ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine System - include all the glands in your body that make hormones.
Gland- an organ that makes one or more substances, such as hormones, digestive juices,
sweat, tears, saliva, or milk.

Two principal types of glands: exocrine and endocrine

Exocrine glands - release the substances into a duct or opening to the inside or outside of
the body. Examples of exocrine glands include sweat glands & sebaceous glands (skin),
lacrimal glands (eyes), salivary glands (mouth), mammary glands (breast), and digestive
glands (stomach, pancreas, liver, and intestine).

Endocrine glands – release the substances directly into the bloodstream (ductless gland).
Hormones – chemical messengers that play a key role in making sure that body works the
way it should.

Endocrine Glands and their hormones:

Gland Location Function Hormones Secreted

Pineal In the middle of the Receives information Melatonin

brain about the state of
the light-dark cycle
from the
environment and
conveys this
information by the
production and
secretion of the
hormone melatonin.
Pituitary At the base of the • uses the • Growth Hormone
brain information it gets •Adrenocorticotropic
from your brain to Hormone (ACTH)
“tell” other glands in • Prolactin
your body what to • Luteinizing
do. Hormone
• “master gland” of • Follicle Stimulating
the endocrine Hormone (FSH)
system.
• stimulates growth,
and controls the
function of other
glands
Hypothalamus Below the thalamus •connects your • Oxytocin
and above the endocrine system •Vasopressin
pituitary gland. with your nervous
system.
 • tell your pituitary
gland to start or stop
making hormones
(“master switch”).
Thyroid Found below the • regulates body • Thyroxin
voice box metabolism and • Calcitonin
causes storage of
calcium in bones
Parathyroid In the neck • controls the • Parathyromone
calcium levels in your
body, and normalizes
bone growth.
Thymus In front of the heart • enables the body • Thymosin
to produce certain
antibodies
• produces
hormones that
enable the body to
produce T cells
before puberty
Adrenal On the top of the • prepares the body •Adrenaline
kidneys for action, and
controls the heart
rate and breathing in
times of emergency.
Pancreas Between the kidneys • regulates blood • Insulin
sugar levels • Glucagon
Testes Lower Abdomen • control maturation • Androgen
(male) and male •Testosterone
characteristics

Ovaries Lower Abdomen • influence female • Estrogen

(female) traits, and support • Progesterone
reproductive
function

Metabolism – a set of chemical reactions carried out for maintaining the living state of the
cells in an organism. For example, the process by which the body changes food and drink
into energy (cellular respiration).

Hormones and their functions:

Melatonin – helps your body get ready to go to sleep.
Growth Hormone – fuels childhood growth and helps maintain tissues and organs
throughout life.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone – regulates the glucocorticoid (steroid) hormone cortisol.
*Cortisol is released by the adrenal gland. It regulates blood pressure, blood sugar, the
immune system, and the response to stress.
Prolactin – causes the breasts to grow and make milk during pregnancy and after birth. It is
normally high for pregnant women and new mothers and organs throughout life.
Luteinizing Hormone – plays an important role in sexual development and functioning. It
manages estrogen in women and testosterone in men. In women, it helps control the
menstrual cycle. It also triggers the release of an egg from the ovary know as ovulation.
Follicle Stimulating Hormone - an important hormone for normal functioning of the
reproductive system in men and women. In women, it helps control the menstrual cycle and
the production of eggs by the ovaries.
Oxytocin – its main function is to facilitate childbirth, which is called the “love drug” or “love
hormone” and to stimulate contractions of breast tissue to aid in lactation after childbirth. It
is associated with trust, sexual arousal, and relationship building, sometimes it is referred to
as the “love hormone” or “cuddle chemical”. Its levels also increase when you’re hugging
someone and when you’re experiencing an organ. It can induce anti-stress-like effects such
as a reduction of blood pressure and cortisol levels. It increases pain thresholds, exerts an
anxiolytic-like effect, and stimulates various types of positive social interaction.
Vasopressin - also called antidiuretic hormone, plays a key role in maintaining osmolality
(the concentration of dissolved particles, such as salts and glucose, in the serum) and
therefore in maintaining the volume of water in the extracellular fluid (the fluid space that
surrounds cells).
Thyroxin – contains iodine and increases the rate of chemical reactions in cells and helps
control growth and development.
Calcitonin – helps regulate calcium levels in your blood by decreasing it.
Parathyromone – regulates serum calcium concentration.
Thymosin – stimulates the development of precursor T cells in the thymus to mature T cells.
Adrenaline – make to help you prepare for stressful or dangerous situations.
Insulin – helps keep blood sugar levels from getting too high (hyperglycemia)
Glucagon – serves to keep blood glucose levels high enough for the body to function well.
Androgen – control maturations and helps start puberty and plays a role in reproductive
health and body development.
Testosterone – controls male characteristics and helps maintain men’s: bone density; fat
distribution; muscle strength; and mass.
Progesterone – supports reproductive function and plays important role in the menstrual
cycle and in maintaining the early stages of pregnancy.
Estrogen – influence female traits and plays an important role in the normal sexual and
reproductive development in women.

Effect of Hormones on the Body

Several processes in the body are coordinated by hormones that regulate and balance the
working of organs, tissues, and cells. The endocrine system influences how your heart beats,
how your bones and tissues develop, and even your capacity to have a baby. It plays an
essential role in the occurrence of disorders such as diabetes, thyroid disease, growth
disorders, and/or sexual dysfunction.

Both men and women produce hormones in the same areas with one exception, the
reproductive glands. Additional male hormones are produced in the testes while female
hormones are produced in the ovaries.
Some hormones have short-term effects while other hormones have long-term effects such
as those that control our growth and the changes at the onset of puberty. During puberty,
there are many hormonal changes that happen in your body. One moment you laugh, and
then suddenly you feel like crying. Sudden mood swings are relatively caused by the
increasing amount of hormones in the body at this stage. It is therefore important to
maintain a positive outlook in life and remember that these changes are only temporary and
will stabilize with time.

Hormones act in very small amounts. If the organ and hormones do not produce the
regulated amount of chemicals in your body, it may result in an abnormality in your body.
This condition is called hormonal imbalance. An increase or decrease in its amount may have
a significant effect on the human body.

Some disorders due to endocrine dysfunction:

Obesity – abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to health.
*If your thyroid produces less hormone such as thyroxine your body will use less of the
energy that you eat as food. That extra energy is more likely to be stored in your body as fat.
If you accumulate enough excess fat, you may be considered obese.
*Testosterone is a key hormone in the pathology of metabolic diseases such as obesity. Low
testosterone levels are associated with increased fat mass (particularly central adiposity) and
reduced lean mass in males
Osteoporosis-weakens bones to the point that they can break easily.
*The parathyroid can cause osteoporosis by making too much parathyromone, which
eventually makes your body take calcium from your bones. This is called hyperparathyroid
disease or hyperparathyroidism
Dwarfism-short stature that results from a genetic or medical condition.
*Two types of dwarfism: Proportionate & Disproportionate
Disproportionate dwarfism – some average parts of the body and some shorter-than-
normal parts of the body
Achondroplasia – the most common disproportionate dwarfism, causing a normal-size torso
but short limbs.
- A genetic condition affecting a protein in the body called the fibroblast growth factor
receptor.
Proportionate dwarfism – the individual is smaller than average all over
- Includes growth-hormone deficiency dwarfism (pituitary dwarfism), primordial
dwarfism, and Seckel syndrome.
Growth hormone deficiency (GHD, or pituitary dwarfism) – a rare condition in which your
pituitary gland doesn’t release enough growth hormone
Primordial dwarfism a class of disorders where growth delay occurs at the earliest stages of
development.
*Primordial has been defined as belonging to or being characteristic of the earliest stages of
development of an organism.
Seckel syndrome – rare genetic condition with slow growth before birth (intrauterine
growth restriction) resulting in low birth weight.
Gigantism- a very rare condition that happens when a child or adolescent has high levels of
growth hormone (pituitary gland) in their body, which causes them to grow very tall.
*Gigantism is treatable, but early diagnosis is crucial to prevent excessive height and other
complications
Goiter - an overall enlargement of the thyroid gland, or it may be the result of irregular cell
growth that forms one or more lumps (nodules) in the thyroid.
*A goiter may be associated with no change in thyroid function or with an increase or
decrease in thyroid hormones.
*A goiter often causes a noticeable swelling in the neck. It can be caused by a lack of iodine
in the diet, a tumor or nodule on the gland, a thyroid disease, or, in rare cases, cancer.
* Hyperthyroidism is an overactive thyroid (when it produces too much thyroid hormone).
Hypothyroidism is an underactive thyroid (when it does not produce enough thyroid
hormone).

Key Concepts: Hormones affect various processes m the body as they regulate and balance
the functioning of organs, tissues, and cells. Hormones have great impact on your growth,
appearance, emotions, and reproductive functions. These determine whether you develop
disorders such as diabetes, thyroid disease, growth disorders, or sexual dysfunction.
Hormones act in very small amounts. An increase or decrease in hormonal levels may result
in body disorder due to hormonal imbalance.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Reproductive System
• made up of tissues, glands, and organs involved in producing offspring (children)
• an organ system involved in sexual reproduction.
• In women, it includes the ovaries, the fallopian tubes, the uterus, the cervix, and the
vagina
• in men, it includes the prostate, the testes, and the penis

*The reproductive organs of the male and female are developed from the same
embryological structures, and some hormones are commonly found in both males and
females, in varying quantities and produce different responses.

Male Reproductive System

Part Function
Testis Produces sperm cell
Scrotum Sac of skin that holds the testes
Penis Deposits sperm into the vagina during mating
Vas deferens (tube) Carries sperm from testes to urethra
Urethra Carries sperm and urine out of the body
Glands: Provide liquid in which sperm can swim

A. Seminal vesicle Secretes a fluid that makes up most of the

components of the semen
 B. Prostate gland Secretes a slightly alkaline milky fluid that is
discharged as part of the semen

C. Bulbourethral gland Secretes a thick and clear mucus that

lubricates and neutralize the any trace of
acidic urine in the urethra

*Sperm production in the testes takes place in coiled structures called seminiferous tubules
Along the top of each testicle is the epididymis. This is a cordlike structure where the sperm
mature and are stored.

Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system has the following functions:
1. Produces female sex cells
2. Receives sperm cells from the male
3. Nurtures the development of and provides nourishment for the new individual

*The female reproductive system consists of the ovaries, oviducts (Fallopian tubes), uterus,
vagina, and external genitalia. The internal reproductive organs of the female are located
within the pelvis, between the urinary bladder and rectum. The uterus and the vagina are in
the middle part, with an ovary on each side of the uterus.

Part Function
Ovary Produce egg cells
Fallopian tube/Oviduct Serves as a passageway of eggs from the
ovary to the uterus; site of egg fertilization
Uterus Serves as the site of egg implantation; is
where the fertilized egg develops
Vagina Receives the penis of the male during
mating

*Puberty involves the onset of sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce. When a female
reaches puberty, egg cells start to develop in her ovaries that produce the sex cells. It is also
the time when the body develops the capacity to conceive.

The Role of Hormones in Female and Male Reproductive Systems

Hormones play an important role in both male and female reproductive systems. The
pituitary gland controls the functions of both the testes and the ovaries. These hormones
keep the reproductive system properly functioning

Feedback Mechanisms Involved in Regulating Processes in the Female Reproductive System

The Menstrual Cycle

We have learned that, on average, an ovary releases only one egg every 28 days. Now, what
controls this timing? Hormones control many of the changes in the reproductive system.
Remember that hormones are chemicals that affect certain body organs. The monthly
changes that take place in the female reproductive system are called menstruation. This
cycle occurs every month from the first onset (menarche) which could happen when a
female is between 10 to 13 years old. The monthly cycle continues for about 40 years.

To summarize, the important events during the menstrual cycle are as follows:
1. The pituitary gland controls and starts the cycle.
2. The pituitary gland releases hormones that cause the egg in the ovary to mature. The
luteinizing hormone (LH) initiates the maturation of the follicles, converts ruptured
follicles into corpus luteum, and causes the secretion of progesterone. The follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) assists in the maturation of the follicles and causes the
secretion of estrogen from the follicles.
3. Meanwhile, the ovary itself releases a hormone called estrogen, which causes the
uterine lining to increase in thickness. The uterine lining becomes thicker so that the
fertilized egg can attach to it.
4. The ovary releases an egg on day 14. Assume that no sperm is present.
5. The egg moves through the oviduct and enters the uterus.
6. Meanwhile the uterine lining continues to thicken.
7. The egg has not been fertilized, therefore, it will not attach to the uterus.
8. The thick uterine lining is no longer necessary, so the cells of the thickened uterine
lining break off and leave the vagina. The unfertilized egg is lost, and some blood is
lost too. This loss of cells from the uterine lining, blood, and egg is called
menstruation
9. After menstruation, the cycle starts again.

Feedback mechanism – the process through which the level of one substance influences the
level of another substance
*Negative feedback affects the production of hormones in the menstrual cycle. High levels
of one hormone may inhibit the production of another hormone.

Feedback mechanisms in the menstrual cycle:

1. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the ovaries to release estrogen. High

levels of estrogen then prevent the further production of FSH.

2. Estrogen also stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary
gland, which in turn controls the production of progesterone. High levels of
progesterone then inhibit the further release of LH.

Francis Crick and James Watson discovered the structure of DNA in 1953.
DNA RNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid
Strand Double Single
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Nitrogenous Bases • Adenine • Adenine
• Thymine • Uracil
• Cytosine • Cytosine
 • Guanine • Guanine
Location Nucleus Nucleus & Cytoplasm