The Origin of Gamma Rays

2
J. Stinnett , P. J. Karpius , D. J. Mercer , T. D. Reilly, and D. T. Vo

2.1 Gamma Rays and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation, or “photons,” emitted from the de-excitation of the atomic nucleus.
Electromagnetic radiation includes such diverse phenomena as radio, television, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light,
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays. These radiations all propagate through vacuum at the speed of light. They can
be described as wave phenomena that involves electric and magnetic field oscillations analogous to mechanical oscillations,
such as water waves or sound. They differ from each other only in the frequency of oscillation. Although given different
names, electromagnetic radiation actually forms a continuous spectrum, from low-frequency radio waves at a few cycles per
second (hertz [Hz]) to gamma rays at 1018 Hz and above (see Fig. 2.1).
The parameters used to describe an electromagnetic wave frequency, wavelength, and energy are linked and may be used
interchangeably; the Planck-Einstein relation is

hc
E=h ν= , ð2:1Þ
λ

where

E = Energy of the photon (joule [J])

h = Planck’s constant, 6.62607015 × 10-34 J/Hz
ν = Frequency of the photon (Hz)
c = Speed of light in a vacuum, 299,792,458 meters per second (m/s)
λ = Wavelength of the photon (meters [m])

A common practice is to use frequency or wavelength for radio waves, wavelength for visible or near-visible light, and energy
for X-rays and gamma rays. Throughout this book, the electronvolt (eV) will be regularly used as the unit for energy.
Visible light can be emitted during changes in the chemical state of elements and compounds. These changes usually
involve the least-tightly bound outer-shell atomic electrons. The colors of the emitted light are characteristic of the radiating
elements and compounds and typically have energies of ~1 eV.1 X-rays and gamma rays are very high-energy light with

Los Alamos National Laboratory strongly supports academic freedom and a researcher’s right to publish; as an institution, however, the Laboratory
does not endorse the viewpoint of a publication or guarantee its technical correctness.
1
The electronvolt (eV) is a unit of energy equal to the kinetic energy gained by an electron accelerated through a potential difference of 1 V; 1 eV
equals 1.602 × 10-19 J. This small unit and the multiple units keV (103 eV) and MeV (106 eV) are useful for describing atomic and molecular
phenomena.
J. Stinnett (✉) · P. J. Karpius · D. J. Mercer · T. D. Reilly · D. T. Vo
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

# The Author(s) 2024 7

W. H. Geist et al. (eds.), Nondestructive Assay of Nuclear Materials for Safeguards and Security,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-58277-6_2
8 J. Stinnett et al.

Fig. 2.1 The electromagnetic spectrum that shows the relative scale of different electromagnetic radiations, including gamma rays, X-rays, light
waves, and radio waves

overlapping energy ranges of 10 keV and above. X-rays are emitted during changes in the state of more-tightly bound inner-
shell electrons, whereas gamma rays are emitted during changes in the state of a nucleus. The energies of the emitted
radiations are characteristic of the radiating elements and nuclides. Knowledge of these high-energy electromagnetic
radiations began in Germany in 1895 with the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen. After observing that a zinc sulfide
screen glowed when it was placed near a cathode-ray discharge tube, Röntgen found that the radiation that caused the glow
was dependent on the electrode materials and the tube voltage, was not bent by electric or magnetic fields, and could readily
penetrate dense matter. Natural radioactivity was discovered the following year in France by Henri Becquerel, who observed
that uranium salts gave off a natural radiation that could expose (or blacken) a photographic plate. While studying these
phenomena, Marie and Pierre Curie isolated and identified the radioactive elements polonium and radium. They determined
that the phenomena were characteristic of the element, not its chemical form.
These “radioactive rays” were intensely studied in many laboratories. In 1899 in England, Ernest Rutherford discovered
that 95% of the radiation of various natural uranium compounds was effectively stopped by 0.02 mm of aluminum, and 50%
of the remaining radiation was stopped by 5 mm of aluminum or 1.5 mm of copper [1]. Rutherford named the first component
“alpha” and the second, more penetrating radiation “beta.” Both of these radiations were deflected by electric and magnetic
fields, though in opposite directions; this fact indicated that the radiations carried an electrical charge. In 1900, Paul Villard
and Henri Becquerel noted that a photographic plate was affected by radioactive materials even when the plate was shielded
by 20 cm of iron or 2–3 cm of lead. They also noted that this penetrating radiation showed no magnetic deflection. In 1903,
Rutherford named this component gamma and stated that “gamma rays are probably like Röntgen rays.” Thus, the three major
radiations were identified and named for the first three letters of the Greek alphabet: α, β, and γ.
As indicated by the brief description of their discovery, gamma rays often accompany the spontaneous alpha or beta decay
of unstable nuclei. X-rays, like gamma rays, are energetic photons. They differ in that gamma rays are emitted through
de-excitations of a nucleus, and X-rays are emitted during rearrangement of the atomic electron structure rather than the
nuclear structure. X-rays are discussed in Sect. 2.3.2. X-ray energies are unique to each element but the same for different
isotopes of one element. They frequently accompany nuclear decay processes, which can disrupt the atomic electron shell.
Gamma rays from spontaneous nuclear decay are emitted with a rate and energy spectrum that is unique to the decaying
nuclear species. This uniqueness provides the basis for most gamma-ray assay techniques: by counting the number of gamma
rays emitted with a specific energy, it is possible to determine the number of nuclei that emit that characteristic radiation,
which can be used to compute a mass or activity of that radionuclide, determine the isotopic composition of a radiation source,
and other applications to be explored throughout this book.
2 The Origin of Gamma Rays 9

2.2 Characteristics of Nuclear Decay

2.2.1 Nuclear Decay Processes: General

The atomic nucleus is assumed to be a bound configuration of protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons have nearly the
same mass and differ principally in charge: protons have a positive charge of 1, and neutrons are electrically neutral. Different
elements have nuclei with different numbers of neutrons and protons. The number of protons in the nucleus is called the
atomic number and is given the symbol Z. In the neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. The
number of neutrons in the nucleus is given the symbol N. The total number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus
is called the atomic mass number and is given the symbol A; (A = Z + N).
For all nuclear decay processes, the number of unstable nuclei of a given species is found to diminish exponentially
with time:

nðt Þ = n0 e - λt , ð2:2Þ

where

n(t) = number of nuclei of a given species at time t

n0 = number of nuclei at t = 0
λ = decay constant, the parameter characterizing the exponential.

Each nuclear species has a characteristic decay constant. Radioactive decay is most commonly discussed in terms of the
nuclear half-life, T1/2, which is related to the decay constant by

lnð2Þ
T 1=2 = : ð2:3Þ
λ

The half-life is the time necessary for the number of unstable nuclei of one species to diminish by one-half. (Half-lives are
commonly given in nuclear data tables.) The decay rate or specific activity can be represented in terms of the half-life as
follows:

lnð2Þ N A 1:32 × 1016

R= × = , ð2:4Þ
T 1=2 A T 1=2 × A

where

R = rate in decays per second per gram

A = atomic mass in grams per mole
NA = Avogadro’s constant
T1/2 = half-life in years.

Equation 2.4 is often used to estimate the activity per gram of a sample.
An alpha or beta decay of a given nuclear species is not always accompanied by gamma-ray emission. The fraction of
decays that is accompanied by the emission of a specific energy gamma ray is called the branching intensity, also referred to as
branching ratio, yield, gamma yield, or photons per decay. For example, the most intense gamma ray emitted by 235U has an
energy of 185.7 keV and a branching intensity of 57.2%. Uranium-235 decays by alpha-particle emission with a half-life of
7.038 × 108 years. Equation 2.4 thus implies an alpha emission rate of 7.98 × 104α/s for 1 g of 235U. Only 57.2% of the alpha
particles are accompanied by a 185.7 keV gamma ray; therefore, the specific activity of this gamma ray is 4.6 × 104 γ/s.
Of the natural decay radiations, only the gamma ray is of interest for nondestructive assay (NDA) of bulk nuclear materials
because the alpha- and beta-particle ranges are very short in condensed matter. Consider the following ranges in copper metal:

5 MeV α: 0:01 mm or 0.008 g/cm2.

1 MeV β: 0.7 mm or 0.6 g/cm2.
0.4 MeV γ: 12 mm or 10.9 g/cm2 (mean free path).
10 J. Stinnett et al.

Because of the limited range of alpha and beta particles, they are not generally transmitted through the container in which a
material is located. Further, even for exposed material, only alphas and betas emitted from very near the surface can possibly
escape the material.

2.2.2 Alpha Decay

The alpha particle is a doubly ionized (bare) 4He nucleus. It is a very stable, tightly bound nuclear configuration. When a
nucleus decays by alpha emission, the resulting daughter nucleus has a charge that is two units less than the parent nucleus and
an atomic mass that is four units less. This generic reaction can be represented as follows:

A
ZX → AZ -
- 2 Y þ 2 He:
4 4
ð2:5Þ

The decay can occur only if the mass of the neutral parent atom is greater than the sum of the masses of the daughter and the
4
He atom. The mass difference between the parent and the decay products is called the Q-value and is equal to the kinetic
energy of the decay products:

Q = M p - M d - M He c2 , ð2:6Þ
where

Mp = atomic mass of the parent atom

Md = atomic mass of the daughter atom
MHe = atomic mass of a helium atom.

When the parent nucleus decays, most of the energy (Q) goes to the alpha particle because of its lower mass:

Q ðA - 4 Þ
Eα = : ð2:7Þ
A

The remainder of the available energy goes into the recoil of the daughter nucleus.
Most of the approximately 750 known alpha emitters are heavy nuclei with atomic numbers greater than 82. The energy
range of the emitted alpha particle is generally 2–12 MeV, and the half-lives largely vary from 10-8 s to 1010 years. The short-
lived nuclei generally emit high-energy alpha particles when they decay, as shown in Fig. 2.2.
Immediately after the decay of the parent nucleus, the daughter nucleus can be either in the ground state or in an excited
state. In the latter case, the nucleus can relax by either of two mechanisms: gamma-ray emission or internal conversion. The
radiative relaxation leads to emission of one or more gamma rays (typically 10-14 s after the alpha emission) with discrete
energies whose sum equals the original excitation energy. During internal conversion, the nucleus transfers the excitation
energy directly to one of the most-tightly bound atomic electrons, usually a K-shell electron. The electron leaves the atom with
an energy equal to the difference of the excitation energy and the electron binding energy. The filling of the electron shell
vacancy leads to the emission of X-rays or electrons (called Auger electrons) with the characteristic energy spectrum of the
daughter element. The probability of internal conversion increases strongly with atomic number (Z) and with decreasing
excitation energy.
In some cases, the alpha decay leads to an excited state that lives much longer than 10-14 s. If the lifetime of this state is
longer than approximately 10-6 s, it is called an isomer of the ground-state nucleus. An example of an isomer is the alpha
decay of 239Pu that leads to 235U:

239
Pu → 235m U ð99:96%Þ T 1=2 = 26 min ; decays to 235 U ground state

239
Pu → 235 U ð0:04%Þ: ð2:8Þ
2 The Origin of Gamma Rays 11

Fig. 2.2 Plot of alpha energies versus half-life. In general, longer-lived nuclides emit lower-energy alpha particles. Beryllium-8 (Q = 91.84 keV,
Half-life = 8.19 × 10-17 s) is an interesting outlier in terms of the alpha decay energy, half-life, and Z; the next lowest known alpha emitter has
Z = 52

The common decay mode of 239Pu leads first to the isomer 235mU, which has a half-life of 26 min. The direct decay to 235U
occurs only 0.04% of the time. Although isomers tend to be short-lived, there are exceptions: 91mNb has a half-life of
60.9 days. Interestingly, 180mTa is observationally stable, whereas 180Ta has a half-life of just 8.15 h.
All of the alpha particles, gamma rays, internal conversion electrons, and X-rays emitted during the decay process have
discrete, characteristic energies. The observation of these characteristic spectra showed that nuclei have discrete allowed states
or energy levels analogous to the allowed states of atomic electrons. The various spectroscopic observations have provided
information for developing the nuclear-level schemes presented in handbooks and online databases, such as the National
Nuclear Data Center NuDat database [2]. An example appears in Fig. 2.3, showing the lower energy levels of 235U populated
during the alpha decay of 239Pu. These levels give rise to the characteristic gamma-ray spectrum associated with the alpha
decay of 239Pu. Note that the characteristic gamma-ray spectrum is commonly associated with the parent or decaying nucleus
even though the energies are determined by the levels of the daughter nucleus. Although this practice may seem confusing,
it is universally followed for gamma rays. The confusion is further aggravated by the common use of X-ray nomenclature that
associates the characteristic X-rays with the daughter element. Therefore, the alpha decay of 239Pu leads to 235U and is
accompanied by the emission of 239Pu gamma rays and uranium X-rays.

2.2.3 Beta Decay

In the beta decay process, the atomic number (Z) increases or decreases by one unit and the atomic mass number (A) stays
constant. In effect, neutrons and protons change state. The three types of beta decay are β-, β+, and electron capture.
Beta-minus decay was the first detected process; the β- particle was found to be a normal electron. During the decay
process, the nucleus changes state according to the following formula:

A
ZX → Zþ1A Y þ e - þ ν-e ð2:9Þ

The β- decay process can be thought of as the decay of a neutron into a proton, an electron, and an electron antineutrino. This
process is the common beta decay process for nuclei with high atomic number and for fission product nuclei, which usually
have significantly more neutrons than protons. The decay is energetically possible for a free neutron (a neutron outside of a
nucleus) and occurs with a half-life of 12.8 min.
12 J. Stinnett et al.

Fig. 2.3 Diagram of some of the nuclear energy levels of 235U. These levels are populated during the alpha decay of 239
Pu and give rise to the
characteristic gamma-ray spectrum of 239Pu. (Figure adapted using data from [2])

During β+ decay, a proton is converted to a neutron, a positron (also called an antielectron), and an electron neutrino; the
nucleus changes state according to the following formula:

A
ZX → Z - A1 Y þ eþ þ νe : ð2:10Þ

Electron capture competes with the β+ decay process. The nucleus interacts with an inner atomic electron and, in effect,
captures it, changing a proton into a neutron with the emission of a positron and an electron neutrino. The formula for this
process is

A
ZX þ e - → Z -A1 Y þ νe : ð2:11Þ

All unstable nuclei with an atomic number less than 82 decay by at least one of the three processes and sometimes by all three
(see Fig. 2.4). Beta decay occurs whenever it is energetically possible—if the following conditions are met for the masses of
the neutral parent (p) atoms and the potential daughter (d) atom:

β - decay : M p > M d

βþ decay : M p > M d þ 2me

Electron capture : M p > M d : ð2:12Þ

Beta decay can be to the ground state or to an excited state in the daughter nucleus. In the latter case, the excited state
decays by gamma-ray emission or internal conversion.
2 The Origin of Gamma Rays 13

Fig. 2.4 Nuclear decay scheme of 64Cu, showing three possible beta decay processes

Fig. 2.5 The Bohr model of the atom. A dense nucleus of protons and neutrons is at the center, ringed by electron orbitals. The first orbital
(K) contains 2 electrons, the second orbital (L) contains 8 electrons, the third (M) contains 18, and so on

2.3 X-Ray Production

2.3.1 The Bohr Model of the Atom

In the simple Bohr model of the atom (Fig. 2.5), the positive nucleus contains protons and neutrons and has an approximate
radius of 1.4 × 10-15 (A1/3) m and an approximate density of 2 × 1014 g/cm3. The nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of negative
electrons in discrete, well-defined energy levels or orbitals. The radii of these orbitals are in the range of 10-9 to 10-8 m. The
original Bohr model had well-localized orbits and led to the familiar planetary diagram of the atom. Although this model is
now understood to be an oversimplification that ignores much of modern physics, this concrete model is useful for explaining
X-ray production.
The different energy levels of the atom are designated K, L1, L2, L3, M1, . . . M5, and so forth. (As an example, consider the
K and L electron energy levels of uranium illustrated in Fig. 2.6.) The electric force between an electron and the positively
14 J. Stinnett et al.

Fig. 2.6 Electron energy levels in uranium. Transitions between the levels shown give rise to the K-series X-rays

charged nucleus varies as the inverse square of the separation; therefore, the electrons closer to the nucleus have a higher
binding energy (B). The binding energy is the energy required to remove the electron from the atom. The K-shell electrons are
always the most-tightly bound. Quantum mechanics gives a good description of the energies of each level and how the levels
fill up for different elements. The chemical properties of the elements are determined by the electron configuration.
In its normal resting configuration, the atom is stable and does not radiate. If an electron moves from a higher to a lower
energy level, it radiates a characteristic X-ray to release the excess energy. Although different naming schemes are used for
these X-rays, here the Siegbahn notation [3] is used. With this nomenclature, consider the Kα1 X-ray: the electron fell into the
K-orbital from one orbital out. Here, “α” means from one further orbital out, “β” would be two orbitals out, and so on. Finally,
the “1” denotes the largest difference due to the difference in level energies.
For example, consider the electron energy levels in uranium, shown in Fig. 2.6. If an electron drops from the L3 to the K
state, the Kα1 X-ray would be emitted, with an energy of 115.61–17.168 = 98.442 keV.

2.3.2 X-Ray Production Mechanisms

Various interactions can remove an electron from being bound to an atom, a process called ionization. All energetic, charged
particles interact with electrons as they pass through matter. X-ray and gamma-ray photons also interact with atomic electrons.
Nuclear interactions, such as internal conversion or electron capture, can cause the ionization of atomic electrons.
When an electron leaves an atom, the atom is in an excited state with energy Bi by virtue of the vacancy in the ith electron level.
This vacancy can be filled by a more-loosely bound electron from an outer orbital, the jth level. The change in energy level is
accompanied by the emission of an X-ray with energy Bi - Bj or by the emission of an Auger electron with energy Bi - 2Bj. In the
latter case, the atom transfers its excess energy directly to an electron in an outer orbital. The fraction of vacancies in level i that
result in X-ray emission is defined as the fluorescence yield Wi. Figure 2.7 shows the variation of the K-shell fluorescence yield
with atomic number. X-ray emission is more probable for high-Z elements (for Z > 70, WK > 95%).
Bulk samples of radioactive material will emit characteristic X-rays of both the parent and the daughter. In high-Z
materials, internal conversion is a probable decay mode that will lead to vacancies in the daughter’s inner electron shell
(usually K or L). The subsequent filling, from an outer shell electron, results in the emission of characteristic X-rays of the
daughter. X-rays characteristic of the parent arise from energetic decay products (alpha, beta, gamma ray, or X-ray) that ionize
nearby parent atoms.
Plutonium metal emits uranium X-rays by virtue of the internal conversion process that occurs after alpha decay. It also
emits plutonium X-rays by virtue of X-ray fluorescence induced by alpha particles.
2 The Origin of Gamma Rays 15

Fig. 2.7 Variation of the K-shell fluorescence yield, WK, with atomic number

2.3.3 Characteristic X-Ray Spectra

Several possible causes exist for an electron to de-excite and thereby produce an X-ray:

. De-excitation could be the result of a decay process, such as internal conversion, during which a vacancy in an orbital is left
after the decay. When the vacancy is filled, a characteristic X-ray is emitted.
. An external particle could cause ionization. When the resulting vacancy is filled, an X-ray is emitted. This process is called
induced fluorescence and results in a characteristic X-ray.
. An energetic electron may be slowed down or deflected in the electric field around an atomic nucleus. This process is called
bremsstrahlung and is discussed in Sect. 2.3.4. Unlike the previous options, the energies of the X-rays emitted from
bremsstrahlung are a continuous spectrum and do not depend (in energy) on the material.

Each element has a characteristic X-ray spectrum. All elements have the same general X-ray pattern, but the X-ray energies
are different. Because these characteristic X-rays are emitted when the electrons are reconfigured, and because the energy
states of the electrons directly depend on how positively charged the nucleus is, these X-ray energies increase as the atomic
number increases. Figure 2.8 shows the characteristic X-rays from lead and uranium.
Early investigators developed the system commonly used today for naming X-rays. A Roman letter indicates the final level
to which the electron moves, and a Greek letter plus a number indicates the electron’s initial energy level. (The Greek letter
was originally related to the X-ray energy and the number to its intensity.) Table 2.1 gives the major K X-rays of uranium and
plutonium. The L and M X-rays are of lower energy and can be found in the literature.

2.3.4 Bremsstrahlung (Braking Radiation)

Charged particles continuously decelerate as they move through condensed materials. As they decelerate, they emit photons
with a continuous energy spectrum known as bremsstrahlung. These photons are of interest because their energies are often
similar to those used for NDA.
Beta particles from nuclear decay often emit bremsstrahlung photons while stopping. Although beta particles have a very
short range in condensed matter and rarely escape from the host material, the bremsstrahlung photons often escape and are
16 J. Stinnett et al.

Fig. 2.8 Characteristic X-ray spectra from lead (top) and uranium (bottom). Note that the pattern is the same but shifted in energy

Table 2.1 Major K X-rays of uranium and plutoniuma [4]

Levels Energy (keV; [2]) Intensityb [2]
X-ray Final - Initial Uranium Plutonium Uranium Plutonium
Kα2 K - L2 94.65 99.52 62.5 63.2
Kα1 K - L3 98.44 103.74 100 100
Kβ1 K - M3 111.30 117.23 22.6 22.8
Kβ2 K - N2,3 114.3, 114.56 120.44, 120.7 8.7 8.9
Kβ3 K-M2 110.42 116.24 11.5 11.6
a
Other X-rays in the K series are weaker than those listed here
b
Relative intensity; 100 is maximum

detected along with the gamma rays of interest for NDA. Internal conversion electrons can also contribute to the production of
bremsstrahlung radiation. The detected discrete gamma rays emitted by a decaying nucleus are superimposed on a continuous
bremsstrahlung background. The electron linear accelerator uses the bremsstrahlung reaction to produce high-energy photons
for nuclear research, nuclear medicine, and active NDA of nuclear materials [5]. An example of a gamma ray spectrum for
beta emitters is shown in Fig. 2.9.
2 The Origin of Gamma Rays 17

Fig. 2.9 High-resolution gamma-ray spectrum of 90Y and 90Sr, which are strong β- emitters. As the β- particles decelerate, bremsstrahlung is
emitted. This continuum extends from 0 keV up to the maximum possible energy, which for 90Y, is 2280 keV

2.4 Major Gamma Rays from Nuclear Material

2.4.1 Typical Spectra

Figures 2.10 through 2.15 show typical uranium, plutonium, and thorium gamma-ray spectra; these spectra, which are
explained in detail in Sect. 4.3, were measured with high-resolution germanium detector systems (see Chap. 4). Figure 2.10
shows the spectrum of highly enriched uranium (HEU) in the 0–3 MeV range, with characteristic gamma rays from 235U and
the 238U granddaughter 234mPa. The intense gamma rays in the 140–210 keV range are often used for the assay of
235
U. (Fig. 2.11 shows this region in more detail.) For comparison, Fig. 2.12 shows a spectrum of depleted uranium; the
spectrum shows the 238U daughter radiations often used for 238U assay. Figures 2.13 and 2.14 show gamma-ray spectra of
plutonium with approximate 240Pu concentrations of 14% and 6%, respectively. Note the differences in relative peak heights
between the two spectra; these differences are used to determine the plutonium isotopic composition (see discussion in
Chap. 9, Sect. 9.4). Figure 2.15 shows the characteristic gamma-ray spectrum of 232Th; all major gamma rays come from
daughter nuclides.

2.4.2 Major Gamma-Ray Signatures for Nuclear Material Assay Fission-Product Gamma Rays

In principle, any of the gamma rays from nuclear material can be used to determine the mass of the isotope that produces them.
In practice, certain gamma rays are used more frequently than others because of their intensity, penetrability, and freedom
from interferences. The ideal signature would be an intense (>104 γ/g - s) gamma ray with an energy of several thousand
keV. The mass attenuation coefficients of all materials show a broad minimum between 1 and 5 MeV, and very few natural
gamma rays above 1 MeV can cause interference. Unfortunately, such gamma rays do not exist for uranium or plutonium.
Table 2.2 lists the gamma rays most commonly used for the NDA of the major uranium and plutonium isotopes.
18 J. Stinnett et al.

Fig. 2.10 High-resolution gamma-ray spectrum of HEU (93% 235U). Energies given in keV. Labels S.E. and D.E. represent the single- and double-
escape peaks of the 2614 keV gamma ray. Peaks not labeled with a specific isotope are from 235U

Fig. 2.11 Gamma-ray spectrum of HEU, showing the intense gamma rays often used for assay of 235U. Peaks not labeled with a specific isotope are
from 235U
2 The Origin of Gamma Rays 19

Fig. 2.12 Gamma-ray spectrum of depleted uranium (0.2% 235U). The intense gamma rays at 766 and 1001 keV are from the 238U daughter 234mPa
and are often used for the assay of 238U. Most of the weak gamma rays above 1001 keV also come from 234mPa. The label, Ann. Rad., is annihilation
radiation; the small peak at 511 keV is due to positron annihilation. Peaks not labeled with a specific isotope are from the 238U daughter 234mPa

2.4.3 Fission-Product Gamma Rays

Considerable interest has been shown in the measurement of irradiated fuel from nuclear reactors. The irradiated fuel has a
high monetary value and a high safeguards value because of the plutonium produced during reactor operation. Gamma rays
from the spontaneous decay of uranium and plutonium cannot be used for measurement of irradiated fuel because they are
overwhelmed by the very intense gamma rays emitted by fission products that build up in the fuel during irradiation. The total
gamma-ray intensity of the fission products from light-water-reactor fuel irradiated to 33,000 MWd/tU (megawatt days per ton
of uranium) is approximately 2 × 1010 γ/g - s (g = gram of uranium) 1 year after removal of the fuel from the reactor, whereas
the major uranium and plutonium gamma rays have intensities in the range of 103 to 104 γ/g - s. In some instances, the
intensity of one or more fission products can be measured and related to the mass of the contained nuclear material.
Certain high-Z nuclei can fission or split into two or three medium-Z daughter nuclei. The fission process can occur
spontaneously, or it can be induced when the parent nucleus absorbs a neutron. Spontaneous fission is more probable in nuclei
with even atomic mass numbers (A). Induced fission can occur after absorption of either thermal or fast neutrons in nuclei with
odd mass numbers; it occurs only after absorption of fast neutrons in even-numbered nuclei. The fission process was first
discovered in 1939 by Otto Hahn and Freidrich Strassmann and correctly interpreted in the same year by Lise Meitner and
Otto Frisch.
20 J. Stinnett et al.

Fig. 2.13 Gamma-ray spectrum of plutonium with 14% 240Pu and 1.2% 241Am. Compare this spectrum with that of Fig. 2.14, noting the difference
in relative intensities. Peaks not labeled with a specific isotope are from 239Pu. Refer to the original PANDA book [6] for identification of additional
peaks

The fission of a nucleus is a cataclysmic event when compared with the alpha decay and beta decay processes described in
Sects. 2.2.2 and 2.2.3, respectively. The energy released in fission is approximately 200 MeV, whereas beta decays tend to
release around 1 MeV and alpha decays generally release several MeV of energy. Most of the fission energy is carried as
kinetic energy by the two (rarely three) daughter nuclei (called fission products or fission fragments). The fissioning nucleus
also emits an average of two prompt neutrons and six prompt gamma rays at the instant it splits. A typical fission reaction is
illustrated by the formula

n þ 235
92 U → 55 Cs þ 37 Rb þ 2n:
137 97
ð2:13Þ

This formula illustrates only one of the many possible fission reactions. The fission-product nuclei themselves are unstable—
with an excess of neutrons—and decay by either neutron emission or β- decay (frequently accompanied by gamma-ray
emission); the neutron and gamma radiations from these reactions are called delayed neutrons and delayed gamma rays,
respectively. The fission products have half-lives ranging from seconds to years. The gamma rays from fission products can be
used to characterize irradiated fuel materials.
The most commonly measured fission-product gamma ray in irradiated fuel is from 137Cs at 661.66 keV. This fission
product has a high yield and a sufficiently long half-life (30.08 year) so that its concentration is proportional to the total
number of fissions that have occurred in the fuel. (See Chap. 21 for a more complete discussion of the fission reaction and the
measurement of irradiated fuel.)
2 The Origin of Gamma Rays 21

Fig. 2.14 Gamma-ray spectrum of low-burnup plutonium with approximately 6% 240Pu. Peaks not labeled with a specific isotope are from 239Pu.
Refer to the original PANDA book [6] for identification of additional peaks

2.4.4 Background Radiation

All gamma-ray detectors will give some response even in the absence of a measurement sample. This response is due to the
ambient background in the location of the detector. The ambient background consists of radiation from nuclear material in
nearby storage areas, cosmic-ray interactions, and natural radioactivity in the local environment.
The radiation from the nuclear material stored nearby is often of the same nature as the radiation from the samples to be
measured; for example, in a fuel production facility, the background generally consists of more uranium in addition to the
naturally occurring radioactive background. This background spectrum often has a high Compton continuum (see Sect. 3.3.2),
resulting from degradation and scattering in the materials that separate the detector from the storage area. Background
radiation from nuclear material can be minimized with a judicious choice of detector location and shielding.
At the Earth’s surface, cosmic rays consist primarily of high-energy gamma rays and charged particles. Although a neutron
component exists, it has little effect on gamma-ray detectors. The charged particles are mostly muons but also include
electrons and protons. The muon flux at sea level is approximately 0.038/cm2 - s; at an altitude of 2000 m, the muon flux
increases to approximately 0.055/cm2 - s. The muon interacts with matter as though it were a heavy electron, and its rate of
energy loss when passing through typical solid or liquid detector materials is approximately 8.6 MeV/cm. A typical
penetrating muon deposits approximately 34 MeV in a 40 mm thick detector. Because this is much more energy than can
be deposited by gamma rays from uranium or plutonium, muon interactions can overload or saturate the detector electronics.
For a detector with a front surface area of 20 cm2, the typical muon interaction rate at sea level is approximately 0.75/s.
22 J. Stinnett et al.

Fig. 2.15 Gamma-ray spectrum 232Th and its daughter products. Thorium-232 emits no significant gamma rays of its own. The daughter nuclides
grow into equilibrium with the 232Th parent over a period of approximately 35 years

All materials have varying degrees of natural radioactivity. For example, the human body—and even some gamma-ray
detectors—have some measurable natural radioactivity. Building materials, such as concrete, can be especially active. The
major radioactive species in natural materials are 40K, 232Th and its daughters, and 235U and 238U and their daughters.
Potassium-40 has a natural abundance of 0.0117% and decays by both electron capture (10.67%) and β- decay (89.33%),
with a half-life of 1.277 × 109 year. The electron capture is accompanied by the emission of a 1.461 MeV gamma ray that is
evident in almost all background gamma-ray spectra taken on land. Potassium is present in most organic matter, with 40K
being the major source of radioactivity.
Thorium is a common trace element in many terrestrial rocks. Thorium-232 is the natural parent to the thorium decay
series, which goes through 10 generations before reaching the stable nuclide 208Pb. The most significant gamma rays
associated with 232Th are actually emitted by other radionuclides in its decay chain, particularly 228Ac, 212Bi, and 208Tl.
Uranium is also found as a trace element in many rocks, although it is less common than thorium. The gamma-ray spectrum
of unprocessed uranium ore is much different from that of uranium seen in the nuclear fuel cycle. Because of the long half-life
of the daughter 230Th (7.5 × 104 year), later generations take a long time to grow back into equilibrium after any chemical
treatment that separates uranium daughters from the natural ore. Figure 2.16 shows a typical spectrum of uranium ore
(compare with Fig. 2.12). Natural chemical processes in different rocks can often leach out some of the daughter nuclides and
cause different ores to have different gamma-ray emissions. The natural sources discussed above are common and contribute
2 The Origin of Gamma Rays 23

Table 2.2 Major nondestructive assay gamma-ray signatures

Energya Activitya Mean Free Pathb (mm)
Isotope (keV) (γ/g - s) (High-Z, ρ) (Low-Z, ρ)
234
U 120.9 8.06E+04 1.0 69.9
235
U 143.8 8.76E+03 0.4 74.4
185.7 4.56E+04 0.7 81.1
238
U 766.4c 3.94E+01 9.8 141.6
1001.0c 1.05E+02 13.1 160.5
238
Pu 152.7 5.89E+06 0.5 76.0
766.4 1.39E+05 9.8 141.6
239
Pu 129.3 1.45E+05 0.3 71.6
413.7 3.37E+04 4.0 108.6
240
Pu 45.2 3.75E+06 0.1 33.1
160.3 3.38E+04 0.5 77.3
642.5 1.09E+03 7.9 130.8
241
Pu 148.6 7.12E+06 0.4 75.3
208.0d 1.99E+07 0.9 84.3
241
Am 59.5 4.55E+10 0.2 47.0
662.4 4.62E+05 8.2 132.6
a
Data for energy and activity are extracted from [7]
b
The mean free path is the absorber thickness that reduces the gamma-ray intensity to 1/e = 0.37. The mean free path in uranium or plutonium oxide
(ρ = 10 g/cm3) is given for the high-density, high-atomic-number case (high-Z, ρ). The mean free path in aluminum oxide (ρ = 1 g/cm3) is given for
the low-density, low-atomic-number case (low-Z, ρ). Attenuation data are from [8]
c
From the 238U daughter 234mPa; equilibrium assumed
d
From the 241Pu daughter 237U; equilibrium assumed

to the background gamma-ray spectrum in most locations. Other sources of background are occasionally encountered, such as
materials contaminated by radioactive tracers. Slag from steel furnaces, which can have measurable levels of 60Co, and
uranium tailings are used as a concrete aggregate in some areas. The use of such materials in buildings can contribute to
background radiation levels.

2.5 Additional Gamma-Ray Production Reactions

The discussion in Sect. 2.4 has been limited to gamma rays that come from the natural decay reactions of radioactive nuclides.
These gamma rays provide the bulk of the signatures useful for NDA. This section discusses gamma rays produced in other
nuclear reactions. Some of these radiations can interfere with NDA.
When nuclei interact with other particles, charged or neutral, the nuclei often emit gamma rays as products of the
interaction. The neutron capture reaction (n,γ) is a classic example. Usually, the new nucleus is radioactive and is created
in an excited state from which it can decay by gamma-ray emission. The following formulas illustrate the neutron-capture
reaction that breeds plutonium in a fission reactor:

n þ 238 U → γ þ 239 U T 1=2 = 23:45 min :

239
U → e - þ -νe þ 239 Np½T 1=2 = 2:36 days]:

239
Np → e - þ -νe þ 239 Pu½T 1=2 = 24, 110 year ]:

Photons from the capture reaction have discrete energies that are characteristic of the levels of the daughter nucleus. Their
energies are typically several MeV for higher-atomic-number nuclei. A commonly measured example is the H(n,γ) at
2223.2 keV; the hydrogen in the ground (concrete, dirt, etc.) or in other objects (particularly humans) is often enough to
make this line visible in gamma-ray measurements in an environment with a significant number of neutrons.
Inelastic scattering of neutrons (n,n′γ) is usually accompanied by gamma-ray emission. The gamma rays have discrete
energies that are characteristic of the levels in the target nucleus. Gamma rays produced by this reaction are usually not of
24 J. Stinnett et al.

Fig. 2.16 Gamma-ray spectrum of uranium ore. Major radiations are from 214Pb and 214Bi. Compare to the spectrum of processed uranium in
Fig. 2.12; most daughter products are removed during processing. Refer to the original PANDA book [6] for identification of additional peaks

interest for NDA, although they may complicate analysis and can provide information about materials present during a
gamma-ray measurement in an environment with a significant neutron flux. For example, an 847 keV photon may indicate fast
neutrons scattering on iron.
A major source of neutrons from plutonium compounds and UF6 is the interaction of alpha particles from nuclear decay
with low-atomic-number nuclei in the compound or surrounding matrix material (see Chap. 13 for more details). This effect
can induce the emission of various particles; a common example in nuclear safeguards and security applications is the
interaction of alpha particles with fluorine, which can undergo a few different reactions:

19
F þ α → n þ 22 Na T 1=2 = 2:60 year

19
F þ α → p þ 22 Ne* :

The fluorine reaction usually proceeds to the ground state of 22Na, which does not result in prompt gamma-ray emission;
however, the subsequent β+ decay of 22Na leads to gamma rays with energies of 511 and 1274.5 keV. These radiations are
evident in samples of PuF4 and 238PuO2 with even trace fluorine impurities and are not generally useful as assay signatures but
are an indicator of chemical form or possibly impurities present in an item. Knowing that they are occurring is important for
assay with neutron-measurement techniques.
2 The Origin of Gamma Rays 25

References
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2. NuDat 3.0, https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3/. Accessed June 2023
3. M. Siegbahn, Relations between the K and L series of the high-frequency spectra. Nature 96, 676 (1916)
4. G. Zschornack, Handbook of X-Ray data (Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2007)
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cross sections, new standards and thermal scattering data. Nuclear Data Sheets 148, 1–142 (2018)
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Commerce, National Bureau of Standards report NSRDS-NBS 29, 1969)

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