Pressure INTRODUCTION

Gauge Pressure Excess Pressure Inside a Curved Liquid Surface

P=F Anything which can
A flow like liquid & Excess pressure inside Excess pressure inside a Excess pressure inside a
Exass Pressure over Force acting per unit Gases Known as Surface energy the drop cavity or air bubble in liquid soap bubble
the Atmospheric Area. Fluids. 2S 2S 4S
Pressure (Po - Patm ) Pex = (Pi + P0 ) Pex = + ρ gh Pex = Pi - P0 =
Additional potential r r r
Measured with P0 2S
energy exhibited by Pinside = Patm + + ρgh
instrument. r
liquid molecules present
Pgauge = P – P0 = rgh F1 h1 at the surface of the dr Pout = Patm
A
h2 molecules. P0
P0
L P1 h
Atmospheric MECHANICAL PROPERTIES r r Pi
P
Pressure A OF FLUIDS Pin
F2
Force exerted by
Atmospheric Column
on Unit area at Angle of Contact
mean sea level. Archimedes Principle Cohesive Force and Adhesive Force
[P0 = 1.013 × 10 N/m ] 5 2
Angle between tangent Plane at the liquid surface and tangent plane
“Whenever a body is immersed
Law of Floating at point of contact of solid. Cohesive Force:- Attractive Force between the molecules of same
inside a liquid then an up thrust materials.
forces states acting on it, ρ VS V = Volume of body
Hydraulic Paradax b
= V = Volume of Adhesive Force:- A Hr active Force between the molecules of
whose magnitude is Equal to the ρL V s submerged part. SHAPE OF MENISCUS different Materials.
weight of the liquid displaced”.
water is filled to a ρb = density of body. Relation between FC FC FC
height H behind a Upthrust Force - FB cohesive and FA > FA = FA <
= (ρL × g × Vd) = weight of liquid ρL = density of liquid. 2 2 2
dam of width w. The adhesive force convex surface Capillarity
displaced.
resultant Pressure FA
concave surface
FA horizontal surface FA

on dam will be – ρL = density of liquid. It is Property due to which liquid elevates & depressed in a
Pnet = rgH g = gravity ; Vd = volume of Case – I [Vs < V ρb < ρl] FC FC FC
FR
water
FR
water
FR
mercury
capillary Tube. The Rise in height of liquid in r
liquid displaced.
Case – 2 [Vs = V ρb = ρl] glass silver glass 2s Cos θ
capillary tube is given by – h = a
Case – 3 [Vs > V ρb > ρl] Angle of contact q < 900 q = 90
9000 q > 900 r ρg
(Acute angle) (Right angle) (Obtuse angle)
θ
Pascal Law Hydraulic Brakes Shape of meniscus Concave Plane Convex
Wetting property Liquid wets the solid Liquid does not wet Liquid does not wet the
Whenever external A1d1 = A2d2 HYDRODYNAMICS surface the solid surface solid surface
Pressure is applied Level of Liquid Liquid rises up Liquid neither rises Liquid does not wet the
D VISCOSITY
on any part of Fluid nor falls solid surface
Contained in a Vessel, Example Glass-Water Silver-Water Glass-Mercury Stoke’s Law:-
it is transmitted Equation of
undiminished and B C Continuity Newton’s Law of Viscosity:- When a small sphere of radius
equally in all direction r is moving with velocity v
dv
is known as Pascal Law. 3) Speed of Efflux: VB = 2g h Viscous Force f = ηA
dx through a homogeneous Fluid,
A1V1 = A2V2
Applications A = Area then viscous force acting on
P0
A A dv sphere – FV = 6 πηrv;
velocity Gradient= dx Where η = Coefficient of
h
1) Magnus Effect: viscosity; Unit of η = Poise.
Characteristics of force on ball
H V
Hydraulic lift Hydraulic Machine B
Ideal Fluids speed of air flow
increases H –h
pressure
reduces Terminal Velocity
PA = PB = PC = PO Incompressible
F1 F F1A 2 Spin H = Height from the Top
P1 = = P2 = 2 , F2 = FA FB FC FD
A1 A2 A1 = = = . Non – Viscous Constant Velocity achieved Before net force on a body
4) Venturi meter: The entering
A B C D . Irrotational becomes Zero.
speed of air flow decreases Velocity of fluids is given by
Lever system . Steady (Laminar) pressure increased
To other
wheels Tube T P 2 gh
2) Blowing off of thin Roof in V1 = A 2
F1 A12 A 22
Wheel P1 P2 Master storm: Reynold number
cylinder cylinder
Brake
pedal
Bernoulli Theorem p p0 p0
A2 wind v large so ρVd
A1
Brake p<p0 It tell us about the nature of fluid flow Re =
shoe
P + ρgh + ρv2 = Constant p0 h η
F2 S1 S2
P = Pressure; v = Volume Where ρ = density; V = velocity; d = diameter of pipe.
ρ = density ; h = height A1
V1 V2
Critical speed:- Maximum Value of speed for which fluid will
Hydraulic Brakes
g = gravity H
A2 remain laminar. [V = R η/ρd]
C e

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 Standard Graphs and
BASIC MATHEMATICS Straight line
A
Circle
their Equations
Parabola
y
Ellipse
x2 y2
y y + =1
a2 b2
x² + y² = a²
y = mx b
o a
Trigonometry x y = kx² x

θ
o x
a a = semi major axis
• Angle : The angle covered by the Coordinate Geometry b = semi minor axis
revolving line OP is θ = ∠ POX P
1° = 60′ (minute) ; 1′ = 60′′ (second)
• Origin : Any fixed point from which all Differentiation Integration
measurements are taken from this.
180°
• Physical Meaning of dy
⇒ 1 rad = ≈ 57.3° • Axis : Any fixed direction passing
π θ If I is the integration of f(x) with
⇒ Angle θ° to Radian multiply it by
π
. O X through origin. y
x dx respect to x then I = ∫ f(x)dx
180°
180° y y
(x,y) (i) The ratio of small change in the • Main Formulae of Integration :
⇒ Angle Radian to θ° multiplying it by . function y and the variable x is
π • Distance Formula : origin x xn+1
x called the average rate of change n
• Trigonometrical Ratios : d = (x 2 − x1 )2 + (y 2 − y1 )2
(0,0)
y w.r.t. x.
1. ∫ x dx = n + 1 + c, n ≠ −1
Y
P MP B OM P ∆y ∆y dy
sin θ = =
H OP
cos θ = =
H OP In 3-d (space) – d = 2 2
(x 2 − x1 ) + (y 2 − y1 ) + (z 2 − z1 ) 2 (ii) When ∆x → 0. The limiting value of
∆x
is lim
∆x →∞ ∆x
=
dx
2. ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c, c = constant
90°
X θ y y = F(x)
P MP
tan θ = =
B OM
cot θ = = O M X • Slope of a linen :
y B(x2,y2) 3. ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
B OM P MP y2 • Main Formulas of Differentiation
(x1,y1) θ ∆y 1 y
H OP H OP Y d
sec θ = =
B OM
cosec θ = =
P MP m = tan θ =
∆y y 2 − y1
=
y1 1. (K) = 0 K = constant
4. ∫ x dx = loge x + c
∆x dx
∆x x 2 − x1
⇒ sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 ; 1 + tan2 θ = sec 2 ; 1 + cot 2 θ = cosec 2 θ x x x
x1 x2 5. ∫e dx = e x + c x=a x=b
d dU
2. (KU) = K [U is a function of x] x
• Table : Trigonometry Standard angles dx dx • Define Integrals : dx
from 0° to 180° b
• Important Formulae of Differentiation : d dU dV dW d b
• Four Quadrans and ASTC Rule : 3.
dx
(U ± V ± W ) = ±
dx dx
±
dx
(f(x)) = f ′(x) ∫ f ′(x)dx = f(x) a
90° If dx then a
In Ist quadrant, all trigonometric ratios are positive. d d d 1
⇒ (sin x) = cos x ⇒ (cos x) = − sin x (#) (loge x) = where U, V and W are functions of x.
II quadrant
nd
Ist quadrant dx dx dx x is called definite integral.
⇒ In IInd quadrant, only sin θ and cosec θ are positive. sin All 0°
180° 360° d dV dV • Area Under Curve :
d d d x 4. (UV) = U +V
⇒ In IIIrd quadrant, only tan θ and cot θ are positive. tan cos
⇒ (tan x) = sec 2 x ⇒ (cot x) = −cosec 2 x (#) (e ) = e x dx dx dx b
IIIrd quadrant IVth quadrant dx dx dx ∫ f(x)dx = Shaded area between curve and x-axis.
⇒ In IVth quadrant, only cos θ and sec θ are positive. a
270°
d d ax dU dV
⇒ (cosec x) = −cosec x cat x (#) (e ) = ae x V −U
• Important trigonometric formula : d U
dx dx 5.   = dx 2 dx
Angle ( ) 0 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° dx  V  V
n(n − 1)x 2
1 1 3 3 1 1 y (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + + .....
sin 0 1 0 B d n 2 ×1
2 2 2 2 2 2 Maxima 6. (x ) = nxn−1
dx • Logarithm Main Formulae :
3 1 1 1 1 3
cos 1
2 2
0
2 2
–1 • Concept of Maxima and Minima
2 2 log mn = log m + log n log mn = n log m
1 1 m
tan 0
3
1 3 (not defined) 3 –1
3
0  dy d2 y  A minima log = logm − logn loge m = 2.303 log10 m
⇒ Condition for minima :  = 0 and > 0  x n
 dx dx 2  b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
• Range of trigonometric functions : x1 = x2 = • Arithmetic Progression (AP) :
P gives 2a and 2a (AP) = a + a + d + a + 2d + .... + a + (n – 1)d
⇒ sin θ = and P ≤ H
H  dy d2 y 
⇒ Condition for maxima :  = 0 and < 0  ⇒ b2 – 4ac ≥ 0 For real roots. where a = first term d = common difference
So, −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 H  dx dx 2 
P ⇒ Sum of n term’s Sn = n [2a + (n − 1)d] = n [a + nth term]
⇒ b – 4ac < 0 For Imaginary roots.
2 2 2
B θ
⇒ cos θ = and B ≤ H, So − 1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1 (i) Sum of first n natural number’s — Sn = n(n + 1) ;
H B • Binomial Expression : 2
Algebra An algebraic expression having two n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
P (ii) Sum of squares of first n → S =
⇒ tan θ = So, − ∞ < tan θ < ∞ n2 6
B • Quadratic Equation and its Solutions : terms only.Lorem ipsum
• Small Angle Approximation : • Geometric Progression (GP)
An algebraic equation of 2nd order is called a Example : (a + b), (a + b)4, (2x– 3y)2 etc. (GP) = a, ar, ar2, ar3 ....... arn–1; a = first term, r = common ratio
quadratic equation. Equation = ax2 + bx + c = 0
If θ is small (θ < 45°) • Binomial Theorem : n
2 Sum of n terms → Sn = a(1 − r ) ; For 0 ≤ | r | < 1
−b ± b − 4ac n(n − 1) n−2 2 1− r
sin θ ≈ θ; cos ≈ 1 and tan θ ≈ θ a b + ....
General Solu�on ⇒ X = 2a (a + b)n = an + nan–1 b′ + 2 × 1 Sum of ∞ terms S∞ = a
1− r

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STRESS & ITS TYPES POISSON'S RATIO
MECHANICAL PROPRTIES OF SOLIDS TYPES OF
(1) Stress is restoring force per The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain
unit area ELASTIC CONSTANTS is called Poisson’s ratio.
(2) σ = F lateral strain
STRAIN & ITS TYPES µ=
A Young’s Modules longitudinal strain
(3) It is neither scalar nor
vector, • property of material, that tells how
(4) It’s unit is N/m2 (1) Ratio of change in configuration to easily it can be stretched. Relation between Y, B, η and Σ
original configuration of body. (1) γ = 3B (1 - 2σ ),
longitudinal stress FL (2) γ = 2n (1 + σ )
Y= =
(2) It is a unitless quantity. longitudinal strain A 3B − 2n
(3) σ =
(3) Strain =
∆ configuration 2n + 6B
original configuration
Shear Modulus
• Ratio of shear stress by shear strain. APPLICATIONS OF ELASTIC
Normal Stress Linear Strain HOOKE'S LAW • Unit is Pascal (Pa) G BEHAVIOUR OF SOLIDS

(1) Tensile stress is produced when (1) Linear strain is the ratio of change in
axial force acts per unit Area. length to original length.
For small deformations, stress is directly Deflection in Beam
- This stress proportional to the strain for many materials. Bulk Modulus
results in Lf Li L This is know as Hooke's law. . When weight is suspended in beam, it Strouse buckling.
(2)
Elongation. a
Li Li • measure of ability of material to withstands WL3 L

Stress the change in volume. 4bd 3Y d

Li Stress Strain Constant
F F
Strain • negative sign indicates decrease in
volume
(2) Compressive stress is produced
−∆P
when force compresses object F =
∆V / V
F
per unit area. Stress-Strain Graph
Lf W

- This stress The constant of proportionally is called ISOTHERMAL BULK MODULUS

results in modulus of elasticity. B=P
Compression. Shear Strain I - Shaped Beams
A
(1) Angular deformation caused by ADIABATIC BULK MODULUS • I – shape of beams makes them excellent for
B
shearing force is shearing strain. (I) B = YP, unidirectional bending.
Volumentric Stress (2) Y = Adiabatic constant
(2) tan Stress • Use of rectangular shaped beams is not possible in
• When object is immersed inside the liquid, h railway tracks as of improper load distribution.
the hydrostatic pressure decreases the (3) For small change
volume of an object, that results the Compressibility
volumetric stress. φ2
φ1
F
• Reciprocal of Bulk modulus
Fext Strain
Volumetric stress =
A • Value depends on particle shape,
1
h
h

B
density and chemical composition.
• Extension is measured in ropes of
Stress-Strain Curve Cranes while load is suspended` on it

Volumentric Strain Mg
Shear Stress A≥
Strain Hardening Necking Concept of Strain Energy Sy
C
(i) Ratio of change in volume to Elastic
(1) Shear stress is produced when force Region B XD (i) energy stored due to elastic deformation. Sy = yield strength of rope
acts tangentially to a surface area. original volume, Fracture (ii) Strain Energy density is energy per unit
A Point
Vf Vi volume.
(2) Deforming force acts tangentially to (ii) v Plastic behavior
Vi (iii) strain Energy per unit Volume =
law

the surface. Sress 1

L
V
k’s

F (tangential)
Plastic u Stress strain
Hoo

v
V Region 2
A A' B B' Elastic behavior
Ftangential (iv) strain Energy per unit Volume =
τ= 2
A 1 Stress L F
0 Strain u
2 Y

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Inertia: Resistive property of an object while change in it's state of motion
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION For Non – inertial frame
or rest is called Inertia.
  
Fext + FPseudo = ma
Ο′

INERTIA OF REST INERTIA OF DIRECTION INERTIA OF MOTION

 
FORCES
Fpseudo = − Ma frame
The property of a The property due to The tendency of a
body due to which it which a body cannot body to remain in (i) Normal Contact force
cannot change its change its direction of a state of uniform
state of rest by it motion in a
motion by itself.
self. straight Line.
(1) always acts along the
common Normal of two surface
in contact. MOTION OF A CAR on LEVEL
(2) Always directed towards the
system. ROAD (by friction only):-
(3) Normal force on
Newton’s 1st law block is N. N = mg R
Speed = v
A body Continues its sate of v max ≤ µ sRg O a = v² / R N

rest or motion until unless an

external force is acted on it.
f

mg
Newton’s 2nd Law MOTION OF A CAR ON BANKED ROAD
(ii) Tension Force
The rate of change of linear momentum of a body (1) Acts along the string and N

is directly proportional to the external force applied on away from the system on
which it acts.
(i) Optimum speed of a vehicle on a banked road. V = rg tan θ
the body in the direction of force.

 dp  (2) Tension in a massless string rg(µ + tan θ) f

(ii) maximum safe speed on a banked frictional road. Vmax =

F= = ma remains constant throughout
1− µ tan θ mg
dt the string if no tangential
S.I . Unit of force = Newton (N) force acts along the string.
Rg(tan θ − µ )
(iii) minimum safe speed on a banked frictional road Vmin =
(3) This is force applied by a (1+ µ tan θ)
   dm string on an object or force
v = constant ⇒ F=v applied by one part of string
dt on the remaining part of
string.

Impulse Consevation of linear momentum:

   (iii) Frictional Force Static friction
When net external force on system is zero, the total
I = Favg ∆t = ∆P linear momentum of an isolated system of interacting The force which opposes the relative acts when a body is at rest on application
Force(N)

particles is conserved. of a force.

motion of two contact surfaces is

fs < µsN
Impulse (Ns)
If Fext = 0 ⇒ p = constant friction. That is a frictional force.
Time (s)
∴ pinitial = p final N = normal force
⇒ I = ∆P = ∫ F.dt = area under F– t curve Limiting friction
F = contact force
acts when a body is just at the verge of movement.
Newton’s 3rd law
Equal magnitude and nature f l = µsN
f = friction
action-reaction pairs

To every action there is always an

Conditions for

equal and opposite reaction. Kinetic friction

  Act along the same line
F AB = − FBA acts when a body is actually moving.
The friction force depends
• Action & Reaction act on different Act in opposite direction on different objects upon the nature of surfaces f k = µK N
bodies and not on the same body. in Contact and independent
of the area of Contact. Rolling friction
• action – reaction forces are of The force of friction which comes into play when one
Occur simultaneously body Ralls or tends to roll on the surface of
same type. anorther body.

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 Fundamentals Measuring instruments

Physical Quantity Units And Measurments

Numerical
Value
- Quantities which can be ERRORS
measured by an PRECCISION
instrument and used to Units The uncertainty in
measurement is called Precision is the range
describe Laws of physics
and

45 kg
are physical quantities errors of variation of true
- Physical quantity = Dimensional Analysis Measurements - Error = true value – value during several
Numerical value (N) × Unit (U) observation
Unit
Dimensional formula is measured Value
expressed in terms of
power of M, L and T. PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENITY
TYPES Principle of homogeneity VERNIER CALLIPERS
states that the ORDER OF MAGNITUDE Screw gauge
Fundamental quantities do dimension of each term ACCURACY Each divisions are

not depend upon other on both sides of • Accuracy is degree of

quantities: dimensional equation It is defined as the closeness of measured
0.01 mm

should be same. Main scale

(1) Length (2) Mass (3) Time N = n × 10x; x = order value to the true value; Vernier scale Each divisions are
0.5 mm

Significant figure
(4) Temperature • shows that how closely
Primary or fundamental Secondary or derived of magnitude. the results agree with Least Count (L.C) = 1 MSD – 1 VSD;
(5) Amount of Substance Dimensional Formula dimensional Formula
coefficient exponent the standard value. MSD = main scale division; displacement of screw
(6) Electric current
(7) Luminous Intensity There are seven (i) Other than Fundame- VSD = Vernier scale division no. of rotations
fundamental ntal formula all other
dimensional formulas: are derived L.C. =
6.022 x 10 23
- Derived quantities are (1) Mass = [M], dimensional Formula Pitch
formed by combining more (2) Length = [L], (ii) example: (1) [speed] = Total reading = Main
(3) Time = [T], MOL1T −1  total no. of divisions
than one fundamental scale Reading
(4) Temperature = [K] or[θ], (2) [Acceleration]
physical quantities (5) Electric Current = [I],
base +(Vernier Coincidence
- Area, Volume, velocity = MOL1T 2  × least Count)
(6) Luminous intensity = [cd],
and acceleration are (7) amount of matter = [mol] Zero error = N × L.C
some Derived quantities
All non – zero
digits are TYPES OF ERROR N = no. of circular
significant Zero error = N × L.C; scale division that
Two supplementary S.I units are:- Conversion of Units From
4.125 - 4 sf; RULEs OF ROUNDING OFF 1. Absolute Error, = ∆a N = no. of coinciding coincides with the
one system to another
(1) Radian(plane angle) c 123 - 3 sf division; reference line
θ= , arc
a b
M  L   T  = true value – measured value
r N2 = N1  1   1   1  - Rules of Rounding off the L.C = Least count of
radius r  M2   L 2   T2  Leading zeroes placed uncertain digits vernier callipers L.C = Least Count
N¹ = numerical part of to the left of the (up to 3 Significant Figures) of screw gauge.8
(2) Steradian (solid angle), one system number are never
arc
‘A’ is
Ω= Equivalent N² = numerical part of significant figures.
(radius)2 0.0403 - 3 sf; 2. Mean absolute errors
in area Area r2

r
another system Positive zero error
1
r 0.04030 - 4 sf If digit > 5
0 1
KNOW YOUR zeros 10.9 - 3 sf;
then, preceding digit +1 Main Scale
Positive Zero Error
∆a mean | ∆a1 | + | ∆a2 | + | ∆a3 | +................+ | ∆an |
(SIGNIFICANT FIGURES) = Vernier scale
400.001 - 4 sf n
0 5 10
UNITS All zero lie in between
The number of digits in the the non– zero digits are If digit <5 then, preceding 10
(1) Unit is defined as the measured values about the significant figure. digit remain same 0
reference standard used correctness are known as Relative error/ 5
for measurements. significant figures. 3. Negative zero error
(2) Measurements consists of
Order of magnitude Fractional error
is not considered If insignificant digit = 5
a numerical value along with 38.3 × 10⁴ - 3 sf;
-9 (a) Preceding digit remain
∆a mean 0 1 Main Scale 0
a relevant unit. 38.30 × 10 - 4 sf
(3) Example: meter, newton, same when rounded off a mean 0 5 10
Vernier scale
Positive Zero Error
joule, seconds etc. Constants or pure digit is even. Negaitive Zero Error
numbers have infinite (b) Preceding digit +1 when
SOME OTHER UNITS significant figures;
MKS CGS FPS rounded off digit is odd
4 → ∞,sf
(m, kg, s) (m, gm, s) (Ft ,pound, s) (1) mass:- 1 quintal = 100 kg,
sf 4. Percentage error,, 0
1 ton = 1000 kg
(2) length:- 1 light year = 0
S.I Units 9.46 × 1015 m ∆αmean 95
- The system of units 1 au = 1.496 × 1011 m
Trailing zero digits are
× 100
accepted internationally (3) Temperature: Oo C = significant only when they αmean 90
273 K 1o F = 255.928 K appear after decimal
- S.I units of time is ‘sec’
4.00 - 3 sf;
is the example of S.I system Negative Zero Error
0.043010 - 5 sf

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 SCALAR PHYSICAL QUANTITY Projectile motion Time of flight (T), T = 2usinθ Horizontal projectile
Resolution of vector g
Quantities having only magnitude but no u2 sin2θ vx
direction are called scalar quantities. Py = Psinθ oblique projectile Range (R) = uxT =
g
φ
uy = 0, ux = u
H v
Y 2 2
u sin θ vy
P A
ax
ay
0
g
Height (H) =
2g
vx
VECTOR PHYSICAL QUANTITY
Equation of Trajectory
x
vy = 0
Quantities having both magnitude as x=uxt =ut, t = x/u

uy = u sin
u 1 gx 2 x
well as direction and follows triangular θ Hmax
vx = u cos y = xtanθ - 2 2 = x(1− ) tan θ Equation of Trajectory vins v2x v 2y
law of vector addition are called vector 2 u cos θ R
Px = Pcosθ ux = u cos vy = -u sin
gx 2
y = 12 gt2 = 2
O B
quantities. v u2 g2 t 2
Range R 2u
2H = u2 + 2gy
Time of flight (T) =
TYPES OF VECTOR g
vy gt
PARALLEL Vectors having same a Mathematical operations MOTION IN A PLANE Range (R) = uxt = u
2H tanφ = =
vx u
direction, i.e., angle   g
A = (a1 i + b1 jLorem & B = (a2 i + b2 jLorem
+ c1 k )ipsum + c2 k )ipsum
v v

VECTORS :
between them is 0° .
b
Multiplication RELATIVE MOTION ON 2 D – PLANE
Arithmetic operations
ANTI PARALLEL Vectors having a Cross product motion of one body w.r.t. other:
VECTORS : opposite direction,
Dot product
Addition (vector product) vPQ = velocity of P w.r.t.Q
i.e., angle between   (Scalar product)     vPQ = vP - vQ
them is 180° . b A + B = (a1 + a2 )i + (b1 + b2 )j + (c1 + c 2 ) k 1) A x B = A B sin θ C B

    i j
RIVER-BOAT PROBLEM
k
vR
Subtraction 1) A · B = A B cosθ d vb
A
y
j    
Time taken, t = d v
UNIT A= A + B = (a1 − a2 )i + (b1 − b2 )j + (c1 − c 2 ) k 2) A × B = a1 b1 c1 vcos
v cos θ
VECTOR : | A |   a2 b2 c2 vsin A

2) A B = a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 d

|A|=1 x Drift, x = (v R − v sin θ )t = (v R − v sin θ )
k i
v
v cos θ
=i (b1c2 - c1b2) + j (a1c2 - c1a2)
v

z
^ ^
3) i i = 1 v

COLLINEAR Vectors lie on the b Circular motion + k (a1b2 - b1a2) Case I: Shortest path Case 2: Minimum Time
^ ^
VECTORS : same line or parallel i j=0 i × i = 0 B
 3) B C
line.  ^ ^
a = ±λ b a
i k=0 i x ^j = 1
vR vR
Angular displacement ( θ ): i × k = − 1 d
v
vb d
v
= | | R vcos = vb
vb

θ   = Rθ A
vsin = vR A
R d
Vector law’s v R = v sin θ tmin =
v
Types of Circular motion: d d vRd
Triangle law: Parallelogram law: t= = BC = v R tmin =
v cos θ v 2 − v R2 v
Angular velocity ( w ): Angular Uniform circular Non – uniform
By = Bsinθ A
dθ 2 π Acceleration ( α ): motion Circular motion
ω = = = 2π f (rads−1 ) RAIN-MAN PROBLEM
R
dt T dω
B B α= (rad s−2 ) v v v3 v2
θ
B T= Time period dt Case I: Rain is falling Case 2: Rain is falling
α Bx = Bcosθ vertically at angle θ with vertical
α θ f = frequency r r
A
v = rω a= R α j 
vM
A i
v v4
linear velocity (ms-1) linear acceleration θ v = v i
v v1 –i M M θ
 Lami's Theorem: (ms-2) i
. R = ( A + Bcos θ ) i + Bsin θ j   θ
b 1) aT (Tangential 1) v1 ≠ v2 ≠ v3 ≠ v4 vRM  
vR
vR=–vR j
   acceleration) = 0 –j –j
.
2 2
R == A + B + 2 A B Cos θ α Equation of motion 2) aT ≠ 0
γ on Circular track: 2) ar (Radial v2 2
  Vins vM
B sin θ β c ωf = ωi + αt θ = ωit + 1 αt 2 acceleration) = 3) ar = v RM v R2 v M2 v R sin θ vM 0 sin θ
. tanα =   2 R R vR
 2 2
A + B cos θ a a b c ω - ω = 2αθ 3) anet = 2 2
⇒ = =
f i
a2T + ar2 = ar 4) anet = aT + ar θ = tan 1 vM
v RM v R cos θ v R2 v M2
sin α sin β sin γ vR

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 WEIGHTLESSNESS
GRAVITATION (1) During Free fall under gravity
inside a spacecraft or satellite,
KEPLER's body is weightless.
LAW OF
(2) Effective weight of body becomes
PLANETARY Zero.
MOTION
GEOSTATIONARY & POLAR
SATELLITE

(1) GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE

Height from earth’s surface = 36,000 km
Radius = 42,400 Km
LAW OF ORBIT Time Period = 24 hours.

Every planet revolves around the

sun in an elliptical orbit and sun is GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
at it’s one of the foci points.
NEWTON'S LAW OF
GRAVITATION & GRAVIATATIONAL POTENTIAL
(2) POLAR SATELLITE
Height from earth’s surface = 330 Km
Gravitational Potential Energy
Time Period = 84 Min
GRAVITATIONAL Orbital Velocity = 7.92 Km/s
• Energy required to bring a mass
ACCELERATION from an infinite position to point
POLAR ORBIT
T = 2-3

r under gravitational field of earth

THE gravitational Force acting between with constant velocity
two bodies separated by distance ‘r’ is Gm1m2
U=−
ROTATION OF EARTH

directly proportional to product of their At surface of earth, T = 24 hours

masses and inversely proportional to Fgravitational = Weight

r
square of distance between them SUPERPOSITION • Generally, infinite is reference
Gm1m2 GmMe point
F= PRINCIPLE IN VECTOR Mg =
LAW OF AREA r2 RE2 Gravitational Potential
Nm2 FORM ESCAPE SPEED &
⇒ G = 6.67 × 10 −11 Gme
gs = Amount of work done in moving a ENERGY CONSERVATION
(i) The line joins any planet to the Kg2     RE2 unit test mass from  - position
sun sweeps equal area in equal
intervals of time
F1 = F12 + F13 + ....... + F1n to point under gravitational field
dA L of earth
Gm U
(ii] = Newton’s law in Variation of ‘g’ at height ‘h’ V=− =
dt 2m  1+ h 
−2 r M
(iii) Areal velocity is constant vector form gh = gs 
 RE 

Gravitational Potential For solid sphere
Y
if h <<<< RE (3R2 − r2 )
(i) r < R → v = −GM
V

m1 F12
r21 SUPERPOSITION 2R3 Minimum speed required by an
object to escape Gravitational
m2 PRINCIPLE IN SCALAR FORM 2h GM
R

gh = gs (1 − )
O r

F21 (ii) r = R → v = − Field of Earth

RE R -GM/R
2GM
r1 GM Ve = = 2gR E
Resultant force acting on a (iii) r > R → v = − r -1.5 GM/R
RE
r2 Ve = 11.2 Km/s
particle due to other particles is Variation of ‘g’ with depth Gravitational Field intensity
vector sum of forces exerted by
Strength of Gravitational field
LAW OF PERIODS 
O X individual particle in it
d applied per unit test mass is Orbital velocity of satellite
r1 = position of first particle gd = gs (1 − ) defined as Gravitational Field
RE
(i) The square of time period of  Ms ME
Intensity
revolution of a planet is r2 = position of second particle  −GM
E = 2 r
m


h
proportional to cube of semi – r1 R+h
F01
r12 = Force between them. r
v0

major axis of an ellipse R

rn r2
(ii) T 2 ∝ R3  Gm m F0n F02
F12 =  1 22 r12
Relation between Gravitational GM
4π2R3 r1 − r2 Variation of ‘g’ from equator to pole ;(r = R + h)
(iii) T 2 = potential & Intensity (i) orbital velocity = r
Gm r3 F03
 
 Gm m (r − r ) (ii) Total energy of satellite =
F12 = 1 2
  3
1 2
(i) E = − dV Constant
r1 − r2 g' = g − Rω2 cos2 λ dr K.E + P.E = constant
  (iii) Total energy =
 
F12 = − F21 F1 = F12 + F13 + ……. + F1N Mr
(ii) ∆V = ∫ E . dr GMm GMm GMm
− =
2r r 2r

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/neetplus

 WORK WORK,ENERGY AND pOWER COLLISIONS

• Work is said to be done when Force • An instance of one moving body striking
produces displacement. with another
SPECIAL UNITS • Collision of car with truck, collision of
balls in snooker are examples.
• 1 hp = 746 W
WORK DONE BY
ALL FORCES CONSERVATION OF
• 1 KWH = 3.6 × 106 J
MOMENTUM
NATURE OF
(1) If net external force
mg Friction Tension on system is zero then
COLLISIONS
Linear momentum of • Value of coefficient of
VARIOUS FORMS 
system is conserved restitution defines
Spring (1) Heat energy (2) ∆p = 0 nature of collision,
force
Pseudo Normal
(2) Chemical energy   v seperation
POWER ENERGY (3) Electrical energy (3) pi = p f e=
v approach
(4) Nuclear energy  
(5) Mass – Energy (4) m1u1 + ........ + mn un • e = O, e = 1, O < e< 1
 
(1) Time rate at which work is done. • Capacity to do work is defined = m1 υ1 + ......... + m1 υn Defines nature of
• W = F d cosθ, equivalence
(2) It is a scalar quantity as Energy collisions
• S.I. unit is WORK DONE FOR
(3) S.I. Unit is watt. • It is a scalar quantity
J (joule) CONSTANT FORCE • S.I. unit is Joule (J) 1 - D COLLISION
& VARIABLE FORCE • In elastic collision,
(1) ( ∆p)sys = 0
momentum and K.E of
Area = dA = F(x)dx WORK-ENERGY THEOREM v2 − v2 system are conserved
F(x) FORMULAE AVERAGE POWER (2) e =
  (1) Net Work done on an object by u1 − u2 •e=1
(1) dW = F .dr Total Work done in time all forces will change in Kinetic • Bodies do not stick
 m1 − em2 (1 + e)m2 
dw t is average power energy of an object (3) v1 =  u1 + u2  together after collision
(2) P = Wtotal (2) Wnet = ∆K  m1 + m2 m1 + m2 
dt Pavg =
O xi xf x
t Wconservative + Wnon–conservative + Wext = ∆K velocity of first particle
For small amount of work
after collision. • In inelastic collision,
(3) W = ∫ F(x).dx, ∫ F(x).dx = ∆K + ∆U TYPES momentum is conserved
• Area under F-S graph gives • If work is done by variable  m1 − (1 + e)m2 m − em1 
if variable force does work . (4) v 2 =  u1 + 2 u2  OF • o<e<I
force, then INSTANTANEOUS  m + m m1 + m2 
work done 1 2 • Bodies do not stick
• work done = Area under Wtotal
xf
F x dx POWER velocity of second particle COLLISIONS together after collision
xi
ABCD Scalar product of force after collision
and instantaneous
velocity (v) is
MECHANICAL (5) Change in Kinetic • In perfectly inelastic
WORK DONE BY instantaneous Power.
 ENERGY IS energy, Collison momentum is
  ds  
CONSERVATIVE & NON- Pinst = F . = F. V CONSERVED ∆K =
1 m1m2   2
(u1 − u2 ) (1 − e2 )
conserved
•e=O
WORK CAN BE CONSERVATIVE FORCES dt 2 m1 + m2
• Bodies sticks together
POSITIVE, NEGATIVE
after collision
OR ZERO ENERGY IN SPRING
CONSERVATIVE FORCES NON – CONSERVATIVE TYPES OF MASS SYSTEM
(1) Kx, mg and electrostatic
FORCES ENERGY (1) Total mechanical
energy at each point is MOTION IN VERTICLE CIRCLE 2 - D COLLISION SPECIAL CASES
POSITIVE WORK forces are conservative (1) Non – conservative forces mv 2
Constant. l
forces, hn = e2n h0

Energy
are path dependent. E=K+U
vH
(1)
mg
(2) Work For these forces is MECHANICAL ENERGY
U

TH
∆K + ∆U =0 e = coefficient of
K

stored in the form of (2)

(2) Friction is an example -xm xm x

C
Potential energy. Sum of kinetic energy and ( Kinitial+Uinitial) = ( Kfinal+ Ufinal`) restitution.
of non – conservative
(3) They are path
TL n = nth collision,
forces. potential energy
independent. (3) maximum Velocity reference
mg mv 2
vL h0 = initial height,
line l hn = height after nth
k • In absence of dissipative
v max xm forces, mechanical collision
m
energy is conserved (1) Bodies moving in a (2) Vn = enV0,
ZERO WORK NEGATIVE WORK • v = 5gl plane results in n = nth collision,
arbitrary collision in V0 = initial velocity,
at bottom to reach top different directions is vn = velocity after nth
If force and KINETIC ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY • v = 3gl 2 – D. collision.
at bottom to cross
displacement both
1 • By virtue of Position, height,  1 + e2 
are ‘+’ or ‘-‘ and θ is • By Virtue of velocity K = mv 2 stresses within its & Electrostatic
quarter CIrcle  (3) H = h0  2 
2 Factors; • v = gl (2) ∆p = 0  1− e 
acute.
• Gravitational Potential to reach quater circle ∆p x = 0 H = total distance
(1) W = O, if Force is Energy = mgh • Tension at any point travelled before it stops
1 m1u1x + m2u2x = m1v1x + m2 v 2x
perpendicular or to the If both force & • Elastic Potential energy = kx 2 on circle,
2 (1 + e) 2h0
mu 2 (4) T =
displacement. displacement are ‘+’or ‘-‘ • Electrostatic Potential T= − mg (2 − 3 cos θ) ∆p y = 0 (1 − e) g
(2) Either Force or and θ is between 90o to r
energy = kq1q2 • Velocity at any point T = time taken by ball
displacement is zero. 180o. m1u1y + m2u2y = m1v1y + m2 v 2y
r on circle, to stope bouncing.
v 2 = u2 − 2gl(1 − cos θ)

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 Analogy between linear & Rotational motion
CENTRE OF MASS System of particles and Linear motion Rotational Motion

The point where whole mass of system is rotational motion Velocity V =

ds
dt
angular velocity
dθ
dt
ω =
supposed to be concentrated. ds dω
C.M. acceleration a = angular acceleration α =
dt dt
RIGID BODY Force F = ma =
mdv d
Position of Centre of F
dt torque τ = I ∝ = (Iω)
mass of system d
F
dt
A body with perfectly definite and d

 unchanging shape during motion. work done W = F.S work done w = τ.θ
1. Position of centre of mass depends upon shaped, size
and distribution of mass of body.

r cm =
∑ mi ri Acceleration of Centre
1 1 2
2. Position of centre of mass of an object changes only ∑ mi of mass of system
 Translational Equilibrium
linear K.E =
2
mv 2 rotational K.E =
2
Iω
in translation motion. 
acm =
∑ i i
m a Rotational Equilibrium
 
3. Centre of mass & center of gravity coincide for a
small body. Velocity of centre of
∑ mi ∑ τext = 0 ∑ Fext = 0 Power P = F.V Power P = τ.ω ,
4. Centre of mass of rigid bodies is independent of the mass of system
 Linear momentum P = mv angular momentum L = Iω
state i.e rest or motion of the body. 
V cm =
∑ i i
m v
MOMENT OF INERTIA
∑ mi Impulse F∆t = mv − mu angular Impulse τpt = Iωf − Iωi
Shape of area Distance x Distance y Inertia of Rotational motion
n

I =∑ miri 2
a a
i =1
MOTION OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
2 2 & RIGID BODY
where r is distance perpendicular to the
axis of Rotation. Factors & radius of Pure Rotational Motion:-
a Radius of gyration gyration depends (1)distance between two particles of
b a rigid body remains constant, So the
2
2 r12 + r22 ..........rn2 (1) Position & configuration relative motion of one particle w.r.t other
ANGULAR MOMENTUM K= of the axis of rotation particle is circular motion.
n (2) Angular velocity of all the particles
   (2) distribution of mass about a given point of a Rigid body is
r r I
L O = r OA × P (angular momentum about point O) K= about the axis of same.
  M Rotation. S = Rθ, V = R;
= r OA × (mv)
  (3) If α = Constant (angular acceleration),
4r
I = MK²
(AOR) L=rxp

3π
r
= mr OA × v ωf = ωi + αt
  θ = ωi t +
1 2
αt
= m rOA v sin θ
A
2
b h ω2f = ωi2 + 2αθ
3 3 MR2  ω + ω2 
θ= 1 t
 2 
1 1 1 1  V2 
mv 2 + Iω 2 = 2 mv + mk 2  2 
2
K.Erolling =
MR2 2 2 2 r 
2
= 2 mv 1 + r
1  K2 
ANGULAR MOMENTUM CONSERVATION
2
2 

ML2
   12
τ = r ×F Combined Rotation + translation Motion ROLLING ON INCLINED PLANE
   MR 2
  
(CRTM):-
(EK)r = rota�onal K.E
 dL if τnet = 0 ⇒ L =constant 2 V CRTM = V pure rotation + V translational
τnet =    (a) for solid sphere, (Ek)r = 40% of (Ek)t
dt  MR2
aCRTM = apure rotation + a translational (b) For snell (Ek)r = 66% of (Ek)t,
 n
 dL  Dynamics of CRTM (c) For disc, (Ek)r = 50% of (Ek)t of (Ek)t
L system = ∑ Li
4
 = 0  for analysing its motion we apply two (d) For ring, (Ek)r = (Ek)t
 dt
MR2
i =1  equation
 
Angular momentum of rigid body performing pure MR2 ∑ τ ext

= Ma cm
  
(1) VELOCITY AT LOWEST POINT
2
rotation about fixed axis (L ) =I ω ∑ τext = I α = r × Fext 2 gh
sys AOR AOR Solid sphere, 2MR2 V=
radius R Newton’s laws of motion is valid in inertial K2
5 1+ 2
frame. R
Relation between Torque & Angular momentum: To apply second equation of Newton about Non
 Theorem of moment of Inertia – inertial Point, Pseudo – force is applied at (2) ACCELERATION ALONG INCLINED PLANE
 dL Com of body.
• τnet = g sin θ
Perpendicular axis theorem Parallel – axis theorem a=
dt K.E.CRTM = K.E.rotation + K.E.translation
1+ 2
K2
1 1
• Unit of Torque = N.m Icm ω2 + Mv cm
K.E. = 2 R
2 2
• Dimensional formula = M1L2 T −2 - 1 1
K.E. = MK 2 ω2 + Mv cm 2
 
        2 2 (3) Time taken to reach the bottom
AngularImpulse:- J = ∫ τ.dt , Jnet = L f − Li J, = r × I , Unit = Nm ⋅ s • Angular momentum of Rigid body performing of the inclined plane is.
CRTM follows Pure Rotational as a Rigid  K2 
     2h  1 + 2 
- I = ∫ F dt , Inet = P f − Pi , Unit = N ⋅ s
Linear Impulse: , Itanget = Idia + MR2 body about C.O.M and Translation as
t=
1  R 
1
I Z = I X + Iy a particle. sin θ g

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 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
RELATIVE MOTION
MOTION & FRAME OF REFERENCE
• The Comparison between the motion of single object with
respect to another inertial or non – inertial frame.

MOTION

Change in position of Relative Uniform

an object with Motion
respect to time is
MOTION UNIFORM MOTION & UNIFORM ACCELERATED (1) a12 = 0
defined as Motion
PARAMETERS GRAPHS MOTION (2) In this case
s
v 12 = 12
t
NON-INERTIAL FRAME • when a moving object cover equal when a body moves along a straight v12 = Relative Velocity
DISTANCE distance in equal time intervals, line and velocity changes by equal s12 = Relative
it is said to be in uniform motion. amount in equal interval of time, displacement
• Actual path length covered by a
• speed is constant. motion is uniformly accelerated
FRAME OF REFERENCE moving object in a given interval
of time.
• Acceleration is zero motion
40 • Either zero or positive Relative Uniformly
The point from which observer takes it’s
observation is called frame of reference. CASE.1 Accelerated Motion
30 2v1v 2
Displacement

Average speed =
Example:- Analysing lift moving upwards From 20 DISPLACEMENT v1 + v 2 MOTION CALCULUS (1) a12 ≠ 0
ground. Observer on ground is inertial When object travels distance ‘d’ with
frame. Image of Inertial frame 10
• Shortest distance between the
velocity V1 and next distance ‘d’ with EQUATIONS METHOD (2) In this case
initial position and final position of
moving object in a given interval velocity v2
dx v12 = u12 + a12 t
(i) v =
If acceleration is
0 of time. constant
dt 1
• can be positive, negative or Zero s12 = u12 t + a12 t 2
0 1 2 3 4
TIME CASE.2 (1) v = u + at 2
v1 + v 2 1 2 dv
SPEED
Average speed =
2 (2) s = ut + at (ii) a=v 2
v12 2
− u12 = 2a12 s12
When object travels in time ‘t’ interval
2 dx
• Ratio of path length to the (3) v2 – u² = 2as
corresponding time by an object with V1 and next ‘t’ with v2 dv
• Either zero or positive (iii) a=
d1 + d2 + .... + dn
dt
NON-INERTIAL FRAME Average speed =
INERTIAL FRAME t1 + t 2 + .... + t n
VELOCITY =
d1 + d2 + .... + dn
If an Observer is observing a If an Observer is observing a • The rate of change of displacement d1 / v1 + d2 / v 2 + .... + dn / v n
phenomenon from ground or phenomenon from an accelerated of body with respect to time is v1t1 + v 2 t 2 + .... + v n tn
inside stationery frame where =
frame where frame velocity is defined as velocity t1 + t 2 + .... + tn
frame velocity is zero or constant, either increasing or decreasing • Can be positive, negative or zero
it is defined as Inertial frame of is defined as non-Inertial frame
reference• of reference. Graphs of uniformlly Graphs to show of
motion under gravity When ball is dropped from a Time of flight
AVERAGE SPEED accelerated motion

Displacement
x height then it accelerates 2u
x (u2/2g) T=
Average speed is defined as total towards earth with constant g
distance travelled in total time
acceleration.
Total distance
Average speed = x0
Parabolic nature O (u/g) t
Total time o Time Analysis of this motion of Maximum
t Height
an object is motion under
gravity u2
v v Hmax =
AVERAGE VELOCITY 2g
The ratio of net displacement • a = g = 9.8 m/s2
Velocity

u
/ of the particle to the total
time taken gives the average ux
a xT
(u/g) (2u/g) Time to drop
O
velocity ∆x t • v = u + gt
Average Velocity = o –u 2h
Time T=
/ ∆t 0 T t
• s = ut + 1 gt 2
g

a a
2
x ACCELERATION • v2 – u2 = 2gs
Acceleration

The time rate of change of velocity a>0 Velocity after

is defined as acceleration• O dropping
t Taking downward direction
∆v a=0 -g as ‘positive’ V = 2gh
a=
∆t o Time t

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/neetplus

 Thermal properties of matter NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING dQ
∝ (T − TO ) Graph of Newton's
“ The rate of heat loss by the body is dT
law of cooling
directly proportional to the temperature
T(°C)
difference of the body and surroundings.
HEAT

(1) Heat is the form of Time (minute)

energy. HEAT TRANSFER
THERMAL EXPANSION Radiation
(2) Transferred from higher
temp. to the lower temp water. Transfer of heat energy from
Tendency of matter to a body at higher temperature Radiation is a mode of
(3) measured in calorie or joule. heat transfer in which
change its shape, area to a lower temperature.
and volume is said to the heat is transfer
From one place to
be thermal expansion
TEMPERATURE another without
heating of
(1) Quantity which measured Volumetric Exp intervening medium
Linear Expansion HEAT CAPACITY
the degree of hotness or ANOMALOUS EXPANSION
(1) Expansion in only (1) Three dimensional
coldness of a body is called Amount of heat supplied to CALORIUMETRY OF WATER Reflecting Power
one direction or expansion of solids.
Temperature. an object to produce a
dimension, (2) V = Vo ( 1+ γ∆T) (1) When temperature of water Q
(2) S.I. unit is Kelvin (K)
γ = Coeff. of
unit change in its temperature. Heat loss by the hot body =
increases from 0oC to 4oC, r= r
(2) ∆ L ∝ LO
volumetric expansion, Heat gain by the cold body Q
∆ L ∝ ∆T S.I. unit is joule per kelvin (J/K) the density of water also
. m1c1 (T1 – T) = m2c2 (T – T2¬¬¬), Qr = amount of thermal
∆L = αLo ∆T Vo = initial volume increases and reaches the
radiation,
CONVERSION FORMULA of cuboid m1c1T1 + m2c 2 T2 maximum value at 4oC
Q = total amount.
α is coeff. of SPECIFIC HEAT T=
K − 273 o
C o F − 32 Linear expansion m1 + m2
= =
100 100 180 L = Lo (1 + α∆T) (1) Amount of heat required T is equilibrium Temperature. Absorbing Power
to raise the temperature
of unit mass of substance Qa
by unity Case – 1 a=
Superficial/ Areal 1 dQ Q

Volume
(2) C =
expansion m dT If material of body is

Density
(3) Unit is J/kg same (c1 = c2), Transmitting power
(1) Expansion of solids in two dimension. m T + m2 T2 4°C 4°C Qt
T= 1 1 t=
Q
(2) A = Ao (1 + β∆T), MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT m1 + m2 Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

β - coefficient of areal expansion, Relation between r,a

(1) Amount of heat required to and t,
Aο = initial area of plate. Case – 2 r+a+t=1
raise the temperature of 1
β = 2α
mole of a gas by 1oC.
α = Coeff. of Linear expension If mass of bodies is equal.
' 1 dQ c m1 = m2 = m, Spectral emission
(2) c = =
n dT n
c1T1 + c 2 T2 Power (Eλ),
n = number of moles, T= Energy
(3) S.I. unit is J/mol c1 + c 2 Eλ =
Conduction Area × time × wavelength
Relationship between Coefficient
of Linear expansion, areal expansion Case – 3 Unit is J / m2 s A
o

THERMAL CAPACITY (1) Heat will flow from hot

and volumetric expansion:- if bodies are of same end to the cold end by T >T
T T2
means of oscillation of 1
1 2

β γ (1) Heat required to raise material and equal masses particles but particles do
α = = or α : β : γ = 1: 2 : 3 A Total emissive Power
2 3 the temperature of the T + T2 not leave their original is total amount of
substance by 1oC. T= 1 position. heat energy emitted
2 (2) Medium is necessary. per unit time
(2) Q = mc,
(3) Rate of heat transfer is slow ∞
m- mass of substance,
Latent Heat of fusion C - specific heat of Thermal Stress E = ∫ E λ dλ
o
Graph of triple point • The amount of heat required to
the substance
The expansion or contraction Convection
of water 1 kg mass of substance from occurs in solids due to change
(1) Heat is carried by mobile
Emissivity is defined as
solids to liquid or vice – versa. LATENT HEAT in temperature develops the ratio of total
particles From the body. emissive Power of a
• Q = mLf 1) Amount of Heat required
compressive stress (2) Rate of heat transfer is slow body to the total
Lf = Latent heat of fusion. to change the phase of the  thermal = Y α ∆θ in free convection and high in emissive power of the
Forced Convection black body.
substance at constant Y - Young modulus, E
temperature.  - Coeff. of Thermal exp, e = practical
Eblock
(2) Q = mL, θ - temp. difference. Coefficient of
Latent heat of vaporisation L = Latent heat, Kirchoff’s Law
apparent expansion
m = mass of substance Thermal expansion in Liquid ∆Vapp
Stefan’s Law
• The amount of heat required to When the body is in Wien’s
Coefficients γ app =
change 1 kg mass of substance V × ∆θ thermal equilibrium displacement Law Q ∝ T4
Volumetric

From liquid to vapor or

The change in volume of liquid in Liquids with the surrounding Total energy radiated,
relative to vessel; the emissivity is λm T = 2.89 × 10 −3 mK 4
vice – versa. Coefficient of real equal to the Q = eσAT
• Q = mLV ∆Vapp = γ app ∆T absorptivity
λm = maximum emission
expansion A = surface area
LV =Latent heat of vaporization.
wavelength
γapp - apparent Coeff of volume ∆V α= e, α = absorp�vity T = Absolute Temperature e = emissivity
expansion. γr =
V × ∆θ e = emissivity σ = stefan’s constant

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 Some Important terms THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS
It is defined as change from one equilibrium Kelvin – Planck’s statement: Clausius Statement:
microstate.
“No process is passible, whose “No process is possible , whose
sole result is absorption of sole result is the transfer of
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICES heat from reservoir and heat from a colder object to
the complete conversion of hotter object”
Branch of Physics that deals with concepts
Isothermal Process heat into work”
of heat and Temperature including
inter – conversion of heat to another Form.
P

System
Heat Engine Thermal Reservoir
Isothermal V
If two bodies A and B are individually in thermal θ
Process T1 (Source)
equilibrium with third body C, then A and B will . Engine that produces useful work. Q1
also be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
V T . Pumps heat from source and Heat
transfer to sink. W
Engine
. Temperature, T = constant
Q2 T
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS  V2   P1  n = 1− = 1 − sink Q2
(1) W = nRTln  = nRTln   Q1 Tsource
A body of matter or radiation confined in  V1   P2  P
T2 Sink
spaced walls with definite Permeabilities
If the energy (Q) supplied to System goes in
 V2  Where TSource > Tsink
(2) W = 2.303 nRT log  
separated from surrounding.  V1 
partly to increase the internal energy of system
(∆U) and rest in work (W) on environment.  P1 
= 2.303 nRT log  P  T
Surrounding Q = ∆U + W  2
Warm
(3) As, Q = ∆u for isothermal, ∆u = 0, So, Q = W Heat Pump Refrigerator Environment TH
(1) Heat (Q) – Energy transfer to or from a QH
. It operates in a cycle.
thermodynamic system = nC∆T
Isobaric Process . It maintains body temperature
Heat
(2) ∆U – Energy associated with internal lower than surrounding Win
Pump
configuration = nCv∆T temperature by pumping out.
1
P1
Everything external to the system is known Isobaric Process QL
(3) Area under P – V graph
P
Coefficient of QH TH
as Surrounding. P2 2 P P = = Cold
gives work done P
performance QH − QT TH − TT
Refrigerated TL
W = 12 ∫ P.dv dV

Types Of Systems V1 V V2 V T

(1) In closed system, only energy transfer is

possible rather than mass, Point function and state function . Isobaric Process Carnot Engine
(2) In open system, both energy and mass 1 Qadd
transfer is possible. (i) Function whose value depends on initial and (1) W = nR∆T = P∆v V . Best Known reversible cycle. Iso
the
rm
al
(3) In isolated systems, both energy and mass final state of system is point function. (2) Q = ∆U + W . Isothermal expansion

W expan
2

Ad
transfer is not possible. (ii) Function whose value depends on W1 = nRT ln  V2 

iab
(3) Pressure, P = Constant.

sion
P Wcompres

Ad
atic
thermodynamic process is called path Function. T
 V1  sion

iab
PV −PV Isoth
. Adiabatic Expansion, W2 = 2 2 3 3 4

atic
erm
γ − 1 al
Equilibrium in Thermodynamics  V3  Qrelease 3
. Isothermal Compression, W3 = -nRT ln  
 V4  V
Adiabatic Process Isochoric Process
− (P4 V4 − P1V1 )
(1) When the temperature difference . Adiabatic compression W4 =
γ −1
between two bodies becomes zero then T
they are said to be in thermal Equilibrium. . n = 1 − Sink
TSource
(2) When all mechanical forces within the P P V
system are balanced to have zero P1V1 − P2 V2 Isochoric
acceleration, system is in mechanical (1) W = Process
γ −1 Polytropic Process
equilibrium. γ – adiabatic constant V T
(3) When no chemical reaction occur within Adiabatic n
reactants of system, then it is in chemical Process (1) PV = Const ; n = polytropic index
(2) Q = O for this process θ Isochoric
(2) If n = o, isobaric process

Volume (V)
equilibrium. (1) Volume, V = Constant n=0
(4) System is in thermodynamic equilibrium if Isothermal
(2) Work done, W = O P (3) If n = 1, isothermal process n=1
all three equilibrium are attained. (3) Q = ∆U + W ; W = -∆U
(3) Q = ∆U + W so, Q = ∆U (4) If n = γ, Adiabatic process Adtabatic
V n=γ
Isobaric n=∞
(5) If n = , isochoric process

8
T Pressure P

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 SPEEDS OF GAS MOLECULES SPECIAL RELATIONS RELATION BETWEEN KINETIC DEGREES OF FREEDOM SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
. Pressure exerted by a gas, ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE
. Specific heat capacity for an ideal gas,
Root Mean square speed: 1 2
P= ρv rms CP − CV = R
. Square root of mean of square 3 3KT 1 . For monoatomic gas, f = 3
. Kinetic Energy = = mv 2rms
of speed of different molecules, 2 2 CP 5
. Relation between pressure . For monoatomic gas, =γ =
v1 + v2 +............... + vn CV 3
vrms =
2 2 2
and Kinetic Energy. Kinetic Energy of gas molecule.
. For diatomic gas,
n 3 1 3RT CP γ 7
E= PV . K.E = mv rms =
2
(a) at room temperature, f = 5 . For diatomic gas, = =
3RT 3P 2 2 2 CV 5
vrms = = ρ (b) at high temperature, f = 7
M Kinetic energy of one mole of gas molecule. CP γ 4 + f
. For polyatomic gas, = =
Average Speed: 1 = 3RT CV 3+f
Most probable speed:
. K.E = mvrms
2

. Arithmatic mean of speed of 2 2m . For polyatomic gas, and f is degrees of freedom.

molecules of gas at given . Speed possessed by maximum Kinetic energy of one gram of gas molecule.
temperature. number of molecules of gas. (a) at room temperature , f = 6 . CP = (1 + f ) R , C = f R
(b) at high temperature, f = 8, f degree of 2 V
2
vavg = I v1 I + I v2 I + ....... + I vnI
n vmp = 2RT = 2P
ρ
freedom. Cp 2
Mo . γ = = 1+
CV f
vavg = 8RT = 8P
πM πρ
MEAN FREE PATH

Average distance travelled by

ASSUMPTIONS IN KINETIC IDEAL GAS LAWs molecules between two
THEORY OF GASES successive collision
1
Gas consists of small . Pressure, Temperature and λ mean =
particles known as Molecules. volume of Gas are related to 2 πd2n
each other by following
Molecules of Gas are equation, PV = nRT. d = diameter of molecules.
identical rigid sphere and n = no. of molecules per
elastic points mass. . P – pressure, V – volume, n – no. unit volume
of moles , R = Universal Gas
Molecules of Gas moves Constant = 8.314 J/mol.k ,
randomly in al directions T – Temperature.
with possible velocity.
m n
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
. PV = RT ; PV = nA
KT DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL
mA
PRESSURE

Boyle’s Law Charle’s Law Gay lussac’s law LAW OF EQUIPARTITION OF ENERGY

. The total Kinetic energy of a gas molecule

is equally distributed among it’s all degrees
P PV V V/T of freedom.
P P/T
f
U = k BT
V V
T V
2
T P

f = degrees of freedom.
. For Fixed mass, pressure of gas . For a Fixed mass, volume of gas . For a fixed mass, pressure of a
is inversely proportional to is directly proportional to gas is directly proportional to kB = Boltzmann Constant. Total pressure of a mixture of non –
volume. temperature. its temperature. reacting gas is equal to summation of
3 pressure of individual Gasses.
. PV = constant, if T = Cosntant P . For monoatomic gas, U= k BT
. V α T; v = constant; P = constant. . P α T; = constant; V = constant. 2
T T
. P1V1 = P2V2 ,When gas changes it’s P = P1 + P2 + P3 +………+ Pn
. v 1 = v 2 ,When gas change its state P1 P2 5
state under constant
T1 T2 under constant pressure.
. = ,When gas change its state
. For diatomic gas, U= k BT
temperature. T1 T2 under constant Volume. 2

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 DAMPED OSCILLATION
to and fro

DAMPED AND FORCE OSCILLATIONS

(1) Amplitude, A ' = Ae −bt / 2m
k b2
(2) Angular Frequency, ω = −
m 4m2
Periodic
 Oscillatory m

−X Where – b = damping
Motion Motion
 ∝
All F Constant
CHARACTERISTICS OF LINEAR SHM
FORCED OSCILLATION
S.H.M Fo
(1) Amplitude (For → ω d >> ω) → A' =
m(ω 2 − ω 2d )
d2 x
+ ω2
=0
1

Amplitude
- Differential Equation of S.H.M (2) Amplitude → A′ = Fo/ω db
dt 2 x 2

TIME PERIOD CALCULATION ωd → Driving Frequency 3

- Displacement - x = A sin (ωt + φ)   

(1) Force → F = − m ωx or F = − k x ;
2 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

ω → Natural Frequency oscillator as a function of the angular

frequency of the driving force

- Velocity -V = dx  k 
= ω A Cos(ωt + φ)  ω =  Time period T =
2π m ANGULAR S.H.M
dt
m = 2π d2 θ 2
(i ) Different Equation → 2 tω θ = 0
- Acceleration - a = A sin(ωt + ) = -ω2x  ω k dt
K - spring Constant ⇒ Displacement →θ = θo sin (ωt + S)

Spring Block System ⇒ Torque → T = Kθ

Graph of a - t m K −K θ
Graph of X - t Time Period → T =2π ⇒ Angular Velocity → ω =
I
; Angular accelartion → ∝ =
1
X
k eq
A
I
acceleration (a)

PENDULUM
Displacement

T ⇒ Time period – T = 2π
0
t 2 ω A
2
K
–A T t (i) keq = K1 + K2 (ii) K eq =
K1 K 2
;
K1 + K 2 Physical Pendulum
m
T = 2π ; m :- Time period → T= 2π
I
k eq T = 2π mgd
Graph of v - t k eq
m θ
T = 2π m(k1 + k 2 ) I : MoI of system
T
k1 + k 2 T = 2π
2
K1 K 2 mg sinθ

M : Mass of System
velocity (v)

T t
k1 k2 d: distance between com and hinge
k1 k2
mg
m

Simple Pendulum Torsional Pendulum

m T∝θ
F ∝ -θ;
ENERGY OF LINEAR S.H.M TWO BLOCKS SPRING SYSTEM F = -Kθ; T = -C θ[C = Torsional Constant]
1 2
Energy
mm
Reduced Mass: µ = 1 2 
T.E

→ P.E→ U = Kx Time period → = 2π I

P.E

m1 + m2
2 g Time period – T = 2π
1
K.E

C
K.E→ K = K (A 2 − x 2 )
X
-A A

2 m1m2 µ
T = 2π = 2π I : Moment of Inertia
1 K (m1 + m2 ) k
K, U

→ P.E→ U = K A 2 sin2 (ωt + φ)

Kmax or Umax or ET

2 P.E.
k

m2
m1

1 P.E.
→ K.E→ U = K A 2 cos(
2
ωt + φ)
2 ωt

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 Mechanical Wave W A V E S Doppler effect in sound wave
Non- Mechanical Wave

Waves which do not Doppler effect refer to

require any material the change in wave
medium For propagation DISPLACEMENT RELATIOn IN A PROGRESSIVE WAVE frequency due to
and to transfer of relative motion between
Progressive wave travels
energy. Example:- continuously in a medium SPEED OF TRANSVERSE WAVE a wave source and its
Electromagnetic
SPEED OF LONGITUDINAL
Progressive Waves without changing its WAVE (SOUND WAVE) observer.
waves (X – rays, Amplitude
Wave length, L
Direction of progress
amplitude. Speed of sound wave in  ν ± νo 
radio waves) Wave
Height h h
y(x,t) = a sin(kx ± ωt ± φ) B T → fo =   fs , fs = frequency
Speed of sound wave υ = C tight string
H

ν=  ν ± νs 
H

x = Position of the constituents B = Bulk modulus, p µ emitted by source

particles fo = Frequency heared by observer
y(x,t) = displacement of particles ι = density, For solids, T = Tension in the string
→ Wave which require a Y V = Speed of sound
material medium For v= µ = linear mass density.
ρ Vo = Speed of observer
propagation and to Vs = Speed of source
transfer energy
Matter Wave AMPLITUDE
y = young modulus.
continually are said RESONANCE
Amplitude is maximum
to be mechanical wave.
displacement of
→ Example:- (1) Water waves, LAPLACE CORRECTION Phenomenon of increased
Waves associated constituident particles V0observe= o m/s and Source
(2) Sound Waves amplitude when the
with Constituents from their equilibrium Frequency of periodically moving towards observer with
position. Propagation of sound is not
of matter i.e, applied force is equal to speed vs,  ν 

Case - 1
an isothermal process. fo =   fs
electrons, protons, VS
- It is an adiabatic process the natural frequency of  ν − νs 
Vibration of Particles

neutrons, atoms S O
Time Period system on which it acts.
and molecular are γ.Ρ (moving) (rest)
- ν=
called matter waves Time to Complete one ρ
revolution of oscillation, - γ = CP NATURAL FREQUENCY
- S.I. unit is sec (&) CV Vobserve= o m/s and Source
Frequency at which system

Case - 2
moving away From observer
tends to oscillate in the with Vs  ν 
Longitudinal waves Wavelength NEWTON’S FORMULA absence of any damping Force. VS fo =   fs
S O  ν + νs 
minimum distance between propagation of sound wave
Waves in which the two points having is an isothermal process (moving) (rest)
direction of disturbance same phase.
of wave particle is along - S.I. unit = Meter (m) ∆T = O,
P
Vobserve= o m/s and observe
the direction of propagation ν=  228 m/s
Transfer of energy

ρ is moving towards source with

Case - 3
of wave.
Frequency P = Pressure, ρ = density speed Vo ν +ν 
BEATS VO fo =  O
 fs
Frequency is number of S O  ν 
oscillations per second. Beats is the phenomenon
Transverse Waves n ω caused by superposition of two (rest) (moving)
f= = PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
T 2π waves of same amplitude and
In which the direction slightly different angular
of disturbance is n = no. of oscillations Phenomenon of mixing of two
or more waves to produce frequency. Vobserve= o m/s and observe
perpendicular to the ω = Angular Frequency.
is moving away From source

Case - 4
direction of propagation - Unit = Hertz (Hz) a new wave.
φ φ ω1 − ω2 ω + ω2 with speed Vo.
of wave. y (x,t) = 2a cos sin(kx − ωt + ynet = 2cos( )cos( 1 )  ν − νO 
2 2 A1
2 2 VO fo =   fs
φ + A 1+A 2 S O  ν 
Angular Frequency Anet = 2a cos A2 Beat frequency ∆ f = Fmax − Fmin
2
If φ = o, Anet = 2a (amplified (rest) (moving)
Angular frequency is wave)
Stationary Wave angular displacement If φ = π, Anet = O (Standing Vibration of air column
Which seems to be at rest of any element wave) in open organ pipe Source and observe both moving
due to superposition of two per unit time towards each other with speed

Case - 5
Fundamental Ist Overtone IInd Overtone

waves having same 2π REFLECTION OF WAVES Vibration of air column A A Vs & Vo respectively.  ν + νO 
amplitude, wavelength ω= = 2 πf ((Reflection From rigid boundary) f =   fs
T in closed organ pipe VS VO o
N

travelling in straight line

N
S O  ν − νs 
Unit = rad/sec. - Yincident = a sin (wt – kx) Fundamental
Ist Overtone IInd Overtone 2l 2
A
3l 3
in opposite direction.
1
A A A N 2 A 2 N 2
(moving) (moving)
( in +ve x- direction) N
A
N

Progressive Wave Relation between Wavenumber - Yreflected = - a sin (wt+ kx) 4

1 3 2 A
4
N
5l 3
4
N
N
particle velocity (in – ve x – direction) A
A A A A
and wave velocity (i) (ii) (iii) Source and observer both
Wavenumber is defined (i)
N N
(ii)
N
(iii)
moving away From each other
Which travels continuously in v p = aω cos(ωt − kx + φ) For nth harmonic,

Case - 6
as 2π times the number REFLECTION FROM FREE END For nth harmonic, with speed Vs & Vo respectively.
a medium in same direction frequency of vibration
ω of waves per unit length - Yincident =
frequency of vibration
without changing its amplitude. vω = 2π fn =
v (2n + 1)
= ν (n + 1) ν VS VO  ν − νO 
Example: (1) longitudinal wave, k K= a sin (wt – kx) λ 4L
fn =
λ
=
2L
S O fo =   fs
λ  ν+ν 
(2) Transverse Waves v ω = − tan θ ⋅ v p - S.I. unit = 1/m
- Yreflected = (n = 0, 1, 2,……) n = (0,1,2,3,….) (moving) (moving)
a sin (wt + kx) L = Length of the tube L = Length of tube

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 QUANTIZATION ELECTRIC ELECTRIC DIPOLE
OF CHARGES CHARGES ELECTROSTATICS A pair of Equal and opposite point
charges repeated by fix distance
• Electric field due to Electric Dipole
(i) Electric Field (E.F.) on the axis of dipole
at a distance r from center of dipole:
All charges must be integral • Charge is an intrinsic
multiple of e
CONSERVATION property of matter by Electric Dipole Moment -q P +q
E=
−kq
+
kq
=
k2qa →
P

 – + –q
a
+q Vp

( γ − a)
2
(rta)2 (r 2 − a2 )2
c
virtue of which it experience 2a
OF CHARGES p = q (2a ) cm
–– ++

i.e. 2a
r

Q = ne (e = 1.6 × 10-19C) Electric & Magnetic Effect

Where — n = integer It is not possible to create or • Two kinds of charges +ve
destroy net charge of an and -ve (ii) Electric field at a distance r from
• S.I. Unit Coulomb(c) centre of dipole on its Equatorial line:
isolated system ELECTRIC FLUX  VP = (V+ q + V− q ) = o

−kP
P

Total number of electric field lines Enet = 3 r 2 + a2

r
r 2 + a2 
P

passing normally throng an area

  (r 2
+a ) 2 2
-q θ a +q

COULOMB'S LAW −φ = ∫ E .ds

2a

VP (equatorial) = Zero equatorial

 
line

• Electrical potential due to Electric Dipole:

• Force between two charged Electric Flux (φ ) = E ds cos θ
particles KP
Axial →V =
 Kq1q2 r Kq1q2rˆ r (i) p
(r −a 2 )
2

F= = F21 F12
ELECTRIC FIELD GAUSS LAW
r3 r2 q1 q1  (ii) Equatorial → v p = 0
lim F  It states, total flux of an E.F.
1 • Force and Torque on dipole in uniform
K=  9 × 109 Nm2 c −2 • Electric field intensity (E) ⇒ E = through a closed surface is equal
4πε0 q0 → 0 q0 to times of total charge external (E.F.)
 1 Q  
In vector Form— E = r enclosed by the surface. Force → F net = qE − qE = 0
ε 0 = Permitivity of Free Space 4πε 0 r 2   
N V THEORY OF CONDUCTOR Total Flux through surface Torque →L =PESin θ =P ×E
= 8.854 × 10−12 C 2 / Nm 2 S.I Unit − = q enclosed q
C m
→ →
r21 A material having free electrons in its valence shell (φ ) = E dS = dS E

• Forces In Vector Form ε0 0 → Work Done in Rotating Dipole +q

F12 F21 is called conductor. E F1

• Electric Field Intensity due to point

A

 1 q 1q 2   q1 q2 a

F12 = ( r − r 2) r12 charge Q • Inside a conductor, the net electrostatic field is zero → w = PE(cos θ1 − cos θ2 ) O

4πε0 r −r 3 1 1 Q • At the surface of a charged conductor, the -q

a

1 2 (E ) = electrostatic field must be normal to the surface at • Potential Energy

F2

4πε 0 r 2
B

• Forces between Multiple every point  

• Net Electric Field with respect toorigi → U = − PEcos θ = P ⋅ E
Charges • The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge
 q0 n qi 1 n qi  in the static situation i.e. excess charge reside only on
FNet = ∑ rˆoi
4πε0 i=1 roi2
Enet = ∑ r
4πε 0 i =1 r oi2 oi
the outer surface of conductor.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
• Electric field at the ssurface of a Charged conductor
• Electric field due to finite length line
 σ
charge at distance r from conductor E =  where. σ is Surface charge density.
λ π  ε0 
E|| = cos 0 − cos • Work done By External charge to move • Electric potential Energy: Amount of
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES 4πε 0r  2   1  from postion 1 to 2 in static Electric work done(w) required to be done to
σ ∝  Field E.   2 
move a charge from infinity to any
λ  radius of curvature  Wext = ∫ F. dl = − q∫ E. .dl
• E⊥ =  sin φ2 + sin φ1  given point inside the Field.
Aways normal to conducting surface. 4πε 0 r  • Electric potential
1
• Lines originating from +ve charge Wext (∞ → P) P  
   A

(Here, l is linear charge density) V

→ p = = −∫ E. dl UA = W∞→ A = − q ∫ E ⋅ d l = qVA
• Terminating at -ve charge Case(I): E.F due to Infinite line charge
q ∞ −∞
• Never intersect Each other. π λ • Electric Potential due to a point charge • Work done in moving charge from A to
φ1 = φ2 = → F1 = ; E || = 0
• Never form closed loop. 2 2πε 0r Kq B will be:
• Electric Field lines are in its surrounding: → Vp = Wext = ∆U = (UB − UA ) = q(VB − VA )
Case(II): E.F due to semi-Infinite line r
imaginary. charge • Electric Potential due to a point • Electric potential Energy due to two
(i) uniform Electric Field π λ charged ring at its center: point charges:
φ1 = , = φ2 = 0 → E || = F⊥ =
2 4πε 0 r Kdg K θ kq1q2
V = ∫ dv = ∫
= U=
• Electric field due to charged spherical R R
→ • Electric Field due to a charged Circular • Electric potential due to conducting and r
E shell or conducting sphere
ring at a point on its Axis. Non-Conducting sphere: • Electric potential Energy of a system
E = (r < R) = 0
KQX q of charges:
EP = 3 1 Q +
+ +
+ 1 1 kq3 q4
E = (r < R) = Utotal = kq1q2 + kq2 q3 + + .....
(R )
UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD 2 2 2 + + Hollow conducting Solid Non-Conducting
+X R r12 r23 r34
4πε0 r 2 + + r
(ii) uniform Electric Field • Electric field due to a plane Infinite sheet +
C
1 +2 3
Vp =
Kq Kq • Relation Between Electric Field and
1 Q
VP = 3R2 − r 2 
+ (i) Inside (r < R) 2R3 
+ R Potential:
(i) Non-Conducting sheet: E = (r = R) = + + +
Kq Kq
→ σ + 4πε0 R 2 Charged Conducting shell (ii) Outside (r > R) Vp = Vp = Electric Field at a point is negative of
+
r r
E
E⊥ =
+ +
++
++ +
potential gradient
• Electric field due to a solid non-conducting
+ + (Near Point)

2ε 0 Kq
+
P (iii) At surface (r = R)
Kq
++ +
+ +

Vp = Vp =
+
+
+
E

−dv 
+


+ +
Note - independent of
sphere - (f = Volume charge density) R R
+
+ +

potential gradient → E =
+++ seperation from
+

dr 
+ +
+
+ the sheet

NON- UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD = Surface charge

KQr 
E = (r < R) =
density
Q
+
(iii) uniform Electric Field
(ii) Charged conducting plate E⊥ =
σ 3ε 0 +
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ + + +
ε0 kQ 1Q +

E = ( r >R) = 2 =
(Charge density) + + + + +
+ + R-
+ + + +
+ + +
r 4πε 0r 2
+ + +
EI 1 + + 2
+ + +
+ +
2
EI + +
+ + +
+ + EII
EII + + +
1 Q
2
+ + +
E = ( r =R) =
+3 +
E1= + + E2= Charged Non - Conducting Shell
I + + II

RADIAL ELECTRIC FIELD EII

+ +
EI
Enet = 0 (Inside point)
4πε 0 R2

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 ELECTROSTATIC
TYPES OF CAPACITANCE'S
CAPACITOR KIRCHOFF'S LAW OF CAPACITOR'S
+q
PRESSURE
• Capacitance of spherical conductor: FIRST LAW: This law is basically law of conservation
C = 4πε0 r F QE σ A  σ  of charge which states that the sum of incoming==
• Capacitance of Earth: C = 4πε0 r ; r = 6.4 × 10 F
6 O r (P ) = = =
A  2ε 
charges at a junction is Equal to the sum of
A A
-12 6 -6 outgoing charges
∴ C = 4 π × 8.854 × 10 × 6.4 × 10 = 7.11× 10 F 1σ2
• Capacitance of parallel plate Capacitor:
=
2 ε0
q− = q1 + q 2 = q 3 + q 4
ε0 A q –q
(C0 ) = F + – FORCE BETWEEN THE SECOND LAW: In a closed loop, the summation of all
d + – the potential differences must be zero.
Where— PLATES OF CAPACITOR
ε 0 = Free space permitivity
+ –
q1 q 3
1 V− =0
q3
−
C1
+ – Qσ Q 2
= ε 0 AE
2 G - M H
F = ⇒F
+

A = Plate Area + – C1 C 3 + -
C5
2ε 0 2 Aε 0 2 q5
+
q1 C3
B E
+ – C2 -

d = Sepration between plates + -

+ – F = Force; Q = charge I + -
D
J
q2 q4
+ – E = electric field between plates
C4
d
F
σ = surface charge density A
V

OTHER TYPES OF CAPACITOR'S

A capacitor is a device which can store more electric COMBINATION OF CAPACITOR'S
• Sphrical Capacitor outer surface Earthed: charge or potential energy compared to an isolated
conductor • Serief Equivalent of Capacitor's
– C1 C2
Q 4πε 0 – – DIELECTRIC
C= = –

In series— Q = C1V1 = C 2V 2
– +
• Capacitance: Capacitance of a conductor
V  1 1
+
R1
+
–
Dieletric is a material which
−
–
 
+ + measure of its ability to store charge. V1 V2
 R 1 R2 
 V0 = V1 + V2
q q behaves as non conductor
+ + –
–

V∞ q ⇒ V = ⇒ C=
+ + –
+
upto certain value of
1 1 1
R2

c V
–

∴ = +
– –
• Cyllindrical Capacitor: External eletctric Field. If
2πε 0 L
a b Q
S.I. Unit Farad (F ) =
Coulomb the Field crosses the limiting Cequi C1 C2 V0
C= Volt value (Called dielectric • Parallel Equivalent of Capacitor's
b  I Q1+ –
ln  
Q
r

strogth) then it begins to In parallel—V = V1 = V2 Q0

a 
C1
Gaussian
conduct + –
Q2 C2
L, b and a - Parameters of Cyllinder ENERGY STRORED IN A CHARGED Dielectric constant (k or εr)
surface

CAPACITOR Em Q = Q1+ Q2
εr = K =
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A 2 ε0 C Equiv = C 1 + C 2
CAPACITOR 1 Q 1 1 2 V0
U= = CV = QV
• CHARGING: 2C 2 2
(i) Charging of a capacitor without Resistance
WORK DONE BY BATTERY DURING POLAR DIELECTRIC NON-POLAR DIELECTRIC
Charging take no time when switch closed CAPACITOR WITH DIELEATRIC
q 0 = CV CHARGING OF A CAPACITOR
• Centers of +ve and • Centers of +ve and
• Capacitance of capacitor having dielectric
Charging of a capacitor Discharging of a capacitor
Q 2 –ve charge do not –ve charge coincide
having series resistance: through series resistance:
⇒ W Battery = QC = CV = constant (k) and (t<d): q –qi qi –q
VR VC VC VR
C coincide due to due to symmetric + – + –
R asymmetric shape of shape of molecules. + – K + –
R C S C
Aε 0 t = thickness + – + –
S
ENERGY DENSITY OF CAPACITOR
molecules. C=
+ - • Each molecule has t + – + –
d −t + k = Dieletric + – + –
V0 = VC + VR =
Q
+ IR
VC + VR = 0 Energy stored in the capacitor per unit • Each molecule has prmament dipole k + – + –
C Q Q dQ volume. permanent dipole moment only in Constant –
− iR = + R =0 Separation d
+ t + –
Q dQ C C dt
= + R Energy density of moment In presence presence of External + – + –
C dt d
du
−t −t
Q = CV0 e RC = Q0 e τ of External electric electric Field
 −t
Q = Q0  1 − e τ 
 capacitor = Field • Capacitance of Capacitor having diebctric
  At time t = RC
dv constant (K) and (t = d):
q Q = 0.368Q0
- + - + - + + -
+

Q0 + + +
q +Q –Q
-

Aε0 kA ε 0
- - +
A, plate area - +
- +

+
0.632 Q0
Q0 + + C= = = kC 0
+

- +
- + d
- +

- + - +
1 CV 2 + – - - +
- -
-
-
d−d+ d K
-

+ - + -
- +

U  1 k
+

⇒  = 2
t 2
t = tc 0.368 Q0 = ε0 E
At time t = RC
−1 t = tc
t  V  A ×d 2 V (battery) d
Q = Q0 e = 0.632Q0

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 Electric current Electric Energy and Power
current Electricity Rate of flow of Charge, I=
dq
dt
Heat energy developed across regsistor
H = I2Rt
Resistance S.I. Unit Ampere (A) Coulomb/ Second
Power, P = VI = I2R = V
2

dq q R
Instantaneous, Iins = Average, Iav =
dt t In parallel, P = P1 + P2
Drift velocity
Ohm's Law PP
In series, P = 1 2

The property due to which body opposes

Drift velocity is defined as the velocity with which P1 + P2
the free electrons get drifted towards the positive
the flow of current through it, is • current passing through metals or
terminal under the effect of the applied external
known as resistance. conductors is directly proportional Galvenometer to Ammeter Galvenometer to Voltmeter
electric field
ρ
R= to the potential difference applied qE
A
across them. vd = τ Gig
m S=
i − ig
G

R=
V
−G
I ∝ V ⇒ V = IR;(R-electric resistance)
G R
• S.I Unit of Resistance ohm(Ω)
ig
ig ig

• The property of any material due to

Relation between Drift velocity ig + –

which it opposes the flow of electric

and current Balanced Condition i
+
a
S
i – ig b
–
a
Circuit
element

• substances which Obey Ohm's law called

i b i

of wheat stone
V

current through it.

S.I unit of Resistivity:( m) Ω
Ohmic and that do not obey called bridge P R Potentiometer
non-ohmic substances. = Meter bridge
Factors affecting resistivity:
A vd Q S Based on wheat Used to
• Nature of material • The slope of V-I plot for E1 1
– B (i) compare emfs =
• Temperature. I stone bridge E2  2
• Ohmic substance dx i1 i1 P R  R
V

ig = 0
• Relation between resistivity and = = = Internal resistance of cell
tan θ = = R P
Q S 100 −  S
ne2 AτE V
Q
temprature
I
A  
V G
C E 
r = R  − 1 = R  1 − 1
i = neAVd = = neAµ eE = neAµ e
ρf = ρi 1 + α ( t f − t i )  V   2 
Unknown resistance
R S
m  X

i2 i2 Resistance box
R
i D

D
G Galvanometer
E
Current density (J) 0

A
10 20

P
30 40

B
50 60 70

Q
80 90 100

Current per unit cross-section (100 – )

area perpendicular to current I E When cell is discharging

J= =
E

Conductivity (σ) flow. A ρ E

+ –
K
Resistance colour code
1 1 1 1
r i
Conductance, C = = σ= = A B
Resistance R Resistivity ρ
Unit is mho (Ω )
–1
∆V = E − ir
Unit = 1 = 1 or mho Kirchoff's laws
Ωm ohm ⋅ m m

Grouping of Resistance 1st law/

nd
2 law/loop
Junction law rule When cell charging
Series grouping of resistance
Some Important Formula
• Sum of the incoming •The algebraic sum of the E r
currents is equal to sum of potential differences in any
• Equivalent resistance, RS = R1 + R2 + R3 ..... • After stretching length of wire
the outgoing currents at any loop (including those i
increases by n times then junction. associated with emf’s and
resistance will increase by n² • Based on law of those of resistive elements), ∆V = E + ir
• Current flow through each resistance is same.
times i.e., conservation of charge. must equal zero.
• Potential difference, V∝R • Based on law of
i i2
conservation of energy. When cell is open circuit
1 1
R=∞
• If radius be reduced to �mes then area of Vdrop = –iR1 Vdrop = –iR2 Vdrop = –iR3
n i3
Parallel grouping of resistance R1 R2 R3 E
cross-sec�on decreases 12 �me so the i Loop i I= = 0 and V = E
n i4 R+r
• Equivalent resistance, resistance become n4 times i.e., R2 = n4R1
+ –
V
Vrise = +V

1 1 1 1
= + + + .... When cell is short circuited
Rp R1 R2 R3 i 0
junction
V 0 Resistance colour code
R = 0 and I = −E and V = IR = 0
Closedloop
R = 1st digit – 2nd digit × 3rd digit + 4th digit%
R+r

Power transferred to load by cell

• Potential difference across Grouping of cells P = I2R =
E2R
and P = Pmax
each resistance same (r + R)2 2
E
Pmax =
4r
current distribution, in each Cell in series, Cell in parallel if dP and P = Pmax if r = R
1
resistance, I ∝ Cells in series and parallel dR P
R nε ε
nε Current in the circuit, I =
i.e., mixed current in the circuit, I = Current in the circuits, I = r 2 2
nr
+R R + nr R+ Pmax = E = E r=R
R
m m 4r 4R

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 BIOT – SAVART’S LAW MAGNETIC FIELD MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER CURRENT CARRYING LOOP
AS MAGNETIC DIPOLE
It works on the principle that a current carrying Coil
The Biot – Savart law gives the The Region around a magnet in
in uniform magnetic Field, experience a Torque. The Current Carrying Coil behaves
Relationship of magnetic field which its magnetic influence can
as a bar magnet and magnetic
at any point with current be experienced

is called magnetic . Torque - τ = nBiA
moment of Such Coil Can be
Carrying element. Field. (B ) n = Number of coils F
expressed as M = niA ,
. S.I unit Tesla ( T ). A = Area
µo id sinθ re n = Number of Coils
dB = Y . Denote Coming out. Co S
4π r2 θ
. Restoring Torque = τ = Kφ A = Area
idl . Denote going into the paper. x φ = Deflection
Current r
In vector form : P dB F
element
l . In Equillibrium = τ = nBiA = Kφ F = nBil

 µ0 i dl × r
Current
i
FLEMING'S LEFT-HAND RULE RIGHT-HAND RULE i =K φ Magnetic →

4π ∫ r 3
B moment M
Force
B= nBA
If we stretch our finger’s Current Holding a currant carrying
like Image, then our thumb conductor in right hand in φ nBA
X Current sensitivity : Si = =
µ0 = 4π x 10-7 T.m/A Magnetic field
gives direction Force, Index such a way that thumb Points i K
finger gives direction of in the direction of current
Magnetic Field & Middle and curling finger’s gives φ Si nBA
Voltage sensitivity : S V = = =
current Finger gives current. direction of magnetic field. V R KR
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW Clockwise Anti-clockwise
ATOMIC MAGNETISM Direction of current in Coil show’s
This Law states that the line
integral of magnetic field B
 B
θ
MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM When an electron revolves in a Polarity
around a closed loop is equal to i5 bounded orbit around nucleus,
µ0 times the net current enclosed i1
i3 due to its movement it behaves
  Orbital Current
by the loop. φ B . dl = µ i o ∑ enclosed
i2 Lorentz force Bohr Magneton as a current carrying loop and
Produce magnetic Field. This is v
i4 When a charge particle of charge q The magnetic moment associated The orbital Current generated
MAGNETIC FIELD OF TOROID : Known as Atomic Magnetism. by electron revolving around ACW
with an electron which is revolving
B = µ0ni ; Here, n = N MAGNETIC FIELD OF LONG
moves with velocity in presence of
nucleus − eω +Ze
2πr SOLENOID :
electric field E and Magnetic Field B in First orbit of an atom. I= r +
FLorentz = qE + q ( V x B ) It is represented as:-
Relation Between Magnetic Moment 2π Fe
e–
r = average radius and Angular Momentum of Charge ω is angular velocity of
N = Total number of eh Particle I(current)
µB = = 0.923 × 10 −23 Am2 electron.
turns in toroid. N S
4 πm qL M q
MAGNETIC FORCE ON A M= = =
MOVING CHARGED PARTICLE e = electronic charge 2m L 2m Magnetic Induction at Nucleus Position
Winding where, µoI µo ew
B = µ0ni m = mass of electron B= =
Core → M = Magnetic Moment 2r 4 πr
rr
n = Number of turn's per F (Force vector) h = Planck & Constant L = mvr – Angular Momentum
unit length. r = orbital Radius, I = orbital current
i m = mass of particle.
i = Current flowing Magnetic Moment circular orbit
→
B B
Torque Acting on current Carrying ewr 2 evr
Case 2: x x
x v
x x x x
M = IA = = , A = Area of orbit.
When charge x F
v x x Coil: 2 2
v F x x
F
MAGNETIC FIELD OF SOME SPECIAL θ →
v
Particle moving x
x F
x x τ = NBiA Sinθ
q F x x
CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS charge
Perpendicular x x v
x x
N = Number of turns Work done in Rotating a coil Potential Energy of a Coil
+q
    to magnetic Field:- x x v
o
x x A = Area , I = current
 
placed in magnetic Field: Placed in Magnetic Field:
Shape of current Formula Special case F = q(V × B) , F = q VB Sinθ Magnetic Force – x x x x x x
Magnetic moment − M = iA
carrying conductor F = qvB Sin900 = qvB    W = MB ( 1 - Cosθ ) U = - MB Cosθ
θ = Angle between direction of  
Y
 µ i mv 2 mV ∴τ = M × B P B Here, M = Magnetic Moment
= − M.B
For infinitely motion of charge and magnetic Field. ∴ = q vB ⇒ r =
φ2
P B = o (Sinφ1 + Sinφ2 ) n r qB of coil.
φ1 4 πr long conductor. . Power delivered by Magnetic Force S n
r mV
Radius of circular- Path r =
i
B = µ0 i n to Charged Particle is always zero.
v

    2πm qB
X
i 2πr P = F . V = υ [∴ (F ⊥ V) Time period – T = Q
 µ i qB
θ  y R
B= o ( o )n For Semicircular Path of charged particle in External Case 3:
2r 360 v v ⊥

θ arc. Magnetic Field:-

r
B When charge MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT Force between two Parallel
B = µ0 i n
v
0 Current Carrying Conductor’ s
Particle is moving
Case 1: µ ii
4r When charged
in any orbitary
z
q
+
χ Force on current carrying F1 = F2 = F = o 1 2 × L
 µ i direction with conductor in magnetic field 2 πa
B = o n
r
r = radius of Coil. particle is moving v respect to Magnetic a = distance between two
O
B 2r parallel or
pitch
radius In uniform Magnetic Field the
Field:- Magnetic Force Helical motion wires.
i antiparallel to 
 total force acting on conductor
F = q (V × B) = qvB sin θ L = Length of wires.
magnetic Field: of Length L is expressed as,
 µoir 2 X = distance Magnetic Force F = qvB sinθ = 0 Charge particle follow Helical path.    dF i1 i2
r B= from the center Radius of Helix – r = mV Sin θ = mV⊥ F = i(L × B) = iLB Sin θ →
P
B 2(x 2 + r 2 )3/ 2 Charge Particle move un – deviated qB qB i B
O x of coil. 2 πr θ = Angle made by current a
dl
Radius of Path is r = Time Period – T =
8

i
qB direction with magnetic Field.

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001

Geographical Meridian Earth also behaves as a magnet. Due to Gauss Law In Magnetism
Curie Temperature
Planes passing through Earth’s magnetic dipole, magnetic Field is GEOMAGNETIC The net magnetic flux associated with the closed CURIE LAW
geographical north and Present everywhere around earth’s surface. surface is µ0 times the net magnetic pole strength Temperature at which Ferromagnetic
south pole is called enclosed by the surface. Curie Law states material can be converted into
geographical Meridian. C that the magnetic Paramagnetic material, denoted as
Geographical Angle of dip (θ) φB = φB. dA, µ0 x ( Net pole strength ), = Zero Sus castability of Tc.
North
Angle between the Paramagnetic
Magnetic Meridian φ
θ
A direction of the earth’s substance isinversely Curie – Weiss Law
Planes passing through P H k The number of Magnetic
Magnetic BH magnetic Field  proportional to
magnetic south and North B BV and the horizontal in the Field lines passing through a A
temperature of material. The susceptibility of ferromagnetic
north pole is called E L surface is called magnetic material is inversely proportional to
magnetic meridian at that θ χ∝ 1 ⇒ χ = C
magnetic meridian, place. flux.
  T T (T - Tc ) above curie Temperature Tc.
Magnetic 
Meridean
φB = B . dA B
C
D
χ=
Angle of Declination φ S.I Unit of φB is Weber (wb) (T − TC )
BAR MAGNET MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS
Angle between φ
Q s
Geographical and
Geographical MAGNETIC FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY
magnetic meridian. Meridean . A bar magnet is a physical In Ferromagnetic material Soft Magnetic Hard Magnetic
magnet in which two equal when external magnetic Material Material
and opposite poles are Field is Removed Some of
Directive property of bar magnet:-
Bar Magnetic is freely Suspending
Important Points separated by a small domain remains aligned in
Related To distance. direction of magnetic Field.
in air align itself in N – S direction
. The shortest distance I
of Earth’s magnetic Fields. Bar Magnet Br
between Poles is known as c B Br

effective length Le. A

Magnetic axis -H0 D H0 HC
HC

S . The effective Length Le is H

N Pole strength ( M ) 0 G
Less than the geometric
Magnetic meridian . Pole strength is a Length (Le < Lg) F
measure of the strength E
Monopole Concept:-
Monopole does not exist. If we break of magnetic pole to
On the basis of Magnetic Properties, Materials
a magnet into pieces each piece will attract magnetic
material towards itself.
MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS can be Classified into three Categories.
have North and South Pole of itself. N

m m MATTER PROPERTIES DIAMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC FERRO MAGNETIC

. It is a scalar quantity. S S• •N MATERIAL MATERIAL MATERIAL
S N
Geometric length
Cause of Motion of electrons Electron spinning Domain formation
. SI unit is Am or N/T. MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH magnetism in orbits
S N S N S N
Behavior when Magnetization is poor Magnetization is poor Magnetization is strong
placed in uniform and in opposite and in same direction and in same direction
 The magnetic field strength can be defined as direction. Bm< B0 Bm> B0 Bm>> B0
Properties of Bar Magnets Magnetic
  Dipole Momant (M) the Force experienced by a unit test north pole
magnetic Field.
M = m ( 2 )   µ m
(m0) placed in that Field. B = F = o 2 M
M
. A magnet attract magnetic substance such as nickel, cobalt, mo 4 π r M

iron e.t.c m
m S N Properties of Magnetic Field Lines
. North and south poles of magnet are little inward & from Relative
geometrical end.
L = 2l . No two magnetic Field lines Can cut each other. Permeability ( µr ) 1 > µr> 0 2 > µr> 1 µr>> 1
M . Tangent at a point of magnetic field line give
. Poles exist always in pair and having equal strength i.e m = magnetic Pole strength direction of field at that Point. Sodium, Potassium, Iron, Cobalt, Nickel,
monopole do not exist.  . These form closed lines whose direction is from
Examples Copper, Silver, Lead,
Manganese, aluminum. alnico.
e = affective Length North to South always.
Water.
. Like poles repel each other or unlike poles attract each other.
. It is a Vector Quantity
. SI unit is Am2 or N/T.
IMPORTANT TERMS RELATED TO MAGNETIC PROPERTIES Relation between magnetic
Bar Magnet Placed In permeability and suscaptibility
Magnetic Field at a Distance - r Magnetic Permeability Intensity of Magnetizing Intensity of Magnetic Susceptibility
 
An External Magnetic Field
 
from Bar Magnet For Different Position ( )
Field H ()
Magnetisation I (χ m )

τ = M × B = MB Sin θ . The extent to which . The extent to which a . The Extent to which a . The Ratio of intensity The sum of magnetic field in vacuum due to
. Torque 
magne�c Field lines can magnetic �ield can magnetic substance is of magnetisation ( I ) to magnetizing force and magnetic field due
. work w = MB ( cosθ1 , cosθ2 ) 
  Position Magnetic field at For short Penetrate the substance is magnetize a magnetic magnetized in a magnetic magnetic Intensity ( H ) to magnetization of material is known as total
. Potential U = − M . B, =− MBcosθ known as Magne�c substance is called Field is Known as
this position magnet ( l << r ) applied to the substance is magnetic flux density.
Permeability of that Intensity of Magnetizing Intensity of
  known as magne�c
N
µ 2Mr µ 2M
Substance. It is denoted ( )
Field H

()
magnetization I suscep�bility of
 B = B0 + Bm = µ0 H + µ0I = µ0 ( H + I )
Ba = 0 by µ.  M
Axial line Ba = 0 3 . It is a Field Property I
θ 4π ( r 2 − l 2 )2 4π r . The Value of µ for free    . I = Where Substance. χ m = 
 V
B . H = H=B µ H
space or air is:-  I 
M = magne�c moment . Magnetic B = µ0 H  1 +  = µ0 H (1 + χ m )
µ0 M µ0 M 4 π × 10 −7 T.m / A . SI Unit is: A m  H
Equatorial Be = Be = and V = Volume. Susceptibility is a
4π ( r 2 + l 2 )3/2
S line 4π r 3 . It is a material unitless and Also, µr = (1 + χm ) [ B H = µr ]
Property dimensionless quantity
. SI Unit is A/m.

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 MAGNETIC FLUX INDUCED ELECTRIC PROPERTIES
LENZ’S LAW ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION FIELD
It is defined as the number of
magnetic field lines passing through
a surface normally. This Law states that polarity When magnetic field in a region . Induced electric field is different
  of induced emf is such that it varies with time then an electric from electric field produced due to
φB = B • A = BA cos θ tends to produce a current field will induce within and stationary charges.
SELF INDUCTANCE outside that region.
which apposes the change in Induced current;
B magnetic flux that produced it. . Induced electric field Lines always
A i = 1 -dφB φE . dl = -dφ
dt form closed curves.
S N R dt . Inherent properly which the change
in current.
ACW Induce charge; . For induced electric field φE . dl = 0
v q = ( ∆φB )
. Dimensional Formula: [ ML2 T-2 A-2 ] but for electrostatic field φE . dl = 0 ,
N S . When current flowing in coil
R always.
change with respect to rime, then
. SI unit: henry, wb/A or 5/A2 self – inductance;
rest . The direction of induced electric field
L = -E will be same as direction of induced
ELECTROMAGNETIC MOTIONAL EMF dI / dt current.
INDUCTION N S
SOLENOID dB
CW in cylindrical
v . When current flowing in coil is dt
It is phenomena of inducing an b constant then Coefficient of space (B )
N S 2
electric field or emf in a self – inductance;
d
conductor by varying the v
magnetic field. rest L = φtotal
1
B I
a
METHODS TO CHANGE . When a conductor moves in a magnetic
FARADAY’S LAW field it will experience a force and
IN MAGNETIC FLUX
emf is induced in the coil, This emf is m 0N 2A MUTUAL
know as motional emf. . L= Concentric circular field lines of
This Law states that magnitude a  INDUCTANCE Einduce (inside/outside)
of the induced emf in a circuit E = ( dl x v ).B
. Magnetic flux can be increased D
A = Cross-section Area
is equal to the rate of change by increasing the strength of l = Length
in magnetic flux through a circuit. The phenomena in which emf is
magnetic field and Vice – versa. N = No. of turns (N1) I1
induced in a circuit due to change
dφ −d STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR
E= b = (BA cos θ ) IN B
in magnetic flux in its neighbouring A
dt dt . The magnetic flux can be circuit is called Mutual Induction.
increased by increasing the STRIAIGHT CONDUCTOR ROTATING
area of coil and vice – versa. IN MAGNETIC FIELD (N2) S

. When coils are Co – axial;

. The magnetic flux can vary B . When current in primary coil is M12 = m0N1N2A
from maximum to, minimum v b constant, then coefficient of

value for variation in θ. mutual inductance;
a M = N2f2 = n2B2A2
. The magnetic flux can be dx 1
1
R – L DC CIRCUIT increased by increasing the B N2 N1
number of coils. x B . When current in primary coil
Induced emf, E = BWl2 change with respect to time, r2
A O
CURRENT GROWTH then coefficient of mutual
Induced emf, E = 1 BWl2 inductance; M = -E2
CURRENT DECAY 2 r1 I1
dI1
R L dt
I L R L R
ENERGY STORED IN COMBINATIONS OF INDUCTORS (r1 >> r2)
+ – AN INDUCTOR COIL
I1 L1 L2 I2 Ls AC GENERATOR
E Switch A
a
. When coils are concentric and
A L R I coplanar; M = m0N1N2pr22
( )
a
−t / τ
I = I0 1 − e S e1
e
e2
E b e . It works on the principle 2r
L E i . Ls = L1 + L2 of EMI.
• Decay constant t = −t i
R I = I0 e τ I I
(dI/dt)
I I1 I2 . Magnetic flux,
EDDY CURRENT
fB= NBACOSωt
(dI/dt)
E/L – line I0 – line e e
E/L I0 I
E L1 L2 Lp
I0 – line
I0 (E/L) – line
0.63 I0
. Induced emf E = -dfB
(E/L)

Exp. Decay Exp. Decay Exp. Decay

1 I The current induced in a conductor
0.37 I0 . U = LI2 1 1 1 = NBAω Sin ωt
dt when placed in a changing magnetic
t=0 t= t=0 t= t
t=0 t= t t=0 t 2 . = +
L p L1 L 2 flux is known as eddy currents.

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 Em WAves

Electromagnetic Wave Spectrum

Frequency, Hz Wavelength, m
Electromagnetic Waves Maxwell's Equations 1023
10-14
1022 400 nm
10-13
1021 Gamma rays Violet
10-12
1020
10-11
Gauss's Law in Electrostatic 1019 450 nm
1. Em waves are created as a   q 1018
X-rays 10-10

∫ E. dA = ε 0 10-9 Blue
result of vibrations between on 1017
10-8
electric field and a magnetic field. 1016 Ultraviolet 500 nm
10-7
1015
2. Directions of propagation of Displacement 1014
Visible 10-6 Green
10-5
wave is perpendicular to the Current 1013 Infrared
550 nm
Gauss's Law in magnetism 1012
10-4
direction of magnetic and   10-3

∫ B. dA = o
1011 Microwaves Yellow
electric field. 1010
10-2
Current produced due to Short radio waves 10-1 600 nm
109
1 Orange
time varying electric Field. 108 Television and FM radio
101
107
d E dE Faraday's Law in 106
AM radio 102 650 nm
ID 0A Electromagnetic induction 103 Red
Generation of EM Waves 0
dt dt 105
104 Long radio waves
104
d B 105
φE = electric flux emf E d 104
106
700 nm

dt 102
10
107
Source Electromagnetic Wave E = electric field

Harmonically Sinusoidal Maxwell-Ampere's Circuital

oscillating charge electromagnetic wave Law
Different types of Electromagnetic Wave

Ampere circuital Law d E Type Wavelength range Source of

Ultraviolet radiation, B d 0 Ic 0
Electron transition dt Production
atom visible light and Radio Rapid
inframed Radiation + E – waves
Greater than 0.1 m
acceleration and
+ – decelerations
Deexcitation of
nucleus in I=IC + – I=IC Energy density of wave of electrons in
Gamma Rays I=Id aerials
radioactivity B d I + –
0 Microwaves Klystron valve or
+
3
– 10 m to 0.1 m
For electric Field magnetron valve
High speed electron
+ –
striking a high atomic 1 Infrared Vibration of atoms
weight target X - rays uE 0 E02 700 nm to 10 3
m
I=net current passing through Amperian loop. 4 waves and molecules
material.
For magnetic Field Visible Electrons in
•This law only consider current passing through 400 nm to 700 nm
1 2 Light atoms emit light
Characteristics the wire but it did not consider the current uB B0 . when they move
generated due to variation of electric flux 4 0
from one energy
or electric field with time.
1. TraNsverse in nature. 1 1 B02 level to a lower
⇒ uav 0 E 2
0 energy level
2. Do not required any medium for propagation. 4 4 0
Ultraviolet 1 nm to 400 nm Inner shell
3. Produced by accelerated charge.
rays electrons in
4. Travels with speed of light in free space,
atoms moving
1 Intensity of EM waves Momentum of EM waves from one energy
c= = 3 × 108 m / s
µo εo level to a lower
  Intensity is the energy crossing per second per unit level
5. E and B are in same phase, area perpendicular to direction of propagation Linear momentum of EM Waves with Energy X-rays X-ray tubes
3
6. In free space, 10 nm to 1 nm
 of EM waves. 'u' is given by, or inner shell
|E| 1 2 U electrons
 = c ( Speed of light in vaccum ) I 0 E0 c p=
|B| 2 c

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 ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE L C OSCILLATIONS TRANSFORMER POWER CONSUMED
ALTERNATING CURRENT IN AC CIRCUIT

When the magnitude and direction of Laminated sheets

Average Power dissipation,
current and voltage change continuosly L – R CIRCUIT <P> = Erms I rms cosφ
with time, then current or voltage is said AC SERIES CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
L Power factor, cosφ =
to be alternating. L R
q0 C Source Input output
VL VR Average Power R
RESISTIVE CIRCUIT =
Iron core rms Power Z
R E = E sin t
E and I
I=I sin t

I I It is defined as the oscillation

I I
of energy between capacitor Transformer ratio, Wattless Current
O
t E=E0sin t
3 2 2
2 and inductor. Ns No. of turns in Secondary
K= = Erms
T t T
Np No. of turns in Primary (Irmssinφ)
t
E = E0sin t XL Frequency of Oscillation,
-I
-I
φ = 0° Z s
I as a sine function I as a cosine function VI
current and voltage
f=
1 1 co
of t of t Pav = 0 0
are in same phase.
2π LC ASSUMPTIONS I

s
x

rm
2
R Irms

I rms
q0
I = I0 sin(ωt + φ ) or EC EC =
2C
cos2 ωt

sin
I = I0 cos (ωt + φ )
INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT I = I0 sin(ωt − φ) No magnetic flux leakage,
Z= R +X 2 2
t
When the power consumption
I = instantaneous values of current L L
T/2 T Es = Ns in AC circuit is zero, then
I = peak value or amplitude Inductive reactance, XL = ωL
EL Ep = Np

E and I
E = E0 sin t
EL
q0
sin2 t
current is said to be wattless
ω = angular frequency −1  X  2C current.
Phase angle φ = tan  L 
φ = initial phase. O /2 3 /2 2  R 
Wattless current is a sine
t No power loss, efficiency
T/2 T component of current
I = I0 (sin t – /2) (n) = 100%.
R – C CIRCUIT q0
Average or Mean Value E=E0sinωt EC = cos2 ωt pOut
π
I = I0 sin(ωt − ) C R
2C n= × 100% , Pin= POut
q pin Half power Frequency
I
2
π EL = 0 sin2 ωt
I0sin t φ= VC VR
2C
2 Ip = Es = Ns Frequency at which power
π
t
Voltage leads current by •
Is = Ep = Np
0 T/2 T
2 becomes half of its maximum
2I0 P av = 0 value.
Iav = 2V0 E = E0sin t
At half Power frequency,
π Vavg =
π P
LCR CIRCUIT
cosφ = 1 or φ = 60⁰
I O X
CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT R
2V0 L C R Y 2
Vavg = I0sin t C E = E0sin t XL
E and I

π XC Z Q
0
t VL VC VR
T/2 T
t XL–Xc Z Quality Factor
O Q S
/2 3 /2 2
O x
R P It represents sharpness
I = I0sin(ωt + /2) I = I 0 sin ( ωt + φ ) E = E0sinωt I
E = E0sin t R curve (I vs f).
Xc
π Z= R +X 2 2
It is unitless and
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE I = I0 sin(ωt + ) C • I = I0 sin(ωt ± φ)
2
2I π π Capacitive reactance, XC = 1 dimensionless.
φ = − or R <R <R
Iav = 0 2 2 ωC • Z = R2 + (XL − XC )2
ω0L 1 L
π X  Q=
Current leads voltage by π
• φ = tan−1  C  =
 R   X − XC 
φ = tan−1  L R R R C
Vav =
2V0
Pav = 0 2 •
 R 

π f0
Q=
band width (∆f)
RESONANCE IN SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

Variation of Z with F R
Y
t = T/4 f f Sharpness ∝ Q
I0sin t
I0
I0sin t t Zmin = R
I0cos t t = 0 T/4 T/2 3T/4 T Variation of I with f
E E
φ = 0° Imax = = 1) f< f 0 , X L< X
φ ( negative )
C
Zmin R Imax
t = 3T/4 Conditions Capacitive in nature.
Z Imax
. The projection phasor on x – axis or y – axis gives for resonance 2) f = f 0 , XL=XC φ=0
E
As frequency (f) increases 2 Imax
the instantaneous value of Alternating Resistive in nature
cosφ = 1 X L = XC R current (I) decreases R
current/voltage. f
3) f> f 0 , XL> X C φ ( Positive ) I
. A phase rotates with angular speed ω about the
VL = VC Resonant
Inductive in nature. f0 f Band Width, ∆f = f 2 - f1
origin. frequency,
. Arrow length of this vector is equal to the peak fo = 1
f1 f0 f2 f
value of Alternating current/voltage. 2π LC

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 Simple Microscope
1. Image formed at infinity
Compound Microscope

Ray Optics Optical Instrument h

I

V
h
O

u
β
C
F
MP =
−v  D 
 
u  f0 

2. Image formed object lens

v0 ue
eye lens

B object
1. Image formed at infinity h F0 A’ C
D −v  D A F0 C A’’
MP = at near point MP = 1 + 
h1
u  f0 

final image
f
Laws of Reflection 2. Image formed at near point
D
u0

B’’
h2

ve=L
B’

MP = 1 +
f

Spherical Mirrors Apparent death =

Re al death
K
N Astronomical Telescope
1. The incident ray reflected ray and n
normal to the reflecting surface all TIR  1 Air
1. Image formed at infinity
−f
f0

Normal shift = d  1 −  P A B Q fe
MP = 0
lie in same plane.
The bouncing back of light ray in the  n Apparent
depth u0 R

Water
F0 A Fe
2. Angle of reflection is always equal to Mirror formula where d is real depth.
Real
depth Normal 2. Image formed at near point
α
O
A
α
1
β
β

same denser medium after reflection shift

angle of incidence, i.e.,
∠i=∠r
B1
−f  f 
1 1 1 MP = 0 1 + e 
O N
from an interface with a rarer medium ue
fe  D 
= +
B
is termed as boral internal reflection. ve

f u v Total internal
reflection

i r In proper sign convention. In person sign convention

Prism A
v M
µ1 i µ2

Object Focal
Angle of deviation δ = i + e – A
Point
Principal Pole
i r α θ
C
L

axis Image O P N I
GLE
OF
AN VIATIO
N R
M
DE
u v
Mirror
δ

Sign Convention f TR
AY
i1
P

r1
δ1 δ2

r2
Q

i2

EM
E
RA RGE
Y NT
B

µ 2 µ1 µ 2 − µ1
N
IDE
INC
u
N

− =
R
B C

v u R
Critical Angle For minimum deviation
1. i = e

Refraction from spherical surface

1. All distances are measured from Linear magnification
the pole and is the origin.
const.
A In proper sign convention
It is the angle of incidence for which the 2. r =
2
2. Distances measured to the right of angle of incidence is 90°.
X
min  sin+ A  A
the pole are taken as positive. sin   B

3. µ =  2  µ
3. Distance above the principal axis are Critical angle
i A
µ
i=e
taken as positive. sin   O C2 C1 I I1
A 2 R1

−1  n2 R2 v1
4. Angle measured from the normal in B1 C o u v

the anti-clockwise direction are B F P r = 90⁰

θc = sin  
 n1 
Y
u
For thin prism,
A

positive. I
Incident + θc
1  1 1 
= (µ − 1)  − 
Ray A1 v δ = (µ – 1) A δ f  R1 R2 

I −v Lens formula
m= =
- +

O u Conditions for TIR h0

-
∞ 2F F O F 2F I ∞
o
In proper sign convention 1. The light ray must travel from denser Dispersion through Prism hi
to rarer medium. u v
Absolute Refractive Index 2. The angle of incidence must be greater When white light passes through the prism,
1 1 1
Longitudinal magnification than the critical angle. then it splits into its seven constituent = −
f v u
colours. This phenomena of splitting of In person sign
It is defined as ratio of speed of light in h′ v
white light is known as dispersion of light. m= = convention
vacuum to speed of light in medium h u
i.e n = c
v image
object Application of TIR
Power of lens
u2 u1
v2 It is defined as the reciprocal
v1 1. Sparkling of diamond
2. Optical Fibre of focal length of metres, i.e.,
Laws of Refraction v 2 − v1 3. Mirage and optical looming.
mL =
1. The incident ray, refracted ray and u2 − u1
normal to the interface of two media
all lie on the same plane.
For small objects, mL = m2 Scattering
Scatt
ere
d lig
ht
P=
1
=
100
f(m) f(cm)
2. Snell's law µ2 sin r = µ1 sin i Compound Lens

The deflection of light ray by the fine

particles of matter is known as For combination of lenses,
Air Superficial Magnification scattering of light. P = P1 + P2
ra

r
ed
ct

1 1 1
ms = ma × mb For small objects, mL = m2
n
fra
Re

n
From Ray Leighscattering, I ∝ 1 = +
f f1 f2
y

a×b
a
nt r

λ4
ide

Water i
b Observer
=m 2 mb where λ is wavelength of light and I is intensity of light.
Inc

a
ma In proper sign convention

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 Huygen’s Wave Theory DIFFRACTION POLARISATION
According to Huygen’s principle a body emits light
in the form of waves. Each Points Source of
WAVE OPTICS Bending of light waves around the sharp
edges of opaque obstacles or aperture
The Process of Confining
the vibrations of
light is a center of disturbance from which and their encroachment in the geometrical unpolarised light in one
waves propagates in all direction. shadow of obstacles or aperture. single plane using polariser
(i) Necessary Condition:- Size of obstacle is called polarisation.
Wave Front INTERFERENCE YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT (a) must be the order of
wavelength (λ). i.e a > 1
A wavefront is a surface along which the waves
Interference is a phenomenon of EXPERIMENT λ Unpdarised light
phase remains Constant.
Superposition of two coherent waves
(i) The energy of wave travels in a direction (i) For Bright Fringes An ordinary beam of light
through which they transfer energy and
perpendicular to wavefront. Xn d consists of a large number
momentum. S2P − S1P = = n λ ; d = slit width
(ii) Rays are perpendicular to wavefront, D of waves emitted by the
(iii) The time taken by light to travel from one nλ D atoms or molecules of the
Xn = TYPES OF Diffraction
wavefront to another is the same along d light source.
anyray. XN= Distance between Central Fringe and Fresenel Diffraction:- Fraunhofer Diffraction Z
Y

th Fresnel Diffraction :- It deals with plane

N Bright fringe ; l = wavelength involves spherical wavefronts and an
Types of wavefronts = Bright fringes are also called maxima’s. wavefronts, So that effective viewing Y
X

Spherical Cylindrical Plane

MATHEMATICAL INTERPRETATION OF (ii) For Dark Fringes Source ‘s’ and Point ‘P’ distance of infinity.
wavelength wavelength wavelength INTERFERENCE OF TWO WAVES Xn d (2n − 1) (2n − 1)D
are at finite distance.
S2P − S1P = λ ⇒ Xn =
Lens
Let a1 and a2 be amplitudes of the =
d
Lens unpolarised light unpolarised light
D 2 P
moving along x axis
waves and φ the phase difference Xn = Distance between central bright and θ
θ

between them. nth dark fringe Source

Slit Plane Polarised light
Then y1 = a1 sin ωt; y2 = a2 sin(ωt + φ);
Slit Screen Incoming
= Dark fringes are also called minima’s wave Screen
Beam of light in which
Y = y1 + y2 = A sin (ωt + θ); Vibration of Electric field
Resultant
FRAVNHUFER DIFFRACTION
y 2
Vector are perpendicular
A = a + a + 2a1a2 cos θ
2
1
2
2 1
Fringe Width:- FOR SINGLE SLIT
φ
to wave motion and
a2 Sin θ t Fringe width of dark & bright fringes are Confined to Single plane
tan θ = In this diffraction Pattern Central
(Due to point (Due to line (Due to line same and given by λD only.
a1 + a2 Cos θ A
a2 β = Xn − Xn − 1 = maxima is bright on the both side of it, Polaroid

Source of light), Source of Light), Source of Light), d maxima & minima occurs symmetrically.
θ φ
a1 (i) Position of Secondary Maxima in S

Angular width of fringe:- diffraction α Sin θ = (2n − 1) λ

Polarised light

(2n − 1)D
2 Ordinary
light transmission axis
β λ S2 ⇒ Xn = λ
TYPES OF INTERFRENCE α= = 2a
d d α β BREWSTER’S LAW
(ii) Position of Secondary Minima in
Constructive Interference Destructive Interference nλ D
S1 diffraction:- α Sin θ = nλ ⇒ Xn = This Law state that when
• Phase difference →∆φ)
( = (2 n – 1)π, Where n =1,2,3,…
α
• Phase difference→ (∆φ) = 2nπ; n = 0,1,2,…… D Diffraction rays light is incident on a
P transparent sustenance
λ λ
• Path difference→ ∆X = 2n   • Path difference →∆x = (2n -1) at polarising angle QP, the
2 2 xn

T Resolving Power (R.P) a

reflected light is
O
T • Time Interval → ∆T = (2n – 1) completely plane polarised.
• Time Interval → ∆T = 2n   2
2 Incident plane
µ = tan θP ; θP = Polarising angle.
• Resultant Amplitude → A = a1– a2 ; If φ = π, 3π, 5π …….. (2n -1)π Resolving Power an optical Instrument is its wavefront
• Resultant Amplitude → A = a1 + a2; if φ = 0,2π, 4π…………2nπ
( ) ability to distinguish two Closely placed Point.
2
Lens
• Resultant Intersity → I max = I1 + I2 − 2 I,I2 = I1 − I2 µ = Refractive Index of medium
( )
2 Screen
• Resultant Intersity → I max = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 = I1 + I 2 Slit
Unpolarised Polarised
• I min = O (When I1= I2 = I)
• I max = 4 I where (I1 = I2 = I)
R.P For Microscope WIDTH OF CENTRAL MAXIMUM i = θP r

Crest Crest
Resultant (i) The minimum distance to form separate The distance between two secondary
images of two objects. minima formed on two sides of Central
1.22 λ
Partially Polarised
maximum is known as width of
∆Xmin = Central maximum.
2 µ Sin β MALUS' LAW
Trough 2 fλ
W= I2 = K (A Cosθ)2 = K A 2Cos2 θ
Trough Resutant 1 2 µ Sin β α
R.P = = f = focal length of Convex lenses I2 = I2 Cos2 θ; I = intensity
∆Xmin 1.22 λ
R.P For Telescope α = Slit width Iunpolarised
(i) I Polarised =
Resolving limit of a telescope is Medium (µ) 2
Unpolarised
Star 1 smallest angular separation (dθ) Intensity Polariser

between two distant objects. β Slit

Polarised

dθ D xmin
Star 2 I0 Analyser

1.22 λ 1 D θ
Polarised
→ dθ = ; (i) R.P = = ; D = Aperture of objective Lens.
D dθ 1.22 λ Transmission Axis I1= I0/2
Incoming
wave Viewing screen I2 = I1cos2θ
Transmission Axis

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 DUAL NATURE OF
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER LIGHT

h
de – Broglie wavelength, λ = & 2πr = nλ
nh mv
PLANCK'S QUANTUM • mvr =
2π
THEORY OF LIGHT
This is Bohr quantisation Condition

(1) The energy of one photon is proportional

to its frequency DAVISSON-GERMER EXPERIMENT
(2) E ∝ ν , E = hν
h = Planck’s constant
= 6.62 × 10-34 Js
(3) Energy of any light or radiation is
one integral multiple of hν.
E= nhν
(4) Energy of one photon. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY PARTICLE NATURE OF
1240 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT • The emission of electrons causes flow of LIGHT
E = hν = eV
λ(nm) (1) It is a phenomenon of ejecting electrons electric current in the circuit.
by falling light of suitable Frequency on (1) In interaction of radiation with matter,
a metal. radiation behaves as if is made up of
(2) Ejected electrons are called particles called photons,
photoelectrons. hν
(3) Current Flowing due to the photoelectrons (2) E = hν and p=
PROPERTIES OF PHOTONS is called photoelectric current. c l V = 54 volt

(1) Photon is just a packet of energy. (3) In a photon – particle collision, total
(2) Energy of photon does not change with LAWS energy and total momentum are
medium. (1) No emission takes place below the conserved.
(3) Photon can not be deflected by electric threshold Frequency.
field and magnetic field. (2) Above threshold Frequency, no. of
 h E photoelectrons emitted per seconds is
(4) Momentum of photon P = m × c = = directly proportional to intensity of
λ c radiation.
MATTER WAVE THEORY
EFFECT OF POTENTIAL = 50°
Energy (3) The emission of photoelectrons is an • de – Broglie wavelength
(5) Intensity of light beam = instantaneous process.
area × time (4) Above threshold frequency, K.E (max)
associated with moving • at φ = 50o and accelerating
particles, λ = h potential = 54 V, maxima is
depends on Frequency. ip
p
obtained
1 p2 • This experiment confirmed the
WORK FUNCTION • K.E of particle = mν =
2

ip(Saturation current) 2 2m wave nature of electron.

FORCE AND RADIATION • Minimum energy required for getting a • momentum, p = mv
PRESSURE EXERTAD BY free electron away from the metal –V 0 –V ac
PHOTON EMITTED A LIGHT BEAM surface. 2m × K.E
PER SECOND P P • Work function (φo) = hνo SPECIAL CASE FOR
(1) n 0 max 0
ELECTRON
h hc φo Here, eV K .E. h
(1) E= nhν νo = = threshold frequency
EFFECT OF FREQUENCY OF 1.227
h
•
(2) Power,P = nhν (2) momentum of one λ= nm
p pλ h INCIDENT V
⇒ = = photon =
λ
momentum and
hν hc imparted per EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC 150.l
V= Volt
• h P o
Number of photon per
second = n× =
λ c
EQUATION –
–
[λ(A)] 2

second = Power
energy of one Photon ⇒ Force exerted = cP • The electron is emitted with maximum K.E
K.Emax = hν - φo
FOR UNCHARGED
(3) Radiation Pressure = hν = Κ.Εmax + φο – – –
–
–
–
– PARTICLES FOR GASEOUS
• Range of K.E.
F P I MOLECULES
= = 0 ≤ K.E.photoelectrons ≤ hν − φo h h
A cA c λ= = 3
PHOTON FLUX EFFECT OF INTENSITY OF LIGHT mν 2m × K.E K.E = KT
2
• Photon flux is no. of photon STOPPING POTENTIAL ⇒ λ=
h

Photocurrent
incident normally to a FOR ACCELERATED
• Minimum negative potential required to stop 3
surface per seconds I3 > I2 > I1
CHARGED PARTICLES 2m × KT
2
I3
•. the electron of maximum K.E.` I2

•φ= n = P h
I1

λ= h
K.Emax h ⇒ λ=
Stopping potential
A H 2m × qV
Vo = = (ν − ν o ) Volts
e e
–V0
Retarding Potential
O Collector plate
Potential 3 mKT
V = potential difference

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 Watermelon Positive charge

ATOMS LINE SPECTRA OF THE

HYDROGEN ATOM
Electron
n=8
n=7 Pfund series
n=6 E(n) to E(n = 5)
DISTANCE OF CLOSEST Infrared
n=5
APPROACH EXCITATION ENERGY Brackett series
E(n) to E(n = 4)
Atom model (Infrared)
At closest approach, system n=4
THOMSON'S ATOMIC only have electric potential

Energy levels
Paschen series
MODEL energy, 1 (2e) (Ze)
E2 E(n) to E(n = 3)
(Infrared)
K =U=
• Also known as pudding model 4πεo d e
E1 n=3

• Positive charges are uniformly 1 2 ze2

distributed in the atom. ⇒ d=
4πεo K Balmer series
• Negative charges are embedded BOHR'S MODEL E(n) to E(n = 2)
(Visible)
like seeds in watermelon. 1 2 ze2 n=2
• Overall atom is neutral. ⇒ d= V
e–
4πεo 1
( mv 2 )
2 r
nucleus
+ Eexcitation = E2 – E1
Atoms
Lyman series
LIMITATIONS Alpha particle
Nucleus E1 = energy of lower orbit E(n) to E(n = 1)
(Ultraviolet)
(i) Valid for only one – electron atom. n=1
• This model does not explain
(ii) Electron is revolving around the
the presence of nucleus in d
Closest approach nucleus in a stable orbit. E2 = energy of higher orbit
the atom. (iii) Attractive Coulomb force
• This is not able to explain between electron and nucleus is (1) The wave number or
scattering of α - particles equal to the centripetal Force of
wavelength of the emitted
• This is not able to explain the electron
photon when electron jumps
spectrum of atoms. LIMITATIONS Ze2 mv 2 EXCITATION POTENTIAL
= From higher orbital state
• This model does not explain the
4πεor r Eexcitation ‘n2’ to lower orbital state
r = radius of orbit Vexcitation= ‘n1’ is
stability of nucleus. e
• This model does not explain En2 − En1 1 1
the line spectra of atom.
POSTULATES E − E1 ν= 1
= = 2 − 2
= 2 (volts) λ
hc  n1 n2 
• Electron in an atom could revolve e
in certain stable orbits with R = Rydberg constant
emission of radiant energy. = 1.097 × 107 m-1
OUTCOMES CONCLUSIONS IONIZATION ENERGY
• L=
nh
(2) Number of spectral lines
• Most of the α - particles went • Positive charges was concentrated 2π L = angular momentum,
• Minimum energy required to when electron jump From
straight without any deviation. in small region of an atom is h = Planck’s constant = 6.6 × 10-34 Js
remove the electron.
• Some of α - particles were called nucleus. • hυ = Ei - Ef
nth orbit = n(n − 1)
deflected by some angles. Ei & Ef are the energies of initial 2
• Very few α - particles were
• Negative charges were revolving
in circular orbit around the & final states, Ei > Ef • Eionization = 13.6 z volts 2
deflected by an angle 180o nucleus. n2

IONIZATION POTENTIAL
RADIUS OF nTH ORBIT ORBITAL FREQUENCY IN TOTAL ENERGY IN NTH ORBIT
• Vionization = Eionization
NTH ORBIT −me 4 z 2
n2h2 εo 0.53 n2 o • En = Kn + Un =
rn = = A v e Z4 2 8ε02h2n2
RUTHERFORD'S NUCLEAR
zπme2 z fn
2 r 4 02 n 3 h3 −13.6z 2 • En = −K n =
Un e
• En = eV Z
n2 1 n2
MODEL OF AN ATOM rn ∝ , rn ∝ Z2 13.6 z 2
fn ∝ z2 = volts
Vacuum
z m n3 • En ∝ 2 , En ∝ m 2
• α - particles were emitted n n
Gold Foil
by the radioactive element
214
Bi83 & were bombarded on
a thin gold foil.
VELOCITY OF ELECTRON POTENTIAL AND KINETIC BINDING ENERGY
Screen
IN nTH ORBIT ENERGY IN NTH ORBIT
• Minimum energy required to bound the
• Scattered α - particles are ze2 z −1 Ze2 me4 z 2
νn = = 2.19 × 106 ( ) m/s Un = = 2 2 2 electron from nucleus.
Source of
α- particles
collected on ZnS screen. 2nhεo n 4πεo m 4ε o h n
Z 1 me 4 z 2 • B.E. = - Eionization = −13.6 z 2
⇒ νn ∝
n Kn = mν 2 = 2 2 2 2
eV
2 8ε o h n n

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Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion Nuclear Fusion
. Splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or more lighter
nuclei.
e.g : 92U + 0n
235 1
56
Ba141 + 36 Kr92 + 3 0n1 + 200Mev
NUCLEI . Combining two lighter nuclei to form a heavy nucleus.
1
1H
1
+1H →
2
1H +e
+
+v +0.42 ( energy )
Application
. Uncontrolled chain reaction: principle of atomic bank. Nuclear Nuclear fussion is the source of energy in the sun and stars.
. Contralled chain reation: principle of nuclear reactors.
Fusion
Nuclear of an atom onsists of proton and
Nuclear Fission neutrons collectively called nucleons. Nuclei can be

. Isotopes (same Z but different A)

Representation . Isobars (same A but different Z)
. Isotones (same N but different A) discoverd by henri
Becquerel in 1896
zxA
A = mass number
z = Atomic number

Radio activity
Nuclear Force theory
. Nuclear force is a force which
holds the nucleons together. Phenomenon of Disintegrakon
of heavy elements into
n
comparatively lighter elements
Rodius of a nucleus by emission of α, β, & γ radiations.
R = R0A1/3 { R0 = 1-2fm}
Binding Energy of Nucleus
. Density of Nucleus (S)
⇒ B .E = mc 2
⇒ B .E = [zmp + (A - Z ) m n - m n ]c 2 Mass Mass of 1 nucleon × A α decay β− decay γ decay
=
Volume 4 1 . α− radiations are the two types
(Where, c is the speed of light πR 3 = π R 03A z
3 2 helium nuclei. These γ -decay after an α or β
c = 3 × 108 m/sec)
. Nuclear density is constant its . For atomic number < 20, most are emitted as β (positron)
+
β (Electrons)
-
- decay, nucleus vibrates
B .E value is nearly 2.38 × 1017 kg/m3 stable nuclei have n:p ratio with the energy shared
⇒ B .E per nucleon = AX→ 0 β + Az + 1 Y + υ
No . of nucleons nearly 1:1 A
zX → 4
2 He + zA-4
−2 Y
z −1 ↓ by it and electromagnetic
. Mass of nucleus is measured . For atomic number > 83, there (electron) (antineutrina) waves of very high
Nuclear binding energy is maximum for α-particle
in atomic mass unit (u) or (amu) are no stable nuclei. (Product) frequency (α-radition) are
mass number 50-60. Daughter emitted
1 amu (or u) = 1/12 (mass of C12) atom . A nucleus is stable when its A
→ +01 β + zA− 1 Y + υ
nuclei z X
= 1.6 × 10-27 kg Binding energy per nucleus (nutrino)
(Position)
value is around 8 mev per . highest ionizing power . least ionizing power but
nucleon or more. but least penetrating . less ionizing power than α highest penetrating power.
. Mass defect
. Following are observations from power. . particle and moderate
The difference (∆m) between mars of
Binding energy per penetrating power.
constituent nucleons and nucleus is
called mass defect of nucleus. nucleon versus mass number cerve.
Mass and energy [∆m = sum of the masles of nucleons
. Mass m of a particle is equivalent ∆Ebn
- mass of nucleus]
to energy given by E = mc2 Law of radio activity
= {zmp + (A - Z)mn} – Mn
. Also known as rest mass energy.
− dN
4He = λN
dt
7Li N = N 0e - λ t
mean life or any life
Q-Value
56 z 1 T 1/2
A + B C + D + Energy τ = = =1.44T 1/2
MA MB mC mD λ 0.693
. B.E. per nucleon is more for some
Fraction of nuclei left
Reactants = product + Q- Value nuclei than their neighbours.
undcayed after n half
Q value = B.E of product - B.E. OF reactants This indicates a shell type structure
Half - life lives is
Q-value = [(mA + mB) - (mC + mD)] C2 of nucleus. t decay rate or activity
N N  1
N
 1 t1 2
Q-value = [(k.EC + k.ED) -(K.EA + K.EB)] . B.E. per nucleon is around 8meV where N = 0 =   =   dN
FOR 30 ∠A ∠120, these are 2 N0  2  2 R= -
dt
stable elements. ln 2 0.693
T1 = = Where, t = nT1/2
2 λ λ R = λ N0 e- λt or R = R 0 e - λt

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 Semiconductor Electronics: ANALOG SIGNAL DIGITAL SIGNAL
Classification of metals, insulator And Semiconductor +
Material Devices and simple circuit

Voltage amplitude

Voltage amplitude
TRANSISTOR Level 1

Transistor is a three t
On the basis of Energy Band Theory terminal device. Level 0
Time

(1) Emitter (E)

t
ON THE BASIS OF (2) Base (B) Time
CONDUCTIVITY SEMICONDUCTOR AND ITS TYPES (3) Collector (C)
BASIC LOGIC GATES
(1) For metals:
1. p-n-p transistor 1. A
Semiconductors exhibit electrical Y =A+B OR Gate
APPLICATIONS OF JUNCTION DIVIDE PNP B

ρ ∼ 10-2 – 10-8 Ω m
conductivity between conductors E C
P N P
σ ∼ 102 - 108 S/m and non – Conductors. p n E C 2.
A
B
Y= A-B AND Gate
1. Half Wave Rectifier B B
They have high conduc�vity. 3. NOT Gate
2. n-p-n transistor

Voltage at A
A Y

+
(2) For Semiconductors: INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS S1
A
INPUT ac

D + t NPN A Y =A+B
4. NOR Gate

Voltage across RL
E C
ρ ∼ 10-5 – 106 Ω m (1) Pure Semiconductors are intrinsic P – n junction diode R
L OUTPUT VOLTAGE N P N
E C
B

B
semiconductors. P – n junction diode is the S2 B
A
Y= A-B NAND Gate
σ ∼ 10 – 10 S/m
5 -6
B 5. B
(2) ni= ne = nr, Where, ne = no. of Combination of P – type and
For positive
– half cycle
They have intermediate free electrons, nh = no. of holes, 1. Full- Wave Rectifier
conductivity to metals n – type semiconductor. WORKING OF N – P – N TRANSISTOR
ni = intrinsic carrier Concentration P – region has mobile majority

Waveform at A
D2 IB IC
and insulators. +
t
IE = IB + IC, E C
(3) Examples:- Ge, Si (i)

(3) For insulators:

holes and immobile – ve ions. S1
IC IC
B A α=

Output Waveform Waveform at B

n – region has mobile majority β=
– + t
IE IB B
ρ ∼ 1011 – 1019 Ω m EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS S2
RL (ii)

free electrons and immobile –

(b)

IB

(across RL)
VEE
Due to Due to

;
Due to Due to

D2
D1 D2 D1 D2
VCC
σ ∼ 10 -11
– 10 -19
S/m (1) Impure or doped semiconductors Positively charged ions.
– +
t
For positive half cycle – +
They have low conduc�vity. are said to be extrinsic
semiconductors POTENTIAL BARRIES Semiconductor Diodes CE CONFIGURATION
σ = electrical conduc�vity
(2) Impurities are added to improve ZENER DIODE CHARACTERSTICS I C

ρ = resis�vity Conductivity Potential barrier is the potential

difference developed across ZENER BREAKDOWN –
mA
+
IB
B C
depletion region. This phenomenon takes place in Anode(A) Cathode(K) R2

E VCE

The band which is n – type Semiconductor VB = 0.7 for silicon (1) p – n junction having ‘ high
R1
IE
VCC
VBE

ne >> nh = 0.3 for germanium doping’ Zener Diode

Completely filled with VBB

electrons at O K is (2) p – n junction having thin I-V characteristics

(1) Electrons are majority charge FORWARD BIAS depletion layer I (mA)
called valence band. carriers.
- Here, p -n junction does not IB(µA) Input Characteristics
(2) Holes are minority charge carriers. In Forward Bias damage permanently
(3) Si or Ge doped with pentavalent Reverse bias
(1) +ve terminal to p – side VZ Forward bias
100 VCE = 10.0 V
Conduction Band is elements (P,As, Sb)
(2) -ve terminal to n – side V (V) 80
Output Characteristics
completely empty (3) depletion layer reduced AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN A
60
IB = 40 µ
at O K. P – type Semiconductor nh >> ne (4) diffusion current increases 10 40

This phenomenon takes place in, 8 IB = 30 µA 20

(1) Si or Ge doped with trivalent ( B, Al) I ( A)
REVERSE BIAS (1) p - n junction having ‘Low 6 IB = 20 µA

IC (mA)
elements. VCE (V)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
In reverse Bias doping’
(2) Electrons are minority charge PHOTODIODE 4
IB = 10 µA
conduction band (2) p - n junction having thick
carriers. (1) -ve terminal to p – side
Energy (eV)

The symbol of photodiode is 2

IB = 0 µA
depletion layer.
forbidden (3) Holes are majority charge carriers (2) +ve terminal to n -side
energy gap
- Here, p – n junction damages 1 2 3 4 5
(3) depletion layer increases
permanently due to abruptly VCE (volt)
(4) diffusion current increases
valence band increment of minorities during I-V characteristics of a RB IC
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM APPLICATION OF B C RC
repetitive collisions. photodiode IB
The electron and hole Concentration mA TRANSISTOR E
Vo

energy band gap is the in a Semiconductor in thermal VBB VCC

Vi IE
difference between equilibrium is given by. Reverse bias
Valence band and volts AS A SWITCH
nenh = n12
I1
Conduction band Forward characteristics curve Reverse characteristic curve I2
I3
VR
Vbr SOLAR CELL I4 A Cut off
iF I0 I4>I3>I2>I1 AS AN AMPLIFIER region
(volt)
(mA) Active
Conductor (Metal) Insulator Semiconductor I-V characteristics IC region
knee IR
Overlapping Empty C
conduction band EC conduction voltage (µA) of a solar cell. RB B
Electron energies

band Conduction 0 I RC Saturation

EC input IB
Electron energies

band 0.7 1.4 2.1 region

Electron energies

VF (volt) Voc (open circuit voltage) signal E V

CE
Eg 3 eV Eg Vo
V V0
EV IE amplified
(E g 0)
Knee or cut in voltage Breakdown voltage VCC AV
Valence output signal
EC EV EV Ge → 0.3 V, Si → 0.7 V Ge → 25 V, Si → 35 V Isc
Valence band V1
Valence Short circuit D2
band band VBB
current Transfer characteristic
common emitter amplifier NPN transistor

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/anandmani001