i.e. the results of completed project activities
 Activities
 This are what we actually do e.g in a road project, the inputs might be the materials,
machinery and labour. The output might be the number of kilometers of the finished
road; purpose might be to enable easy transportation of products and goals to
enhance economic development.

Column II Objectively Verifiable Indicators

 It shows the achievement of objectives applying at each level. In the hierarchy, OVI
should show that the project is successful in the purpose column; we need indicators
to show the purpose of a project
 At the output level, the indicators should be measurable
 At the activity level, we have means/inputs but no indicators

Column III Means Of Verification

 There must be a way of measuring or collecting information about each of the
indicators.
 It is important to identify the sources from that information to verify indicators can
be gathered e.g reports, documents.

Column IV Important Assumptions

 Project may fail not because of the project structure was necessarily bad or illogical
but because of external or evolutional factors outside control of the project i.e.
Natural calamities. They are external to the project and those responsible for the
project have little or no control over them.

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N/S OVI MOV Important
Assumption
GOAL: - Field observation  High community
- Agric productivity  Crop yield per - Periodic reports participation
increased in the Eastern ha increased from agricultural  Commitment
Province office from both the
“BOs, NGO, Gvt
PURPOSE: - Field observation  Communities
- Promote soil and water  Soil and water - Periodic reports will take care of
conservation practices conservation from District the systems
through reducing system put in Administrators established
deforestation place
OUTPUT:
 50 ha of land - Field observation  Reliability of
- A covered with - Sample survey enough rainfall
forestation/deforestation vegetation - Community  No immigration
of degrade land  Agric density participation
- Population pressure reduced records
reduced on farm land  Birth rate
reduced
INPUT:
- Plant sight identified  Funds available
- Labour organized on time
- Nursery established - -  Duties assigned
- Family planning and on merits
awareness creation  Community
introduced commitment
and
participation
attained

PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

- A risk is any happening or event that its impact normally has an adversely positive or
negative impact.
- it is an act of uncertainty occurring in a project affecting its continuity in achieving
the objectives eventually affecting cost, time and quality basically individuals prefers
maximizes those that are positively consequential.

Concept of Risk Management

- Risk management is the act is of developing a response mechanism to suppress
mitigating the existence of a given risk after occurrence.
- The greatest degree of uncertainty about the future is encountered early in the life of
a new project.
- Decisions taken during the appraisal stage have a larger impact on final cost, duration
and benefits. The conclusion drawn from research is that parties involved in

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 construction project would benefit greatly from reduction in certainty prior to
financial commitment.

Risk management has a well planned set of activities going through the following set of
stages.

 Risk identification
 Risk quantification
 Risk response
 Risk monitoring and control

Risk Analysis
- At the appraisal stage, PM inputs will concentrate on providing:-
- Realistic estimate of capital and running cost
- Realistic time scales and programs for project implementation
- Appropriate specification for performance standards

Performing risk analysis

- When performing risk analysis then efforts should be concentrated on:-
- Seeking sins that will avoid or reduce risks
- Considering whether the extent or nature of the major risks are such that the normal
transfer may be unavailable or expensive
- Any special treatment that may be considered for risk transfers e.g insurance or
unconventional contractual arrangement
- Setting realistic contingencies and estimating tolerances consistence with the
objective of preparing the best estimate of anticipated total project cost.
- Identifying comparative differences in the risk ness of alternative project schemes.

Risks and Uncertainties

i. In general risks may be reduced in the following ways:-
ii. Obtaining additional information
iii. Performing additional tests or simulations
iv. Allocation additional resources
v. Improving communication and managing organizational interfaces.
vi. Market risks may be frequently reduced by staging the development of the project.
All the above will incur additional in early stages of development.

Types of Risks
1) Technical risks
- These are risks that accrue from unproven technology that is relevant skills of
operations are unavailable.
2) Management risks
- They come as a result of poor appropriation of resources (time and cost) or poor
administration
3) Organization risks
- They come when departments conflict in terms of performance, financial
appropriation, job allocation etc
4) External risks
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 - They come when external changes that are likely to affect the project objective occur
e.g government regulations i.e. taxation, inflation.

Performing Risk Management

- Risks are specific to a project and they all affect cost and benefit. While performing
risk management.
The following should be looked into:-
- Environmental risks – these frequently occurs in compromise following comparison of
cost with benefit. They are likely to have a significant influence on the conceptual
design and the response should therefore be agreed prior to sanction.
- Risk to health and safety – it is normally considered as an hazard during design and it
embraces issues i.e. Reliability and efficiency in addition to safety.
- Innovation – thorough testing but in appropriate time may reduce the consequential
risks of inadequate performance and cost provision must be included.
- Risk to activity – it is related mainly to the implementation phase of the project these
risks arise mainly from uncertainty and they are the responsibility of the project
manager.

Performing a Risk Response

 Risk response may be done through many ways. Not all risks may be mitigated but
those with high probability and high impact are likely to meet immediate action.
 Effectiveness in planning for mitigation determines the risk decrease or increase of
project objectives. However, several strategies may be employed as you respond to
risk.
 Risk avoidance – this is changing the overall project plan to eliminate the mess prior
to its manifestation. It aims at protecting the objectives of the risk impacts.
 Transference – this involves shifting the management and consequences of the risk
to a 3rd party. It involves payment of a subscription rate using a fixed value to a
contractor or a consultant.
 Mitigation – involves reducing the probability and consequences of adverse events to
a more or an acceptable through shorthand taking early action is more effective
than a “repair” of the consequences e.g by seeking more project partners to
increase capacity.
 Risk acceptance – this is deciding not to change because the project plan in dealing
with risk. Possible acceptance requires no action e.g there could be a last minute
replacement of a staff.

Implementing risk management

i. The logic process of risk management may be defined as:-
ii. Identification of risks and uncertainties
iii. Analysis of the implication (individual and collective)
iv. Response to minimize risks
v. Allocation of appropriate contingencies

 Risk management is an essential part in project management cycle therefore risk

management

 Requires that you accept that uncertainty exist

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  Risk management generates a structured response to risk in terms of alternative plans,
solutions and contingencies
 It generates a realistic and stimes different attitude in project staff by preparing them
for the risk event.

If uncertainty is managed realistically the process will

- Improve project planning by prompting what if questions
- Generate imaginative response
- Gives greater confidence in estimate
- Encourage provision of an appropriate contingencies and consideration on how they
could be managed.

Implementing a risk management plan

1) Risk identification – this refers to naming the risk by nature and origin e.g the
causative agent and the overall impact.
2) Risk quantification – here the risk is measured in the extent at which risks have
caused loss and expected mitigation (response) in financial cost and human resource
3) Response stage – here the strategy to minimize or mitigate a risk are put in place.
4) Risk monitoring and control – having a foresight on the response will include better
appropriation and contingencies.

Ethics in Risk Management

a) Accept that the risk exist
b) Generate a structured response to risk in terms of alternative plans, solutions and
contingencies
c) It generates a realistic attitude in project staff by preparing them for risk rather than
taking them by surprise at impact.

Types of Contingencies
 Time (the float)
 Money – allowance in the budget
 Quality – performance of the workers (people)

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
- This is a crucial stage of nay project since the objective of the earlier effort in the
stages above was to have projects to be undertaken.
- Implementation is the process in which plans are carried out to achieve specific
objectives.
- It involves estimating the people and resources to implement the plan.
- It is a phase where project is made to happen. It is also a phase where controls are
imposed to ensure project implementation remains on course.
- Implementation of project revolves around three important functions namely:-
 Organize – assigning duties and coordinating staff and activities
 Directing – giving instructions and delegating duties to various members of the
staff
 Supervising – maintaining control, check ups and outs on project activities and
on staff implementation.

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Factors to Consider In Project Implementation
1) Government and other stakeholder’s policies – these should be made in case of
flexibility on reality on the ground.
2) Priority and order of goals – most crucial and needed goal must be put at the
forefront during implementation. Priority is made in terms of the urgency in the
needs to be accomplished.
3) Availability of resources – allocation of resources is done based on the resource
base. At implementation ensure adequate resources are allocated influx in resource
allocation should be avoided at the same time avoid over budgeting. Work done per
stage is effective if the human resource is available and effective.
4) Timing aspects – time expected to accomplish a certain task has to be re-instated.
Too much time allocation as well as less time allocation should be discouraged
5) Initial plans – carry out the implementation according to realistic practical initial
plans and designs in view of meeting the overall goal.

Role of a Project Manager in Project Implementation

The role of a project manager in the implementation process is an integrated process that
involves the following aspects:

A. Allocation of resources
- Project resources are human, material and natural resources. They should be
allocated to the activities to be performed by the manager. They are made
available and used in economic way to ensure effectiveness of the project.
- The project manager needs to consider the total demand for key resources. When
considering the project as a whole, these will be completion between activities
for resources and the demand may either exceed the planned availability or
produce a fluctuating pattern of their use. This is known as resource aggregation.

B. Organizing
- This is the process that involves the shaping of an organization as it grows shrinks,
collapses or even changes.
- It is also the process of grouping activities and resources in a logical and
appropriate way/fashion
- It is involved with procurement factors i.e. people, equipment, materials and
services. It also involves grouping and alignment of resources and delegation of
authority and responsibility within the organization so that work is carried out as
planned.

Grouping of resources and activities to accomplish some end results in an efficient and
effective manner requires the following:-
1) Designing of jobs
2) Authority and responsibility
3) Span of management
4) Managing line and staff position
5) Task determination
6) Job description
7) Organizing units
8) Grouping jobs

1) Designing of jobs

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 - Is the process of determining what procedure and operations are to be performed
by employers in each position?

It involves
 Job specialization – is the process of breaking down one job into several other
jobs.
 Job rotation – is the systematic moving of employees from one job to another.
 Job enlargement – changing nature of job by adding more activities
 Job enrichment – changing nature of the job by adding more activities to the
business and more discretion in how to do or perform activities.

2) Grouping Jobs
- The process of grouping jobs is also referred to as departmentalization normally
done after jobs have been designed and then grouped into logical sets i.e.
- Departmentalization by product – set your department in relation to the number of
products.
- Departmentalization by function – i.e. By functional areas of management i.e.
Financial, research, marketing, human resource department etc
- Departmentalization by location/region – they are normally organizations that cover
many regions e.g coca cola company.

3) Authority and Responsibility

- While authority is power to carry out task or assignment, responsibility can be
defined as a duty or obligation to carry out an assignment or task.
- At the level of an individual manager, when the manager assigns task to the
organizational level, it is referred to as decentralization.
- Delegation is the process through which the manager assigns post of his/her work to
subordinates

Barriers to Delegation
i. Managers may be disorganized and therefore may not be willing to delegate duties.
ii. The manager may not want the subordinate the benefit as he/she may be selfish.
iii. Manager is afraid that subordinate may do much better than himself.
iv. Subordinate may not perform or be willing to accept that kind of job.

Decentralization
- Maximum delegation throughout the organization result into disorganization.
Decentralization is a situation where organization delegate power and decision
making authority to lower level management.

Role of Decentralization in Organization

i. It plays the role of keeping managers who are close to problems alert and
responsible for making decision about those problems.
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 ii. It is also common where decisions are required on minor items.
iii. It is also suitable where the evaluation is more complex or dynamic

4) Span of Management
- This refers to the number of subordinate who report directly to a given manager.
They are too commonly referred to as the wide span of management.
- Wide span of management is a situation in an organization where a manager has a
large number of subordinators who are reporting to him/her.
- Narrow span of management is whereby managers have a few subordinates
reporting to the managers this lead to all organizational structure.

5) Managing Line and Staff Position

- Line position is those positions in the direct chain of command with specific
authority, accomplishing the goals of an organization. Staff positions are positions
outside the chain of command that are advisory, consultative or supportive in
nature.

6) Organization Design
- This is the overall configuration of position and interrelationship among positions
within the organization.
- Organization consist of a number of pieces put together in a certain way in
different ways distinctive from each other in form and style because no too
organization exactly alike how the various pieces are put together.

7) Task determination
- It involves determining and defining the specific that are necessary to accomplish
the planned objectives. They are grouped in logical pattern or structure.

8) Job Description
- The activities are assigned to specific positions and people and delegating authority
to those positions and people.

C. Staffing

Staffing process involves the filling up of various positions with appropriate individuals. This
involves selection, training and appraisal of the various individuals involved in the project.
Staffing involves:-
Selection and recruitment – this involves the following stages:-
 Defining recruitment
- This is the preparing job description and specification. It is also deciding on
terms and conditions of employment.
- Recruitment is the process of identifying the sources of prospective employees
and stimulating them to apply for jobs in the organization.
 Alteration of prospective employer or sourcing for personnel includes advertising
using agencies and consultancy.
 Selecting appropriate employees
- This involves a sifting application, interviewing and testing them, assessing
their potential, offering employment and preparing contracts of employment.

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 - The overall aim of recruitment in selection process is to obtain at a minimum
cost, the number of quality employees to satisfy the human resource needs in
an organization.
- Training and developing staff – this is the stage of teaching job skills. Teaching
of general abilities to the management.
- The efficiency of project depends directly on how well its members are
trained. After employment, the staff is trained to do the job on which he has
placed better.
- Rules and regulations – these are provided and every staff in the project is
expected to conform to them.
- Renumeration – the project staff should be motivated as this encourages them
to perform better.
- Renumeration should be fair and provide maximum possible satisfaction to
employees of the project.

 Directing
- This is the used of authority to channel the activities of the project on desired
lines. The project will require continuous direction until completion or when
the problem occurs during implementation. Project direction can be exercised
by the project charter or at start up period. It can be given by project
manager.

Project direction involves:-

 Scope of directing and use – this ensures that available resources are
channeled to meet the objectives efficiently.
 Delegating responsibilities – it is concerned with the delegation of duties and
responsibilities to the project staff and beneficiaries. Responsibilities arise
out of assigning the work.
 Discipline and productivity – all persons serving in the project should be
disciplined. Discipline is obedience, energy, behaviour and respect shown by
employees and it ensures productivity.
 Supervision – directing is also concerned with supervision. The project
manager oversees of the project activities and must ensure that the staff is
performing accordingly to ensure project productivity. Manager has a
continuous responsibility of guiding and motivating the subordinates to work
with zeal. Confidence and enthusiasm thus directing includes communication,
motivating and leading.

 Controlling
- This is the process of analyzing whether actions are being taken as planned
and taking corrective actions to make these conform it planning. Planning and
controlling cannot be separated. All activities the manager undertakes in
attempting to ensure the actual resource conform to the planned results.

The Controlling Process Has the Following Steps:-

i. Establishment of control standards – standards are criteria against that actual results
are measured. They are established to guide the control process. They guide
managers about how things are going on.
ii. Measurement of performance against standards – information on the project is
gathered and analyzed and performance is measured against the standard.

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iii. Comparing actual and standard performance – this involves finding out the extent of
deviations and identifying the causes of such deviations so that corrective action can
be taken. Performance should show how above and below the target variation is.
iv. Correction of deviations/remedial action – actions should be taken to maintain the
desired control of the project, such controls include review of plans and goals and
change on the basis of assignment of activities, techniques etc
v. Supply and material control – these resources are controlled to meet project
objectives,. It monitors the quality and quantity of resources before they are put in
use. It involves the control of the process of transforming resources into products or
services.
vi. It also monitors the quality and quantity of products or services as they leave an
organization system.

Approaches to Control
a) Steering control/preliminary control/feed back control
- This kind monitors the quality and quantity of various resources before they
are put in use.
b) Concurrent control/screening control
- This involves control of the process of transforming resources into products
or services
c) Post action control
- This monitors the quality and quantity of products and services as they leave
an organization system.

PROCUREMENT AND CONTRACTING PROCEDURES IN PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

- Contracts are used to procure people, plant, equipment, materials and
services.
- Contracts are therefore fundamental to the management of almost all
projects especially at the point of implementation.
- The type of contracts should be selected only after consideration of the
nature of the parties to the project, the project objectives and the equitable
allocation of duties, responsibilities and risks.
- Procurement is the process of acquisition of materials from external
supplies.
- Contracts are entered into to allow for ease in procurement.

Contractual issues: they include:-

 When is the agreement contract?
 Is a purchase order a contract?
 What are conditions of contract?
 Why are there different types of contracts and various terms of payment?

Contract Planning
i. In a planning of a contract, the promoter needs to consider carefully the
motive in employing a contractor. Promoters generally employ contractors for
the following reasons:-
ii. To utilize the skills and expertise of contactors, managers, engineers,
craftsmen, buyers etc for the limited duration of project.
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 iii. To have the benefit of contractors special resources i.e. licensed, process
unique plants, materials in stock.
iv. To get contractors to take some of the risks of a project, usually the risk of
planning to use people, plant, materials and subcontractors economically.
v. To get contractors to obtain financial resources for a project and perhaps for
operating it.
vi. To encourage the development of successful contractors
vii. To be free as promoters to concentrate on the objectives of projects, their
subsequent use and other interests.

Number of contractors
- The number and sequence of contractors for goods and services can vary form
project to project.
- Often a consultant or design contractors is employed just for the feasibility stage
of a proposed project and a project management. Consultant to advice on risks
and contract strategy.
- For implementation, it may be appropriate for a promoter to employ a contractor
for only a part of the project and one or more others for the remainder.
- Alternatively, a project might be so large that more than one contractor is
appropriate to share risks. For the equipment required for a new factory, one
contractor might be employed to install equipments supplied by others. For
example:-
- A series of contractors can be employed in turn for construction work. For
instance one for demolition work, another for a new foundation, the
superstructure and building work. Others for designing and supplying equipment,
installation etc each under different terms of contract.
Contract strategy
- The department for a contract strategy for any project should be based on a
thorough assessment of the choices available for the implementation and
management of design and construction.

The Following Should Be Put Into Consideration

 Project objectives
 The organization system for design and implementation
 Risk allocation
 The terms of payment
 The conditions of contract
 The tendering procedure
 The 1st step is to identify project objectives and the main constraints on
implementation.

Management Contracting
- Management contracting is an arrangement in which the promoter appoints an
external organization to manage and coordinate the design and construction
phase of a project. The management organization does not normally execute any
of the permanent works which are packaged into a number of discrete contracts
but may provide specified common user and service facilities.

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 - The management contractor is appointed early in the project life and has
considerable design.
- One advantage is that work can be divided into two or more parallel simultaneous
contracts offering reduced duration and risk sharing.
- Time saving can arise from better control of design change improved building
ability, keener prices due to greater competition etc

Risk Allocation
- A prime function of the contract is to allocate risks. The identification and
consideration of risk is a logical way to develop the organizational and contractual
policies for any project.
- Some of the uncertainties will remain whatever type of contract is adopted and
tender must include contingency sum for them.

Terms of Payment
 Price based: - the contractors in this tender submits lump sum and unit rule
(measurements) price related.
 Cost based: - cost reimbursable and target cost. The actual costs incurred by the
contractor and reimbursed together with a fee for over beads and project.

Tendering Procedure
- Several different procedures are used for selecting vendor, suppliers, tenders and
contractors.
 Competitive
- This is the open or select, involves a restricted number of bidders.
 Two stages
- A bidder is selected competitively early in the design process. The tender
documents contain an outline specification or design and approximate quantities of
the major value items. As design and planning proceeds, the final tender is
developed from cost and price dates, supplied with the initial tender.
 Negotiated
- Usually with a single organization but may be up to three.

 Continuity
- This is where tendering competitively on the basis that bidders are informed that
the successful party may be awarded continuation contracts for similar projects
based on the original tender.
 Serial
- The bidder undertakes to enter a series of contracts usually to a minimum total
value. it is a form of standing offer.
 Term
- The bidder undertakes a known type of work but without knowing the amount of
the work for a fixed period.
- In all cases prequalification procedure may be adopted.

RECORDS IN PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

- Records are documents that are used for a variety of reasons during project
implementation. They are written documents relating to the activities of the project
that is being implemented.
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Importance of Records in Project Implementation
i. Used in project appraisal or evaluation
ii. Used to communicate feedback to donors
iii. Used for comparison purposes
iv. Used for accounting purposes
v. Helps in budgeting
vi. Used for reference purposes

The Types of Records in Project Implementation Include:-

a) Project initiated document (PID) this document brings together all the information
needed to start the project i.e.
 Terms of reference
 Acceptance criteria
 Project organization and responsibilities
 Project plan
 First phase plan
 Definition of business case
 Risk assessment
 End result description

b) Financial record or books of account

c) Reports and feedback
d) Time schedules and event records
e) Monitoring and periodic evaluation records
f) Minutes records
g) Personnel records
h) Records of assets

Storage of Records
- Project records need to be stored safely so that they can be protected and retrieved
when necessary. They can be kept in lockable cupboards, shelves, filling cabinets,
boxes or electronic storage devices.
- A paper indexing system should be used to ensure easy retrieval of documents

Factors to Be Considered In Choosing Record Storage Equipment

i. Safety provided by the equipment
ii. Financial status of the organization
iii. Available qualified staff to use the system
iv. Available space for storage
v. Mobility and portability of the equipment
vi. Accessibility of the equipment to those who need to use
vii. Durability of the equipment

Challenges in Implementing Projects

i. Insufficient support for the projects – this involves financial and managerial support
which is likely to create delays.
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 ii. Poor planning – this involves poorly defining of project plans e.g having too much
detailed work that is so relevant. This may affect the real project parameters.
iii. Poor management structure – formulation of poor organization structures with no
clear distribution and allocation of responsibilities makes work unclear, these may
lead to unmotivated staff and lack of commitment.
iv. Poor communication within the project and its players – i.e lack of formalized
communication system between managers and teams
v. Lack of effective monitoring and control systems – these may lead to lack of
integration between project plans and progress reports.

Solutions for the Challenges

i. Management should have focus on the results
ii. Ensure proper definition of intermediate objectives to control time, cost and
quality
iii. Involving the project team members in planning to ensure all activities are carried
out methodologically
iv. Adopt a proper organizational structure that is flexible with clearly defined set of
objectives and responsibilities.
v. Ensure smooth and accurate information flow through effective communication
system
vi. Create a climate of cooperation and motivate the project team
vii. Ensure effective control of the project by monitoring and evaluation

Project Monitoring
- Monitoring involves continuous observations and checking on activities and their
results
- The purpose is to ensure that activities are proceeding according to plan to provide a
record of how inputs are used and to warn of deviations from initials and expected
outcomes.
- Monitoring is the process of checking the progress of the project. It is giving of
information and assessing information to ensure project progress. Activities with a
view to ascertain whether they are in line with agreed work plan and number report
any deviation.
- Monitoring is important for project managers to ensure that they make appropriate
decisions.
- The use of the term monitoring varies with organization. Others use the term review
- Purpose of monitoring
- To provide relevant timely information to indicate to those concerned whether or not
the operations, performance and impact of an intervention is as expected.
- To ensure tasks are being carried out according to schedule.
- To see if outputs and outcomes are achieving designed level
- To check whether or not project impacts accords to project objectives
- To assess whether objectives need to change in light/in view of experience

Monitoring Addresses
- Measurement of physical process of a project i.e. the review of project activities
- Measurement of financial progress

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 - Addresses the concern of quality control and the fitness of the project output for
their intended purposes
- Also helps inn giving other information that is important and specific for smooth
running of the project.

Basic concepts in monitoring

a) Monitoring procedure
- This is a group of activities done by people (monitors) who follow a plan to
check program implementation.

b) A monitor
- This is a person who uses a monitoring procedure. The person may or may
not have other program responsibility.

c) Monitoring plan
- It is a description of how specific components from a monitoring system
will be used, when they will be used (scheduled) and how the results will
be reported.

d) Monitoring system
- It is a group of components related to some aspects of program
implementation
- Each component includes a description of a standard group of indicators
and a description of some adjustment to make when the situation deviates
from the standard.

e) Standard
- It is a description of the characteristics for acceptance conditions

f) Indicator
- This is an explicit procedure that provides trust worthy information about
the level of performance or conditions related to some standards.

g) Adjustment procedure
- It is a description of what to do, when an indicator shows the situation
deviation from ascent end performance or conditions.

An Example of a Simple Short Monitoring Plan

TIME PERIOD: SEP TO OCT, 2000/2001

MONITORS: Project officers/coordinators/communities/village committees
STANDARDS: Community meetings where program decisions are made shall have
At least half men and half women present who live in the community

INDICATORS: Meeting attendances figures in the minutes for each meeting. The
Monitors count the number of women and men present at a
Meeting compared with the number of men and women living in
the community.
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ADJUSTMENT If the percentage of men and women present is less than 40% then the
project manager helps the project committee members creates a
plan
to increase attendance at the next meeting.
PROCEDURES:

REPORTING: Each man, the reported attendance figures or the monitor own counts
of the people attending the meeting will be included in the monthly
report for that project.

Characteristics of Appropriate Monitoring System

i. It is continuous: throughout the life of an activity or organization/project
ii. It checks mainly efficiency, the process of the work inputs, activities output,
conditions and assumptions.
iii. It generally involves only the insiders
iv. Documents i.e. Monthly and quarterly reports are used
v. Managers and staff are the main users of the information gathered.

Areas of Project Monitoring

Resource utilization: - resource acquisition, utilization and consumption are a critical
component for ensuring effective and efficient implementation of the project.
- To ensure that project activities are carried out, there must be constant and
regular flow of the resource. The resources must be utilized for the intended
purposes.
- They should also be sourced and supplied as per the spent specification in terms of
cost, quantity and quality.
- Time schedule adherence a significant element in project monitoring.

Benefits flows analysis: project monitoring is done to determine flow of project

benefit directly to the intended beneficiaries. These benefits must be shared and
distributed equally and equitably.
- The beneficiary must participate in the sharing of the benefits and even the losses
accrue from the project.
Community participation and engagement: any project must ensure active,
genu9ine, voluntary and popular participation and involvement of not only the project
beneficiaries but also the community indirectly.
- Genuine and popular participation will be monitored on the account of the
following aspects:
- All the members of the community (men, women, youth etc) must be actively
involved and engaged.
- All members of the community must participate at all level i.e. Project ideas
implementation and management.
- Participation in terms of sharing profits and losses accrued from the project.
- Participation must not only be active but also voluntary, popularly, genuine and
objective oriented.

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Elements of Project Monitoring Framework
 These are issues that needs to be put in place in project monitoring
 We need to specify the people/offices/agencies that are going to use the
information. Depending on who will use the information determines how you will
present it.
 Specify who will participate in project writing
 What are key objective of the project?
 Specify indicators to measure to progress
 What methods are you to use to gather information?
 Specify when monitoring will take place
 Specify how the monitoring system is going to be managed
 Specify who will manage the information

Importance of Project Monitoring

i. Monitoring can be used as some kind of accountability to donors/stakeholders.
When you conduct monitoring you are expected to write a monitoring report.
ii. It provides information and feedback that can be used for lesson learning
iii. It helps to appreciate and understand changes in the evaluation e.g inflation
iv. It provides information that can be used for the measurement of project progress
v. It is a tool for management, implementation, monitoring system provides
information that managers use to modify or improve intervention and identify
solutions to problems and constraints before they become a crisis.
vi. Helps to utilize resources efficiently and effectively
vii. Helps to keep inputs ready on time
viii. Helps to ensure work plans are followed as closely as possible
ix. Ensure that adjustments can be made and corrective actions taken when
necessary
x. Stakeholders are kept informed and on time and also constraints and bottlenecks
can be foreseen and timely solutions found.

Project Evaluation
- Project evaluation is a process of determining the extent to which objectives
have been achieved.
- It is a set of procedures to appraise a projects merits and information about its
goals, objectives, activities outcomes and costs
- An evaluation can be done during implementation at its end or afterwards

Aims of Evaluation
i. To determine the efficiency of which project interventions are
ii. To assess the effectiveness of a project
iii. To measure the sustainability of a project
iv. To determine the relevance of a project
v. To determine the relevance of a project
vi. To measure the impact of an intervention/project

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Scope of Evaluation/Key Evaluation Question
 Efficiency
- This is the measure of the relationship between output and input. It answers the
questions:
- How economically have the output been achieved
- How much have been put to get what

 Effectiveness
- It is the measure of the relationship between project output and objective and
the outcomes. It is the extent to which the development intervention objectives
are expected to be achieved.

 Relevancy
- It measures the relationship between project output to the needs that were
identifies. It investigates the extent to which outputs of a project have met the
needs of the beneficiaries.

 Sustainability
- It estimates the extent to which a project will continue after external funding has
terminated.

Types of Evaluation
1) Baseline survey/feasibility survey
2) Formative/ongoing evaluation
3) Summative/final evaluation
4) Impact evaluation

Baseline Survey/Feasibility Survey

- This is carried out before project implementation to assess and determine
development needs and potential of the target population in the area.
- It also checks on the proposed approaches and planned project activities
Primary users of feasibility survey are:-
 Donors
 Implementing agencies
 Beneficiary community
 Researchers
 Institutions of higher learning

Formation/On-Going Evaluation
- This is a continuous evaluation during project implementation. It enables the
implementing personnel to check on different aspects of the project and their effects
as well as detect problems or shortcomings in good time to make necessary changes.
- Components of formative evaluation
- Implementation evaluation
- Progressive evaluation

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 - Implementation evaluation – its main purpose is to assess whether the project is
being conducted as planned. It is also called process evaluation and occur several
times during the project implementation period.

Progressive Evaluation
- It assesses the progress of meeting the goal of the programs/project. Information is
collected to determine the impact of activities/strategies on beneficiaries.
 Primary users
 Donors
 Project management
 Target group

Summative/Final Evaluation
- This is done at the end of project implementation. It is used to examine the projects
effectiveness in achieving its objectives and its contribution to the development of the
area. Final evaluation is concerned with all aspects of the project. The main purpose
is:

 To assess results and effects of the intervention

 To draw lessons
 To assess the impact to justify resources
 To justify replication

Primary Users of Summative Evaluation

 Donors project planner
 Government
 Target group
 Who carried out summative evaluation
 External evaluators
 Internal evaluators
 Project staff
 Beneficiary communities

Impact Evaluation
- It is done 1-10 years after project implementation. Its main purpose is to establish
sustainability of the results of the project.
- It is used to ensure direct and indirect changes and draw lessons from the project.
Main beneficiaries
 Donors
 Planners
 Government
 Researchers
 Academics

Types of Evaluation
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  Internal evaluators
 External evaluators

Internal Evaluators
- They include people who have been included in the project i.e. Project team, target
group and beneficiaries. They assess whether the project outcome achieved its
intended purpose and if not they recommend areas of improvement or next cause of
action

Advantages of Using Internal Evaluators

i. They have internal knowledge of the project
ii. They have personal commitment to the project
iii. Their evaluation results are easily accepted and used
iv. It gives them a learning experience they can use in future activities

Disadvantages
i. They are likely to be more subjective and blind to their own faults
ii. They can be inexperienced and lack evaluation skills and technique
iii. If they lack integrity, they might ignore negative aspects of the project and
emphasize on the positive ones only.

External Evaluators
- They include professional evaluators, donors, headquarter staff

Advantages
i. Their findings seem to be more objective and more acceptable to funding agencies
ii. They have more refined skills and evaluation techniques

Disadvantages
i. They are expensive
ii. They lack first hand knowledge of project operations

Evaluation involves
a) Measuring
- Evaluations will 1st measure what has been done in relation to what should have been
done. If the evaluating agency is observing the work continuously, the performance
evaluation is to be done.
b) Reviewing
- The purpose of a review is basically participative problem solving. It is also keeps the
implementing team informed and alerted that their performance is closely checked.

c) Reporting
- All information related or collected during evaluation must be presented in form of a
report that is represented to respective bodies’ i.e. the donor agency.
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d) Deciding and Taking Corrective Measures
- This involves determining the cause of action possible to deviate from an undesired
cause of action if any.

PROJECT PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

- An indicator is something that points to or signifies the condition of something else.

It is used to determine whether something is on some scale of measurement.
- It indicates the degree of progress that is being achieved towards some goals or
objectives or meeting some standard.

Types of Indicators
Direct indicators
- These are pieces of information that express and relate to what is being measured
e.g if information on crop yields is measured.
Indirect indicators
- These are essential pieces of information chosen amongst many possible pieces of
information to serve as substitutes of proxies to answer question or respond to
statements that are difficult to measure. Organization instead of direct indicators of
income, indirect indicators of poverty are chosen.

Elements of Indicators
 Observer – has intentions/motives or skills in using apparatus
 Apparatus/instruments
 Object of observation
 Actions performed by the observer with the apparatus

Sources of Information Commonly Used By Indicators

- Direct observation of conditions or performance by the monitor
- Project records e.g finance records, committee minutes etc
- Project committee members, community leaders, project staff and others
- Community members (both direct and indirect beneficiaries)

Tools and Techniques Used In Project Evaluation

- Tools required for evaluation include:
- Project document papers i.e. Legal papers, registration, agreement etc
- Financial records and guidelines
- Director’s articles
- Concept papers and initial profiles
- Funding proposals
- Project initial plans and designs

- Techniques for monitoring and evaluating a project vary from one situation to another.
Whichever technique used, their main aim is to measure for efficiency and
effectiveness of system and competencies that exist in individuals overseeing the
systems and ensure conformity to project goals, objectives and purposes.

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Steps in Evaluation
 Specifying the objectives of evaluation
 Decide on scope of evaluation
 Select indicators and performance standards
 Choosing information source and develop data collection procedures
 Collect data
 Tabulate and analyze data
 Present findings
 Take appropriate action, based on evaluation

Reasons for Evaluation

i. To determine the impacts of the project
ii. To determine the effectiveness and efficiency of the project
iii. To come up with corrective measures
iv. To determine the sustainability of the project

Challenges
i. Lack of skills and knowledge
ii. Lack of 1st hand information and knowledge especially for external evaluation
iii. Inadequate financial resources
iv. It is expensive with concern to external evaluation
v. Lack of personal commitment to the project

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MONITORING AND EVALUATION

MONITORING EVALUATION
 Generally proceeds evaluation  Generally follows monitoring and uses
records generated in monitoring.
 Essentially an internal project team  Usually involves personal external to
activity (but supervision involves the project
external persons)
 It is a process repeated frequently over  It is a process undertaken only once or
the life of a project i.e. it is a twice over life of a particular (i.e. a
continuous or ongoing activity. one off activity)
 Great attention is paid to the  Greater interest is in attainment of
attainment of the intermediate target overall outcome of the project.
in the project execution.
 It yields time series and cross sectional  It yields cross sectional data
data. Data is over time e.g March, June
throughout the year.
 Tends to concentrate on the efficiency  Tends to be more concerned with the
of a project and so it is short-term. effectiveness of the project and so it is
long- term.

PROJECT TERMINATION
- These are activities that are consistence with closing of the project.
- It is ending of a project life cycle.
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 - Project either casually because of excessive costs, schedule over runs or failure to
accomplish their performance expectations.
- They may also end if its expected results no longer have a strategic fit in the purpose
of the enterprise.

Reasons for Terminating Projects

Projects are usually terminated for two basic reasons:-

Project failure and project success

Project failure: this means that the project has failed to meet its cost, schedule and
technical performance objectives or it does not fit in the organizations future.
Project success: this means that the project has met its cost, schedule, objectives and
has been integrated into the customers’ organization to contribute to the customer’s
mission.

Other Reasons for Terminating Projects

- If the project results have been achieve; if appropriate services and maintenance
contracts can be negotiated and consummated.
- If the project has over run its costs and schedule objectives and or is failing to make
satisfactory progress towards attaining its technical performance objectives.
- If the project owner’s strategy has changed such that the project no longer has a
strategic fit in the owner organization’s future.
- If the project objective is lost and thus putting the continued application of
resources on the project in doubt.
- Environmental changes that could emerge leading to adverse influence on the
projects future.
- If the priority of the project is not high enough to survive in competition with other
higher projects.
- Changes in the overall project goals could also lead to termination

Others
 Economic e.g inflation
 Environment
 Task team factor
 Sponsorship
 When the project costs exceeds business benefits

Types of Project Termination

Natural termination – This is when the project goals have been met.
Unnatural termination – This when some project constraints have been violate,
performance is inadequate or the project goals are no longer relevant to some overall
needs.

Emotional Issues Project Termination Include/Effects

i. Fear of no future work
ii. Loss of interest in task remaining
iii. Loss of project driven motivation
iv. Loss of team identity
v. Selection of personnel to be re-assigned
vi. Division of interest

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 The natural termination of a project is concerned with:-
 Identification of remaining deliverables and products
 Identification of outstanding commitments
 Control of charges to the project
 Screening of uncompleted task not needed
 Closure of work orders and work packages
 Identification of physical facilities assigned to the project
 Identification of project personnel
 Disposing of project materials
 Obtaining needed certifications
 Communicating closures
 Closing down physical facilities
 Agreement which clients on remaining deliverable end product

Ways of Terminating a Project

i. Termination by integration
- Project resources are integrated with organization function or department to
perform duty or wait for a new project.
ii. Termination by addition
- This is by changing the overall goal.
iii. Termination by starvation
- This is when a project is terminated pre-maturely. It may be due to over run of
funds or budget cut.
iv. Termination by extinction
- If project objectives are unable to meet the needs of the people or if it has not
met i.e. if it was successful or had failed.

Shutting Down a Project

- Termination of a project involves bringing a project to a planned and orderly
conclusion. Project termination should be planned with care and attention as are other
project life cycle phase.
- An important party of project termination is to provide assistance and guidance to the
members of the project team who are being demobilized.

The project manager should consider the following actions:-

a) Prepare and issue a project termination plan
b) Hold project termination meetings with the project team members to finalize
remaining tasks.
c) Be available for counseling with project team member about re-assignment
opportunities, emotional issues and career opportunities.
d) Determine how the final documentation will be distributed and to whom.
e) Work with team members to assure clear phase out protocols in terms of individual
and team responsibilities.
f) Meet with human resource individuals, managers to identify project termination
personnel needs and assist team members in scheduling interviews, orientation of
remaining members and incoming personnel who are brought in for termination of the
project.
g) Have a final meeting to thank everyone and recognize the distinguished contributions
of project team members.

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Termination Strategies
- In termination, a project manager would be wise to conduct an immediate review of
the status of the work packages, along with the funding schedule and technical
performance parameters.

Several Other Things Must Be Done:-

- Ensure that all projects deliverable end product have been provided to the project
owner and that all project functional work is finished along with any close out of
records.
- Review the status of all contracts to ensure that requirements have been met or
provisions made if such requirements have not been duly satisfies.
- Work with the project team in developing and distributing a close out plan that
provides guidance for an orderly termination of all elements of the project.
- Maintain an on going surveillance of the close out activities including close out of all
records and the disposition of materials.
- Notify relevant stakeholders of the termination
- Ensure that all financial matters on the project have been satisfactorily terminated.
- Assist members of the project team to find other work in other organizations.
- Prepare the project history particularly a “lesson learned”, report so that future
teams in the organization can benefit from the experiences of the project.

Project sustainability
- Sustainability is a characteristic of a process or state that can be maintained at a
certain level indefinitely.
- It is the continuation of benefits after major assistance from the donors has been
completed.
- Sustainability in development refers to processes and relative increase in local
capacity and performance while foreign assistance decreases or shifts.

Reasons for sustaining projects

i. A sustainable project will not use more
ii. Natural resources than the local evaluation can supply i.e. Can not use more financial
resources than the local community can.
iii. Sustainability of projects can reduce the likelihood of them collapsing after they have
just finished.
iv. It reduces the financial cost of development project
v. It reduces social problems like dependence on the stakeholders’ i.e. External donors
and their resources.
vi. Sustainable development is also linked with continued material development.

Factors That Lead To Project Failure

i. A project is considered to have succeeded when it meets most or all its goals and
objectives to the quality specification as outlined in its initials project development
document. Some of the causes of project failure include:-
ii. Overrunning of costs and schedule due to the lack of proper control systems and
mechanisms.
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iii. Difficulties to attain goals due to extraneous (external) factors i.e. unforeseeable legal
hurdles and complications.
iv. Projects outcome being inconsistent with the promoter’s intentions and expectations
of the intended. Beneficiaries – may call for pre-mature termination.
v. Lack of workable strategy and unworkable policies
vi. Lack of appropriate level of resources

Factors Leading To Project Sustainability

 Institutional sustainability: - can the strengthened institutional structure continue to
deliver the result of technical cooperation to end users. Institutional sustainability can
be linked to the concept of social sustainability that checks on how the interventions
can be sustained by social structures and institutions
 Economic and financial sustainability;- can the technical cooperation results continue
to yield an economic benefit after the technical cooperation is withdrawn,
economically, sustainability may be at risk if the end users continue to depend on
heavily subsidized activities and inputs.
 Ecological sustainability:- in this case we assess whether benefits to be generated by
the technical cooperation is likely to lead a deterioration in the physical environment
hence indirectly contributing to a fall in production or the well being of groups
targeted and their society.
 Energetic sustainability: - this type of sustainability is often concerned with the
production of energy and mineral resources. Some researchers have appointed to
trends, which document the limits of production.

Factors Influencing Development Sustainability

1) Participation and ownership
- Get stakeholders to genuinely participate in design and implementation. Build on
their initiatives and demands. Get them to monitor the project and periodically
evaluate it for results.
2) Capacity building and training
- Training stakeholders to take over should begin from the start of any project and
continue throughout the approach should be both to motivate and transfer skills
to prepare.
3) Government policies
- Development projects should be aligned with local government policies.
4) Financial
- Financial capacity of the organization determines the sustainability. Medium level
countries find it hard to sustain projects.
5) Management and organization
- Activities that integrate with or add to local structures may have better prospects
for sustainability than those that establish new or parallel structures.
6) Social, gender and culture expectations
- The introduction of new ideas, technologies and skills requires an understanding
of local decision making systems, gender divisions and cultural preferences.
7) Technology
- All outside equipment must be selected with careful consideration given to the
local finance available for maintenance and replacement. Cultural acceptability
and local capacity to maintain equipment and buy spare parts are vital.
8) Environment

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 - Poor rural communities that depend on natural resources should be involved in
identifying and managing environmental risks. Urban communities should identify
and manage waste disposal and pollution risks.
9) External political and economic facts
- Projects should not be too complicated, ambitious or expensive in weak
countries.

Challenges Faced In Project Sustainability

i. Resistance to change
ii. Lack of coordinated participation from all stakeholders
iii. Reliance on external resources and support

PROJECT REPORTS AND REPORT WRITING SKILLS

- Project reports are instruments of communication written during or at terminal level
of project implementation. It is a tool for communication amongst staffs and other
intended parties including planners, policy makers, politicians, extension workers and
beneficiaries.
- It is written to give feedback achieved in a project to stakeholders.

Utilization and Dissemination of Report Information

- Report information is useless if it is not disseminated for use. Data collected at
various levels should be used to:-
i. Data collected at various levels should be used to improve program decisions
ii. Project information obtained during the pre-program phase should be used in
planning an effective program
iii. Information obtained during formative stage of the program should be used in
making management decisions
iv. Project information obtained at the end of the program should be used to learn
lessons and plan improved programs
v. The report helps the reader explore and undertake important principles, practices
and procedures about the project.

What makes a good proposal?

Appearance
- It should be attractive, profession with an inviting appearance. It should also give
ease, access of the information.
Substance
- It should have well organized plan of work. It should have some technical details
but not too much because it is a selling document.
Required format
- You should use 12.0 point font, 1 margin, 1 sided copy and single spaced text. And
pages should be numbered. Clearly highlight the key points and features in each
figure, break up large blocks of texts with headings

Organization

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 - A project report should be organized logically and in a sequential manner it should
contain the following:-
 Title page
 Executive summary
 Table of contents
 Introduction
 Statement of the problem (justification of why you carry out a project)
 Goals and objectives
 Implementation strategies
 Target group
 Budget
 Monitoring and evaluation strategies
 Management strategies and structures (size of the structure should not be
wide)

Key Elements of Project Proposal

o Executive summary/project over view
o Situation analysis and statement of the problem
o Goals, objectives and activities and output
o Intervention strategies/methodology of implementation
o Target group
o Itemized budget
o Project schedule
o Monitoring and evaluation
o Management structures

Presentation of Project Report

The project team should ensure that:-

i. Results being reported must be interesting
ii. Use a form of communication that catches the attention of the audience.
iii. Results should be understandable
iv. Communication in the language of intended audience
v. Results should be convincing
vi. Result should not be opinions of only a few. It should have a true picture as
possible.
vii. Results should be timely
viii. In order to reach those who make decisions, results should be received on time
to provide them with information before decisions are made.
ix. Results should be participating
x. The communication should decide what and who to other interest parties.

NB
Results should be present form that is useful to the audiences

Main Ways to Present Results

Written reports
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 - Includes reports, case studies, communication case study, graphics

When presenting written reports, you should:-

 Identify the theme and stick to it
 Identify the audience, and then use imaginative language so as to hold the
reader’s interest.
 Identify the communication barriers that might exist between the readers and the
writer and be sensitive to them.
 Be brief and easily readable. Use short sentences and clear writing

Oral report
 Drama, video, slide tape, tape recording, story telling, graphics.
 Visual presentation
 Photographs, drawings, video, slide tapes, cartoons, graphics.

Challenges in Project Report Writing

1) Language barrier
- Use of program/project becomes a problem to other report users who may not be
conversant with jargon of development world and hence could be hindered in their
question to communication within the project.
2) Lack of communication skills
- Requisite social and communication skills to technically express the project
intentions and concept.
3) Requirements for extra information
- This involves the particular information that a donor requires to be provided with
e.g audited accounts, reports etc
4) Inadequate/limited resources
5) Technical expertise

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
 Community development is a process by which efforts of people is united with
those of outside agencies to improve the living standards among communities and
to integrate them with the life of the nation.
- The aim of community development is to organize people for planning and action.

 Community participation is the voluntary and democratic involvement of people in

the decisions directly affecting their lives and development.
- Community participation is the involvement that may be complete or incomplete.
Community participation is whereby community take part in having a share of all
partaking of the project.

Steps used in determining and establishing community participation in needs

Assessment and decision making process

A. Entry into the community

- Communities are complex and dynamic and people might seem simple from outside
but different when it seems to understanding their needs and interest in an
interaction.

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 B. Listen to the people
- Their concerns, what they have done before, what they are trying to do,
their feelings, hopes and expectations. You need to establish a dialogue
with the people but do not give an answer to the problems since you are
not a savior.
C. Talk to the people
- Tell them who you are, why are you there, what you want out of them and
communicate your presence.
D. Gain acceptability and influence
- This is by being patient and friendly with them and also by participating in
their daily life activities.
E. Let the community identify and prioritize their needs
- This can be facilitated through an open discussion. Do not make decisions
for them but only help them to state the actions.
F. Set goals
- Let them set the goals and how they are going to respond to them. Your
duty is to make sure they put it under practice.
G. The community should be let to decide on how to accomplish the goal
 Let them decide where to get the local materials and resources. You also need to
respect their ideas, culture and opinions and also propose your involvement.
H. Start planning the project together
 Start by setting the steps to be taken. Also answer the questions of who does
what, when, where and how
 Attach the resources needed to accomplish each step.
I. Write a project proposal
- Communicate in the document for the community members to donors what
is required. The proposal should contain the goal, action and plans of the
community.

Importance of Community Participation in Project Development and Management

It ensures sustainability of projects.

- Sustainable development requires support and at the local level. This calls
for active involvement of the community in the project and activities
intended to benefit its members.
Ownership
- Involvement of the community at all stages of development encourages
ownership of project.
Self reliance
- Through participation, people develop self reliance. People begin to do
something about their problem.
Partnership
- Community participation ensures that people work in partnership with
government to achieve meaningful development.

Resource mobilization
- Resources can easily mobilize when communities are committed and
involved.
Development of community institutions
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 - Community institutions continue to develop as the project continues to
produce other benefits. Development cannot be adequately supported
outside community that is what local members need to participate.
Distribution and benefits
- It ensures equitable distribution of benefits in favor of the economically
weak groups.
- It allows for the design of development projects that are realistic to satisfy
the needs of the people.
- Communities have power in decision making and participating can bring
pressure or comply with decisions
- It helps community members to become aware of their problems.

Process of Participation
 The process of participation follows a cycle of events and community members
need to participate. Steps followed include:-
 Identify the needs and seek ways and means to meet the need in community
decisions i.e. Listen more than you talk
 Set priorities among the action and need listed
 Decide on plan of action based on what each need requires and involves
 Implementation
 Have an in built check list and balance for easy flow of the plan considering
the budget and time check.
 Evaluate the program based on achievements considering the pros and cons
constraints and success.

Areas of Involvement
Community members should be involved in the following areas:-
- Conception of the project: community members know exactly what they want
for themselves in terms of development project.
- Mobilization of local resources
- Labour provision: this reduces the cost of project implementation
- Decision making: the community should participate in making key decisions
about the project that will affect their lives
- Monitoring and evaluation: the community should be key stakeholders in
monitoring and evaluation process of their projects.

Community Participation in Resource Mobilization

This can be done in different ways:-
- Identify the resources required to undertake the project and project activities.
- Establishing the nature and volume of resources that are available within the
locality
- Determine the resource deficit by comparing the required resources with the
available resources.
- Put measures in place to mobilize locally available resources and finally look for
resources from the external.

When Is Community Participation Desirable

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 - In very poor economies where local government have insufficient fund to
provide basic services, there is little likelihood of resources being diverted to
away from the community.
- When a project being produced directly have effect on the welfare of the
community. Community participation also involves planning and implementation
of local projects.
- As a form of raising awareness such as, health care by drawing peoples attention
to need for personnel hygiene.
- As an end in itself especially in the form of meeting when they help to reduce
internal community tensions and when they increase consciousness towards a
problem or a potential solution.

When is community participation un-desirable?

- Participation should not be stimulated when it is quite clear that people do not
want to participate. There may be good reasons for their situation i.e. cultural
reasons.
- It is undesirable when it diverts resources away from the community especially
if it is in form of self help.
- It is undesirable when it involves already busy people in long hours of meeting or
work especially where there are no real benefits to be gained from such
meetings. What is essential is a potential forum to contribute ideas or get some
channel for complaints when need arises.
- It can be questionable when the purpose of increasing community involvement is
really intended to increase support for a political party or government regime
- It is undesirable if community participation is used as a form of money
collection machinery e.g in the Harambee system exploitation may be the
outcome as money collected are misappropriated or used for some function that
will benefit only few in the community.

Characteristics of Community Participation

i. Community participation is encouraged by the government
ii. It increases resources but also places more demands on government
iii. It improves decision making
iv. It develops best under conditions of conflict
v. It makes used of under-employed resources
vi. Undemocratic, authoritation leadership is effective in stimulating community
participation
vii. Leaders can be relied upon to represent the interests of their community

Obstacles of Community Participation

a) Conflict of interest among the target groups
b) Difficulties in organizing and mobilizing community
c) Policy makers not respecting the real community needs
d) Local power hierarchies and elite domination
e) The way the productive resources are distributed in the target area
f) Heterogeneous socio-cultural, economic and technical background of community
members
g) Communication problem that may hinder planning and implementation of projects
at the local level.
h) Illiteracy of community members

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Objectives of Community Participation

Empowerment
- Involves sharing power, raising awareness and strength of the target group.
To allow the target groups to initiate actions on their own so as to
influence the processes and outcome of development.
To build beneficiary capacity
- Sharing in management task. E.g monitoring to ensure sustainability that
enhances the level of beneficiary interests and competence in project
management.
To increase project effectiveness
- This is the degree to which a given project achieves its objectives. Better
project design matches project services with beneficiary needs and
constraints.
Cost sharing
- A beneficiary contribution in terms of labour, money, maintenance etc
community participation facilitates a collective understanding and
agreement on cost sharing and its enforcement.
To improve project efficiency: timely beneficiary inputs reduce delay.

Level of Community Participation

 Information sharing: to facilitate action, equipment, beneficiaries to undertake and
perform task better.
 Consultation: to facilitate beneficiary interaction and feedback
 Decision making: in matter of design and implementation providing support for joint
decision making
 Initiation action: actions/decisions on a project
 Supporting independent committee’s interests

Forms of Community Participation In Project Development Management

 Individuals: individuals participate in the activity because of their interests and
expectations and benefits
 Communities: community can participate in the project through committees. These
selections determines their ability to identify better with the community problems or
feelings
 Groups: groups can be organized at the village level to participate in the project
 Leaders: leaders can mobilize the community to participate in projects. They must
be able to understand what the community wants.

SUMMARY REAL MEANING OF PARTICIPATION

P People centred not project centred
A Arises from people not imposed from outside
R Reflects the underlying social norms
T Transfers decisions making to the ultimate beneficiaries
I Involve majority not a selected few
C Consultation not correction based on actions
I Inclusive of all phases of developed projects
P Positive rather than negative response
A Allows for feasibility wherever possible
T Translates local ideas into activities
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I Institutional strengthening
O Organizationally simple rather than complex
N Natural rather than artificial

Factors to Determine Community Participation

i. Type of community
ii. Needs/problem under consideration
iii. Community involvement right from the beginning
iv. Level of community awareness
v. Existing government policies
vi. Relations of the community and developing agencies
vii. Attitude of change
viii. Population composition
ix. Community mobility
x. Seasonal calendars i.e. the activities that are done at an appropriate time and
place.

Project Parameters (Components of the Project)

- In the course of the project life, focus is on 3 issues or parameters i.e.
Quality, cost and time i.e. Quality of man power involved and delivery of
services.
- Cost – budget allocation as time focus on start to finish.
Quality
- With quality we are assured that the project will do what was supposed to be
done on completion. This implies that quality dimensions have to be involved
e.g
- Identify means of verifying quality e.g through testing
- Setting performances standards to be met
- Specifying the types of materials to be used
- Specifying the type of personnel to be involved
- The above is arrived at by breaking the work into small and manageable units.
Time
- Projects have to be completed within the shortest time possible. After
breaking the work into manageable units and determining the sequence of
activities/events from the 1st to last: a portion time for each of them. We
determine the duration of each step i.e. Time with each step is likely to
complete.

Cost
- This is dependent on time. The cost of items will vary with time for proper
estimates the work breakdown and schedule and time schedule should be
used. While budgeting, care should be taken so that there is no over-
estimation. To avoid wastage, diversion of funds and chasing a way sponsors.

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