Chapter # 1

BASIC CONCEPTS OF ELECTRICITY

1.1 ELECTRON THEORY:

According to the modem electron theory, atom is composed of
the three fundamental particles, which are invisible to bare eyes. These
are the neutron, the proton and the electron. The proton is defined as
positively charged while the electron is defined as negatively charged.
The neutron is uncharged i.e. neutral in nature possessing no charge. The
mass of neutron and proton is same while the electron is very light, almost
1/1840th the mass of the neutron and proton. The following table gives
information about these three particles.

Nature of
Fundamental
Symbol charge Mass in kg.
particles of matter
Possessed
Neutron N 0 1.675 X10-27
Proton P + 1.675x10-27
Electron E _

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM:
All of the protons and neutrons are bound together into a compact
nucleus. Nucleus may be thought of as a central sun, about which electrons
revolve in a particular fashion. This structure surrounding the nucleus is
referred as the electron cloud. In the normal atom the number of protons

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equal to the number of electrons. An atom as a whole is electrically neutral.
The electrons are arranged in different orbits. The nucleus exerts a force of
attraction on the revolving electrons and holds them together. All these
different orbits are called shells and possess certain energy. Hence these are
also called energy shells or quanta. The orbit which is closest to the nucleus
is always under the tremendous force of attraction while the orbit which is
farthest from the nucleus is under very weak force of attraction. In some
atoms such valence electrons are so loosely bound to the nucleus that at room
temperature the additional energy imparted to the valence electrons causes them
to escape from the shell and exist as free electrons. Such free electrons are
basically responsible for the flow of electric current through metals. The
electrons which are revolving round the nucleus not revolve in a single
orbit. Each orbit consists of fixed number of electrons. In general, an orbit
can contain a maximum of 2n2 electrons where n is the number of orbits.
So, first orbit or shell can occupy maximum of 2 x 12 i.e. 2 electrons while
the second shell can occupy maximum of 2x22 i.e. 8 electrons and so on. The
exception to this rule is that the valence shell can occupy maximum 8
electrons irrespective of its number. Let see the structure of different atoms.
Examples:

(i) Carbon has an atomic number 5 as it has 5 electrons. Distribution of

electrons will be such that in first K shell there are 2 electrons and in
second L shell there are 3 electrons.
(ii) Carbon has an atomic number 6 as it has 6 electrons. Distribution of
electrons will be such that in first K shell there are 2 electrons and in
second L shell there are 4 electrons.
(iii) Copper atom has 29 electrons. Distribution of electron in it will be
such that in first shell 2 electrons, in second shell 8 electrons, in third
shell 18 electrons and in fourth shell there is 1 electron. It is an
unstable atom.

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(i) Boron Atom (ii) (iii)

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1.1.1 Valance Electrons:
An outer shell of an atom is called a valance shell and revolving in it
are called Valance Electrons.
1.2 (a) CONDUCTOR:
Conductor is a material that permits the flow of electrical current in
one or more directions. For example, a wire is an electrical conductor that can
carry electricity along its length. In metals copper or aluminum are vastly used
as conductor. In conductors the movable charged particles are electrons.
Usually metals are good conductors e.g. Silver, Copper, Aluminum,
Brass, Iron and Nickle etc.
Silver is more conductive than copper, but due to cost it is not practical
in most cases. However, it is used in specialized equipment, such as satellites,
and as a thin plating to mitigate skin effect losses at high frequencies.
1.2 (b) INSULATOR:
An electrical insulator is a material which has much resistance to flow
of free electron i.e. current. In outer most shell of these materials, number of
electrons are more than four. There is a greater attraction of nucleus on them
and do not leave their atoms easily e.g. mica, plastic, varnish, rubber, glass,
Dry wood and dry thread etc.
1.2 (c) SEMICONDUCTOR:
Such materials, whose electric characteristics are between conductors
and insulators, are called Semi-Conductors. In their outer most shell number
of electrons is always 4. e.g. carbon, germanium and Silicon.
1.3 (a) RESISTANCE:
The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to
the passage of an electric current through that conductor. The SI unit of
electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω) and is denoted with the letter R.
The concept of resistance is analogous to the friction involved in the
mechanical motion. Every metal has a tendency to oppose the flow of current.
Higher the availability of the free electrons, lesser will be the opposition to
the flow of current. The conductor due to the high number of free electrons
offers less resistance to the flow of current. When the flow of electrons is
established in the metal, the ions get formed which are charged particles as
discussed earlier. Now free electrons are moving in specific direction when
connected to external source of emf so such ions always become obstruction
for the flowing electrons. So, there is collision between ions and free flowing
electrons. This not only reduces the speed of electrons but also produces the
heat. The effect of this is nothing but the reduction of flow of current. Thus,
the material opposes the flow of current.

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Ohm: If 1 ampere current passes through a conductor under 1-volt pressure
then its resistance will be 1 ohm.
1 ohm = 1 Volt / 1 Amp.

1.3 (b) CONDUCTANCE:

The inverse quantity of resistance is called conductance, it is the
indication of ease with which an electric current pass through material.
Conductance is measured in Siemens (S) or mho (Ʊ). It is denoted with letter ‘G’.
G=1/R
1.3 (c) CONCEPT OF CHARGE:
In all the atoms, there exists number of electrons which are very
loosely bound to its nucleus. Such electrons are free to wonder about, through
the space under the influence of specific forces. Now when such electrons are
removed from an atom it becomes positively charged. This is because of losing
negatively charged particles i.e. electrons from it. As against this, if excess
electrons are added to the atom it becomes negatively charged.
The following table shows the different particles and charge possessed
by them.
Particle Charge possessed In Coulomb Nature
Neutron 0 Neutral
Proton 1.602x1019 Positive
Electron 1.602x1019 Negative
1.3 (d) UNIT OF CHARGE:
As seen from the above table that the charge possessed by the electron is
very small hence it is not convenient to take it as the unit of charge. The unit
of the measurement of the charge is Coulomb. The charge on one electron is
1.602x10-19, so one coulomb charge is defined as the charge possessed by
total number of (1/ 1.602x10-19) electrons i.e. 6.24x1018 number of electrons.
Thus, 1 coulomb = charge on 6.24 x1018 electrons.
From the above discussion it is clear that if an element has a positive
charge of one coulomb then that element has a deficiency of
6.24x1018numbers of electrons.

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RELATION BETWEEN CHARGE AND CURRENT:
The current is flow of electrons. Thus, current can be measured by
measuring how many electrons are passing through material per second. This
can be expressed in terms of the charge carried by those electrons in the
material per second. So, the flow of charge per unit time is used to quantify
an electric current. The charge is indicated by Q coulombs while current is
indicated by I. The unit for the current is Amperes which is nothing but
coulombs/sec. Hence mathematically we can write the relation between the
charge (Q) and the electric current (I) as,
I = Q /t
Where I = Average current flowing
Q = Total charge transferred
t = Time required for transfer of charge
DEFINITION OF AMPERE:
A current of 1Ampere is said to be flowing in the conductor when
a charge of one coulomb is passing through any given point in one second.
Now 1 coulomb is 6.24 × 1018 numbers of electrons. So, 1 ampere current
flow means flow of 6.24 × 1018 electrons per second across a section taken
anywhere in the circuit.
1.4 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL / POTENTIAL DIFFERECE
(VOLTAGE):
When two similarly charged particles are brought near, they try to
repel each other while dissimilar charges attract each other. This means,
every charged particle has a tendency to do work. The electric potential at a
point due to a charge is one volt if one joule of work is done in bringing a
unit positive charge.
Let us define now the potential difference. It is well known that; flow
of water is always from higher level to lower level; flow of heat is always
from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature. Such a
level difference which causes flow of water, heat and so on also exists in
electric circuits. In electric circuits flow of current is always from higher
electric potential to lower electric potential. So, we can define potential
difference as “The difference between the electric potentials at any two
given points in a circuit is known as Potential Difference This is also
called voltage between the two points mid measured in volts. The symbol
for voltage is V.
For example, let the electric potential of a charged particle A is say
V1 while the electric potential of a charged particle B is say V2.Then the
potential difference between the two particles A and B is V1V2 = V, If V1
V2 = V is positive we say that A is at higher potential than B while if V1-
V2 = V is negative we say that B is at higher potential than A. As per the

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definition of volt, the V joules of work are to be performed to move unit
charge from point of higher potential to point of lower potential. Thus, when
such two points, which are at V, potential different are joined together with
the help of wire, the electric current flows from higher potential to
lower potential i.e. the electrons start flowing from lower potential to higher
potential. Hence, to maintain the flow of electrons i.e. flow of electric current,
there must be a potential.
1.5 OHM’S LAW:
The law was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm. Ohm’s
law states that;
1- The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the electric potential
difference applied across its ends.
IαV
The greater the battery voltage (i.e., electric potential difference), the
greater is the current, and the greater the resistance, the less the
current. Charge flows at the greatest rates when the battery voltage is
increased and the resistance is decreased. In fact, a twofold (twice)
increase in the battery voltage would lead to a twofold increase in the
current (if all other factors are kept equal).
2- The current in a circuit is inversely proportional to the total resistance
offered by the external circuit.
1
I
R
An increase in the resistance of the load by a factor of two would cause
the current to decrease by a factor of two to one-half its original value.
Considering above both factors
V
I
R
V
I=
R
(Considering the temperature of the circuit remains constant)
Where I, is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the
potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is
the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.
V = IR
V
R =

EXAMPLE  1.6.1: A 110-volt wall outlet supplies power to a TV set

with a resistance of 2200 ohms. How much current is flowing through the
TV?

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Solution: V = 110 V R = 2200 Ω I =? A
V
I=
R
110
= =0.05 A
2200
EXAMPLE  1.6.2: A CD player with a resistance of 2400 ohms has a
current of 0.1 amps flowing through it. Calculate how many volts supply is
connected with the CD player.
Solution: R = 2400 Ω I = 0.1 A V =? V
V = I X R = 0.1 X 2400 = 240 V

EXAMPLE  1.6.3: A nine-volt battery supplies power to a bulb with a

resistance of 18 ohms. How much current is flowing through the bulb?

Solution:
V=9V R = 18 Ω I =? A
V 9
I= = = 0.5 A
R 18
EXAMPLE  1.6.4: An electric iron is connected with 220 V supply,
taking a current of 2.2 A. Find its hot resistance.
Solution:
V = 220 V I = 2.2 A R =? Ω
V 220
2.2 =100 Ω
R= =

1.7 LAWS OF RESISTANCE:

The resistance of a conductor depends upon four factors;
1- Length of the material.
The resistance of a material is directly proportional to the length. The
resistance of longer wire is more. Length is denoted by L

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 RαL
2- Cross-sectional area.
The resistance of a material is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area of the material. More cross-sectional area allowed the passage of a
large number of free electrons, offering less resistance. The cross-sectional area
is denoted by 'A'.
Rα1/A
3- The type and nature of the material:
As discussed earlier whether it consists large number of free electrons
or not, affects the value of the resistance. So, material which is conductor has
less resistance while an insulator has very high resistance. The effect of nature
of material is considered through the constant of proportionality denoted by p
(rho) called resistivity or specific resistance of the material.
Rαρ
4- Temperature:
The temperature of the material affects the value of the resistance.
Generally, the resistance of the material increases as its temperature
increases. Generally, effect of small changes in temperature on the resistance is
not considered as it is negligibly small.
So, for a certain material at a certain temperature we can write a
mathematical expression as,
L
R=
Where L = length in meters
A = cross-sectional area in square meters
p = resistivity in ohms-meters
R = resistance in ohms
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE:
Specific resistance, or resistivity, is the resistance in ohms offered by a
unit volume (centimeter cube) of a substance to the flow of electric current.
The electrical resistivity of a material is denoted by ρ (rho) and is measured in
ohm-meters.

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The specific resistance of International standard copper is 1.72×10-8.
EXAMPLE 1.7.1:
If the resistance of 800m of certain wire is 32ohm. What would be
resistance of 250m long?

Solution:
l1 800 m l2  250 m
R1  32  R2 ?

R2 l2

R1 l1
l2 250
R  R  
 32 10 
1
800

EXAMPLE 1.7.2:
The resistance of 500m of a certain wire is 125 ohms. What length of
the same wire will have a resistance of 90 ohm?
Solution:
R1 125 R2  90 
l1  500 m l2 ?
R2 90
l  l   500  360 m
1
125

EXAMPLE 1.7.3:
Find the resistance of 36.6 meter of copper wire, 0.077 square cm in
cross-section and specific resistance of copper 1.7 micro-ohm cm.
Solution:
l = 36.6 m = 36.6 x 100 cm
a = 0.077 cm2
 = 1.7 µ  - cm
R= ?
 l 1.7106 36.6100
R   0.08
A 0.077

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EXAMPLE 1.7.4:
Find the resistance of 45.7 m iron wire 0.051 cm diameter. Specific
resistance of iron is 9.15 µ  - cm?
Solution:
ρ = 9.15 x 10-6  - cm
l = 45.7 m = 45.7 x 100 = 4570 cm
d = 0.051 cm R=?
 d 2 3.14  (0.051)2
A    0.002 cm 2
4 4
6
 l 9.1510  4570
R   20.91
A 0.002
EXAMPLE 1.7.5:
What is the resistance of a copper bar 9.15 m long and 7.62 cm by 1.27
cm in cross – section? Specific resistance of copper is 1.78 µ  - cm.
Solution:
l = 9.15 m = 9.15 x 100 =915 cm.
A = Width x Thickness = 7.62 x 1.27 cm2
 = 1.78    cm = 1.78  10-6  - cm
R =?
ρ l 1.78106  915
R   0.0001683
A 7.621.27
EXAMPLE 1.7.6:
If the specific resistance of manganin is 41.8 µ - cm What is the
diameter of a manganin wire 68.7-meter-long, which has a resistance of
8.86 .
Solution:
 = 41.8 µ  - cm R= 8.86 
l = 68.7m = 68.7 x 100 = 6870 cm
d = ?

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  l 41.8 106  6870
a   0.0324 cm 2
R 8.86
d 2
a 
4
4a 4 0.0324
d 
2
  0.0412676 cm 2
 3.1416
d  0.0412676  0.203cm
EXAMPLE 1.7.7:
A wire has resistance of 5.7 ohm. What will be the resistance of
another wire of same material three times as long and one half the cross-
sectional area?
Solution:
In first case: R1 = 5.7
  l1  l1
A1 = 5.7  I
R1 = or
A1
In second case:
As material is same so  =  1 =  2
1 A1
l2 = 3l1 A2 = 2 A1 or 2
 l2 . 3l1 =  3l1  2 l1
R2 = A = a /2 a1 = 6 A 
2 1
  
R2 = 6  5.7 (From Eq. 1)
= 34.2
Effects of Temperature on Resistance
The resistance of a material changes as the temperature changes. Due
to change in temperature, the changes in resistance of different materials are
as under.
1. Pure metals:
Resistance of pure metals increases as the temperature increases. This
increase is excessive and regular for normal limits of temperature. If we draw
a graph for resistance and temperature, it is a straight line.
If the resistance of a conductor increases with increase of temperature
then the temperature co-efficient of conductor is positive.

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2. Alloys:
Due to increase in temperature a very small and irregular increase
in resistance of alloy. The resistance of alloys used for electrical purposes
is practically nearly the same at every temperature.
3. Non-Metals:
For non-metals e.g. insulators, Carbon and electrolyte the resistance decreases
with increase in temperature which is harmful for an insulator. Their temperature co-
efficient is negative.
4. Thermistor:
Oxides of manganese, copper and nickel are called thermistors. Due to increase
in temperature their resistance rapidly decreases, whereas at low temperature their
resistance is comparatively greater.

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