Lecture 3: Introduction to

prokaryotes

Dr. Mohamed Elhadidy

 Objectives
By the end of the lecture, you should learn:

1- Cell structure in prokaryotes and how it is correlated with

function.
2- Mechanisms genetic diversity in prokaryotes including rapid
reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination.
3- Diverse nutritional and metabolic adaptations have evolved in
prokaryotes.
4-The crucial roles of Prokaryotes in the biosphere

These objectives are achieving CLO 4

Reading material: Chapter 27 in the textbook

 Prokaryotic cell: Shape and size
▪ Most prokaryotes are unicellular.

▪ Most prokaryotic cells are 0.5–5 µm, much

smaller than eukaryotic cells.

▪ Prokaryotic cells have a variety of shapes.

▪ The three most common shapes are spheres

(cocci), rods (bacilli), and spirals.

▪ Cocci are either arranged in pairs

(diplococci), chains (streptococci), or
clusters resembles bunches of grapes
(staphylococci).
 Prokaryotic cell structure is more
simple than Eukaryotic cell structure
 Prokaryotic cell structure

1-Cell-Surface Structures
• Cell wall
• Capsule
• Flagella
• Fimbriae

2-Internal structures

• Chromosome and Plasmid

• Metabolic membranes
• Ribosomes
 Cell-Surface Structures-
Cell wall
▪ Bacterial cell walls are made of
peptidoglycan, a network of sugar
polymers cross-linked by polypeptides.

▪ Function: Maintains cell shape, provides

physical protection, and prevents the cell
from bursting in a hypotonic environment.

▪ Many antibiotics (ex. Penicillin) target

peptidoglycan and damage bacterial cell
walls.
 Cell wall is used for bacterial classification

▪ Using the Gram stain,

scientists classify many
bacterial species into Gram-
positive and Gram-negative
groups based on cell wall
composition.

▪ Gram-negative bacteria have

less peptidoglycan and an
outer membrane that can be
toxic, and they are more likely
to be antibiotic resistant.
 Capsule

▪ A polysaccharide or protein sticky

layer called a capsule or slime covers
many prokaryotes.

▪ Function: Help the cell to adhere

and/or evade host`s immune system.
 Flagella … the organ of motility

▪ Most motile bacteria push themselves by

flagella.

▪ Composed of three main parts: motor,

hook, and filament.

▪ In a heterogeneous environment, many

bacteria exhibit taxis, the ability to move
toward or away from certain stimuli.
 Fimbriae (pili)

▪ Fimbriae are hair like structures found in

some prokaryotes

▪ Fimbriae has two main function:

1-Attachment allows prokaryotes to stick to their

substrate or other individuals in a colony.

2-Sex pili are longer than fimbriae and allow

prokaryotes to exchange DNA.
 Internal and Genomic Organization
▪ Prokaryotic cells usually lack
endomembrane system found in
eukaryotes.

▪ Some prokaryotes do have specialized

membranes that perform metabolic
functions (as mesosomes).

▪ The mesosome was thought to increase the

surface area of the cell, aiding the cell in
cellular respiration.

▪ Many prokaryotes form metabolically

inactive endospores, which can remain
viable in harsh conditions for centuries.
▪ The prokaryotic genome has less DNA than the
eukaryotic genome.

▪ Most of the genome consists of a circular

chromosome that is located in a nucleoid
region.

▪ Some species of bacteria also have smaller

rings of DNA called plasmids.
 Ribosomes: Protein Factories

▪ Ribosomes use the information from

the DNA to make proteins.

▪ Only present in the in the cytosol

(free ribosomes).

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 Genetic diversity in prokaryotes

▪ Prokaryotes have considerable genetic variation.

▪ Three factors contribute to this genetic diversity:

–Rapid reproduction
–Mutation
–Genetic recombination
 Mutation

▪ High diversity from mutations allows for

rapid evolution.

▪ Can occur by substitution or by deletion

or insertion.

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 Rapid Reproduction

▪ Prokaryotes reproduce by binary

fission, and offspring cells are
generally identical.

▪ Prokaryotes reproduce quickly by

binary fission and can divide every
1–3 hours (some species as E. coli
divide in only 20 min).

▪ Prokaryotes can evolve rapidly

because of their short generation
times.
 Genetic Recombination

▪ Additional diversity arises from genetic recombination

▪ Genetic recombination is combining DNA from 2

different species.

▪ Mechanisms of genetic recombination

▪ Transformation
▪ Transduction
▪ Conjugation
 Transformation
▪ A prokaryotic cell can take up and incorporate foreign
DNA from the surrounding environment in a process
called transformation.
 Transduction
▪ Transduction is the movement of genes between
bacteria by bacteriophages (viruses that infect
bacteria).
 Phage DNA

A+ B+

A+ B+

Donor
cell

A+

Recombination

A+
A– B–

Recipient
cell

A+ B–

Recombinant cell
 Conjugation

▪ Conjugation is the process where

genetic material is transferred
between bacterial cells through sex
pilli.

▪ A piece of DNA called the F factor is

required for the production of sex
pili.

▪ The F factor can exist either in the

plasmid or in the chromosome.
 R Plasmids and Antibiotic Resistance

▪ R plasmids carry genes for antibiotic

resistance.

▪ Antibiotics select for bacteria with

genes that are resistant to the
antibiotics.

▪ Antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria

are becoming more common.
 Ecological Interactions

▪ Symbiosis is an ecological relationship in which two

species live in close contact: a larger host and smaller
symbiont.

▪ Prokaryotes often form symbiotic relationships with

larger organisms.
▪ In mutualism, both symbiotic organisms benefit (+/+).

▪ In commensalism, one organism benefits while the

other is not affected (+/0).

▪ In parasitism, an organism called a parasite cause harm

to the host (+/-).

▪ Parasites that cause disease are called pathogens.

 Diverse nutritional and metabolic
adaptations have evolved in prokaryotes
▪ Microbial metabolism is the means by which a microbe obtains the energy
and nutrients (e.g.Carbon) it needs to live and reproduce.

➢ Phototrophs obtain energy from light

➢ Chemotrophs obtain energy from chemicals
➢ Autotrophs require CO2 as a carbon source
➢ Heterotrophs getting carbon from organic compounds (ex. glucose) of other
organisms

▪ These factors can be combined to give the four major modes of nutrition:
photoautotrophy, chemoautotrophy, photoheterotrophy, and
chemoheterotrophy.
 The Role of Oxygen in Metabolism

▪ Prokaryotic metabolism varies with respect to O2:

–Obligate aerobes require O2 for cellular respiration

–Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by O2 and use fermentation or anaerobic

respiration using nitrate or sulphate to accept electrons at the end of the
electron transport chain.

–Facultative anaerobes: Use oxygen if it is present but also can use

fermentation or anaerobic respiration in anaerobic environment. They can
survive with or without O2
 Nitrogen Metabolism

▪ Nitrogen is essential for production of amino

acids and nucleic acids in all organisms.

▪ Unlike eukaryotes, prokaryotes can

metabolize nitrogen in a variety of ways.

▪ In nitrogen fixation, some prokaryotes (ex.

Cyanobacteria) convert atmospheric nitrogen
(N2) to ammonia (NH3). These organisms can
then use the ``fixed`` nitrogen into amino
acids and other organic molecules.

▪ These bacteria also make more nitrogen

available for plants.
 Metabolic Cooperation

▪ Cooperation between prokaryotes allows

them to use environmental resources
they could not use as individual cells.

▪ In some prokaryotic species, metabolic

cooperation occurs in surface-coating
colonies called biofilms.
 The crucial roles of Prokaryotes in the
biosphere
▪ Chemical Cycling: Prokaryotes play a
major role in the recycling of chemical
elements between the living and nonliving
components of ecosystems.

▪ Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes function

as decomposers, breaking down dead
vegetation, and waste products.

▪ Nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes add usable

nitrogen to the environment.

▪ Prokaryotes can sometimes increase the

availability of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium for plant growth.
 Prokaryotes in Research and Technology

▪ Experiments using prokaryotes have led to important advances

in DNA technology.
▪ Prokaryotes are the principal agents in bioremediation, the use
of organisms to remove pollutants from the environment
▪ Some other uses of prokaryotes:
–Recovery of metals from ores
–Synthesis of vitamins
–Production of antibiotics, hormones, yoghurt, and other products
QUESTIONS?