Introduction : The word LASER was coined as an acronym for Light Amplification by

Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

The special nature of laser light has made laser technology a vital tool in nearly every aspect
of everyday life including communications, entertainment, manufacturing, and medicine. A
laser device is a source of highly intense, monochromatic, coherent and highly directed beam
of light produced by stimulated emission of radiation. T. Maiman produced first laser device
using ruby erystal in 1960. The idea of stimulated emission of radiation was given by Albert
Einstein in 1917.

Interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation

An isolated atom can exist in its ground state of energy E, or in an excited state of higher
energy E2. The atom can change from one of these states to the other through following three
processes. They aree
1. Stimulated absorption, 2. Spontaneous emission and 3. Stimulated emission.

stimulated absorption E2 D2

Consider an atom initially in the Photon (hv) V

ground of energy E. If an
state
Ei E
electromagnetic radiation of frequency
v is incident on the atom, the atom absorbs nergy hv from the radiation and move to the
higher energy state Ez if hv= E2 - E1.

The process by which an atom in a lower energy state can be raised to a higher energy state
by absorbing a photon of energy hv is called induced or stimulated absorption..
ATOM +PHOTON ATOM*
E
Spontaneous emission: Consider the atom in the excited state of Photon (hv)
energy E2. The atom will remain in this state for a time of about E
10-s. The atom will fall on its own to the ground state emitting
radiation of energy hv. The process by which an excited atom jumps from a higher energy
state to a lower energy state with emission of a photon is called spontaneous emission.
ATOM* ATOM+PHOTON
Stimulated emission: Consider an atom in the excited state of energy E2.
If an electromagnetic radiation of frequency v is incident on the atom, the atom moves to the
ground state of energy E by E2 E
emitting a photon of energy hv along
Photon (hv)
with the incident photon of energy
Photon (hv)
hv. This stimulated emission is ET
possible only if the frequency v of
the radiation satisfies the relation hv = Ez E 1 .

The process in which an atom in a higher energy state jumps to lower energy state with the
emission of a photon identical to the incident photon is called as stimulated emission.
ATOM+PHOTON ATOM +2 PHOTONS
Differences between Spontaneous and Stimulated emission
Spontaneous emission Stimulated emissioon
Instantaneous emission of light | Emission of light photon with the help of
photon due to transition of an another photon having energy same as the
atom from higher to lower energy| emiting photon due to transition of atom
level from higher to lower energy level
The emission has broad The emission has monochromatic
spectrum of radiation (many radiation (single wavelength)
wavelengths)
3 Incoherent radiation (light Coherent radiation (light photons of same
photons of different phases and phase and same frequencyv)
different frequencies)
The light beam has less The light beam has high intensity
intensity
5 Less directionality and more High directionality and less angular
angular spread. e.g. Light from |spread
sodium or mercury lamp
e.g. Lightfrom a laser source
Relation between Einstein coefficients
Consider an atomic system present in a radiation field of energy density p(v) under
equilibrium conditions. Let E and E2 be the energy levels of the atom with E2 > E. The
number of atoms per unit volume in the two levels respectively are Ni and N2. The photon
emitted due to transition between the levels will have energy hv= Ez - Ej.

Postulations made by Einstein are

1 The rate of induced/stimulated absorption of radiation by atoms in the ground state is
proportional to (a) the number of atoms per unit volume in the lower level N1 and (b} density
p(v)of radiation energy incident on these atoms. Mathematically Np(v)
or dt
B,2N,p(v)...(1) where B2 is the proportionality constant called Einstein
coefficient for induced absorption.
2 The rate of spontaneous emission of radiation by atoms due to transition from higher to
lower level is proportional to the number of atoms per unit volume in the higher level N2 only.
i.e. dt
N2 or
=dt Az12.2) where A21 is the proportionality constant called
Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission.
3 The rate of stimulated emission of radiation by atoms due to transition from higher to
lower level is proportional to (1) the number of atoms per unit volume in the higher level N2
and (2) density of radiation energy incident on these atoms. i.e. dN2 * N2p(v)
dt

or
dEB21N2p(v).(3) where Bz1 is the proportionality constant called Einstein
coefficient for stimulated emission.
Under thermal equilibrium, the absorption rate or the number of photons absorbed per
second is equal to the sum of the number of photons emitted per second by spontaneous and
stimulated emissions.
Thus RHS of equation (1) is equal to sum of RHS of equations (2) and (3)
B2N,p(v) = Az1Nz + Ba21N2p(v) or p(v)[B2N B21l=Az12
p(v) = Az1N2 or P(v) = AaNa
Ba2N1-B21N2 B21 2 1 2-1)
or p(v) = A21
B21 2-1 (4
2521
According to Boltzmann, the atomic population at different energy levels at a given
temperature T is given by (Boltzmann distribution law)

N = Noe-(6,/RT)and N2 Nge"Ez/k), where N, is the total number of atoms and

k is the Boltzmann constant.
e(E1/kT)
Dividing the above equations, = elëa-Ei/kT)
N z/ET}
or = thv/kT) (since E-E1 = hv))
5

substituting forfrom (5) in (4) we get p{v) =

hvkT) -+
The energy density of radiation at a given temperature as per Planck's radiation formula is
p)= 7
8thvs
Comparison of equations (6) and (7), we get B21
and
B=1.
B21
This implies B12 B21....(9)

By substituting t8) in (7) p(v) =

eNT-T
Rearranging, we have EncOLS enmisslon probabllity A1= (ethv/kr)- 1) 10)
Stlmulated emission probabillty

Case 1:If hv> kT, eh/kr) »1 From eqn. (10), »1 then spontaneous emission
B21
probability is greater than stimulated emission probability which is the case in electronic
transition in atoms and molecules.
Case 2: If hv » kT, ehv/kT) will be low and comparable to 1. Then Az1 will be comparable
to B21 i.e. the phenomena of stimulated emission becomes significant.

Case 3: f hv < kT, (e- 1 ) 1 . Fromeqn.(10), 1, then stimulated emission

21
probability is greater than spontaneous emission probability which is the case in atomic
transitions in microwave regions and visible regions. This leads to laser action.

Population inversion
Consider a sample having a number of atoms in thermal equilibrium at a certain
temperature. If the number Ni of these atoms are in the ground state of energy E1 and the
number Na are in a state of higher energy Ea then according to Boltzmann's law

Naexp-E)
NPkT
Thus N2« Ni. There will always be less atoms in the excited state than in the ground state.
The number of atoms present in a given energy state of a substance at thermal equilibrium
is called population of that energy state.

E2
The condition when the number of atoms in
an excited state is more than that in the
ground s t a t e is called population E E
inversion.

The process of supplying energy from an external source, to achieve population inversion in
a sample, is called pumping.
The process in which the atoms in a given sample are raised to higher energy states using
light energy is called optical pumping. In this process, the sample is illuminated with light
of frequency v such that hv = E2 - E . The atoms in the ground state absorb the energy of

incident photons and jump to the higher energy state.

In an excited state, the atom remains for a short duration of time of around 10-s
An excited state in which atoms can stay for a comparatively longer duration of time of around
5ms is called metastable state.

Components of laser: The components of a laser are

() active medium- collection of atoms/molecules or ions in a solid, liquid or a gas capable
of amplifying light by way of population inversion.
(11) the pumping source to achieve population inversion. This could be optical pumping
or electric discharge or any other method to move the atoms to metastable state from ground
state.
(4i) the optical resonator a mechanism to retain the photons and make them move back
and forth in the active medium with the help of mirrors to achieve amplification.

Principle of Laser
The action of laser is based on stimulated emission and amplification of light. In producing
laser, the following conditions must be satisfied.
(1) State of population inversion,
(2) Existence of metastable state and
(3) confinement of emitted photons to achieve population inversion.

Laser action
Consider a system of atoms that exist in three different energy states namely, ground
state(E), excited state (Ea) and metastable state (Es) as shown in the diagram. In the excited
state an atom can
E2 non radiative 2
non radiative
exist only for a time
ransition transition
Es E3
interval of 108 s. In Photon hv)
Photon (hv') Photon Chv)
the metastable state
an atom can remain ET
stable for a longer E
duration of time (=5 ms).
(a) The system of atoms in the ground state are illuminated by radiation such that they get
excited and move to excited state (Ea) by absorbing photons of energy hu'= E2-E. This is
called optical pumping.
(b) Since the life of excited atoms is very small, they jump to metastable state (Es) by non
radiative transition. The atoms can remain in this metastable state for longer time. Thus
there will be more atoms in metastable state than in the ground state. Thus population
inversion is said to be achieved.
(c) The atoms in the metastable state are bombarded by photons each of energy hv = E, - E

The atoms make transition to the ground state by stimulated emission. This results in
emission of photons each of energy hu = E, -E,. These photons along with the bombarding

photons have same energy and are in same phase. Thus the number of photons is multiplied
by a factor of two. This process repeats and light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation or LASER occurs.
a ue lash lamP Ruby rod

Ruby Laser
Construction :it is a three level solid state pulsed laser
It consists of a ruby rod which is a crystal of aluminum Fuly mbend
artially
oxide with an addition of 0.01 to 0.05% chromium oxide. silvered

Chromium ions (Cr3*) replace few aluminium atoms in

the crystal lattice. The ends of the ruby rod are optically
flat and perfectly parallel whose one end is fully silvered and the other end is partially
silvered. The rod is inside a glass tube around which there is a helical xenon flash tube that
acts as the optical pumping system.

non radiative
Working transition
Chromium ions are excited from level E1 Ez
to E2 by the absorption of light of Photon (hv Photon (hv)
694.3 nm
wavelength 550 nm from the xenon flash 550 nm

tube. These ions quickly undergo

transition to energy level Es called metastable state by radiating heat. The life time of
this state is around 3 ms. Thus the population of the Es state becomes more than that
of Ei state. This results in population inversion.
2. There will be some photons produced by spontaneous transition from Ea to E1 and
have a wavelength of 694.3 nm. These photons are reflected back and forth at the
silvered surfaces of the ruby rod.
 3. The photons that are moving parallel to the axis of the rod resonate and stimulate the
emission of similar other photons. The emitted photons multiply resulting in a beam
of photons that are moving parallel to the rod which are coherent and monochromatic.
When the beam develops sufficient intensity, it emerges from the partially silvered end
of the rod as Laser light.

DC power supply
Hellum Neon Lase
Construction : A helium-neon laser or
He-Ne laser, is a four level gas laser
whose medium consists of a mixture of Anode
Cathode
helium and neon (in the ratio 10:1) inside utd Helium-Neon gas miture

small bore capillary tube, excited by a DC

electrical discharge. The He-Ne laser Ouput High
coupler Glass tube retector
operates at a wavelength of 632.8 nm, in
the red part of the visible spectrum having a average power output of 50 mW. In He-Ne laser,
neon atoms are the active centers and have energy levels suitable for laser transitions while
helium atoms help in exciting neon atoms.
Electrodes (anode and cathode) are provided in the glass tube to send the electric current
through the gas mixture. These electrodes are connected to a DC power supply. The glass
tube (containing a mixture of helium and neon gas) is placed between two parallel mirrors
with the right mirror completely silvered and the left one partially silvered through which
laser light comes out.

HeNe 9 p
Working cWlisn

1. When the power is switched on, a high voltage of .13

P
about 10 kV is applied across the gas mixture. The
Fast rouiate
electrons produced in the process of discharge are
accelerated between the electrodes through the gas
mixture which transfer some of their energy to the
kroi
we
colliion
helium atoms in the gas. As a result, electrons of
wals
the hellum atoms Jumps to their 23S1 and 21So
excited metastable states by absorbing energies of
Helium ae

19.78eV and 20.62eV energy respectively. These Neon

energies are equal to the energy required to excite the Neon atoms to 4s and 5s states.
2. When the excited electrons of the helium atoms collide with the lower energy state
electrons of the neon atoms, they transfer energy to the neon atoms. As a result, the
lower energy state electrons of the neon atoms jumps into their excited
metastable states as energy levels of 5s2 and 4s2 excited levels of Neon atoms are
 identical to that of metastable states of the helium atoms. Thus, helium atoms help
neon atoms in achieving population inversion.
3. After some period, the metastable state electrons of the neon atoms will spontaneously
fall into the next lower energy states by releasing photons. The Ne atom makes three
laser transitions as shown in the energy level diagram. The only transition that results
in light in the visible region is 5s to 3p transition resulting in light of wavelength
632.8 nm.
4. The photons emitted from the neon atoms will moves back and forth between two
mirrors until it stimulates other excited electrons of the neon atoms and causes them
to emit laser ight of wavelength 632.8 nm.

Differences between Ruby laser and He Ne laser

Ruby laser He -Ne laser
|It is solid state laser Gas laser

2 |It is a three level energy system It is four level energy system

It is a pulsed laser Itis a continuouslaser
Optical pumping is used for Electric discharge is used for
population inversion population inversion
Large heat is generated. Thus It does not get heated and can work
cooling mechanism is required. continuously. No cooling system
required
6 Optical pumping is difficult as Due to the four level system is easier
more than half the atoms need to to excite the atoms

beexcited from ground state.

High intense flash light is required Low power of 5W to 10W is sufficient
for pumping. for excitation.
8 Output power of laser is spikes of Output power is continuous laser of
10 to 105 W 0.5mW to 50mW.
9 Wavelength oflaser is 694.3nm Wavelength of laser is 632.8 nm

Properties of Laser
1. Laser light is highly monochromatic
2. Laser light is highly coherent
3. Laser light is highly directional
4. Laser light has high intensity
5. Laser light can be sharply focused
Monochromaticity
(a) Laser light consists of essentially one wavelength, having its origin in stimulated
emission from one set of atomic energy levels. This is possible because laser transition
involves well-defined energy levels.
(b) Electromagnetic wave of frequency v = only can be amplified, Av has a certain
range which is called line width (range of frequencies or wavelengths) or bandwidth.
This line width is decided by various broadening factors such as Doppler effect of
moving atoms and molecules.
(c) The generation of laser is such that the laser cavity forms a resonant system and laser
oscillation is sustained only at the resonant frequencies of the cavity. This leads to
further narrowing of the laser line width. So laser light is usually very pure in
wavelength, having property of narrow linewidth and high monochromaticity. For a He
Ne laser of wavelength of 632.8nm the wavelength bandwidth is about 0.01nm

Coherence: During the stimulated emission, a passing excited photon stimulates a

transition from a higher level to the lower level, thus resulting in the emission of two photons,
The two emitted photons are said to be in phase, which means that the crest or the trough
of the wave associated with one photon will occur at the same time as on the wave associated
with the other photon. An avalanche of similar photons is created and these photons have a
fixed phase relationship with each other. They are said to possess the property of coherence.
This fixed phase relationship between the photons results in laser beam.

A wave which appears to be a pure sine wave for an infinitely large period of time or in an
infinity extended space is said to be a perfectly coherent wave. In such a wave there is a
definite relationship between 1. phase of wave and a given time and at a certain time later
(Temporal) and 2. Phase of a wave at a point and at a certain distance away (Spatial).

There are two types of coherence -spatial coherence and temporal coherence
Applications of Laser
1. Laser is used in laser Raman spectroscopy to understand the molecular structure.
2. The distance between two objects can be found accurately using laser reflectors.
3. They are used for cutting, drilling and welding of hard materials.
4. Lasers are used optical communication systems.
5. Lasers are extensively used in holography and its applications.
6. Laser is used in the measurement of pollutants in the atmosphere and water
7. Lasers are used to read compact discs.
8. In surgery, control of bleeding is achieved with the use of laser where minimally
invasive surgical techniques are used. Lasers are used in bloodless surgery to correct
eye disorders, to cut or destroy tissues that are abnormal, to shrink or destroy tumors
or lesions etc..
9. Holography is the science of making holograms. Typically, a hologram is a
photographic recording of a light field, rather than of an image formed by a lens, and
it is used to display a fully three-dimensional image of the holographed subject, which
is seen without the aid of special glasses. In its pure form, holography requires the use
of laser light for illuminating the subject and for viewing the finished hologram. In laser
holography, the hologram is recorded usinga source of laser light, which is very pure
in its color and orderly in its composition. All holograms involve the interaction of light
coming from different directions and producing a microscopically fine interference
pattern which a plate, film, or other medium photographically records.

Descriptve questions
1. (a) Explain stimulated absorption, spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation with the help
of energy level diagram.
(b) What is the principle of working of a laser?

2 la) What is stimulated emission of radiation? Explain.

(b) Derive the relation between transition probabilities of spontaneous and stimulated emissions
in terms of Einstein coefficients.

3. (a) What is population inversion? Explain.

(b) Explain the working of a laser.

4 (a) Mention four characteristic properties of laser light.

(b) Describe the construction and working of He - Ne laser. Also draw the energy level diagram.

5 (a) Describe the construction and working of a Ruby laser. Explain the energy level diagramn
(b) Mention any two applications of Laser light.