Rectifiers and Power Supplies

• PN Junction diode: Principle of operation, V-I characteristics, Diode current equation, principle of avalanche
breakdown.
• Block diagram description of a dc power supply,
• Working of a full wave bridge rectifier, capacitor filter (no analysis),
• working of Zener diode and its application as voltage regulator.
• Working of linear voltage regulators – 78xx and 79xx.
• Definition:
• A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between
two semiconductor material types, namely the p-type
and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.
• In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the
method of doping. The p-side or the positive side of the
semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the n-side or
the negative side has an excess of electrons. The
process of doping is explained in further detail in the
next section.
Unbiased
Principle of operation
• As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to make
a P-N junction, there will be a grain boundary that would inhibit
the movement of electrons from one side to the other by
scattering the electrons and holes and thus, we use the process of
doping. We will understand the process of doping with the help of
this example. Let us consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor
sheet. If we add a small amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a
part of the p-type Si will get converted to n-type silicon. This sheet
will now contain both the p-type region and the n-type region
and a junction between these two regions. The processes that
follow after forming a P-N junction are of two types – diffusion and
drift. There is a difference in the concentration of holes and
electrons at the two sides of a junction. The holes from the p-side
diffuse to the n-side, and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to
the p-side. These give rise to a diffusion current across the
junction.
• Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an
ionised donor is left behind on the n-side, which is immobile. As
the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is developed on
the n-side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-
side to the n-side, an ionized acceptor is left behind on the p-side,
resulting in the formation of a layer of negative charges in the p-
side of the junction. This region of positive charge and negative
charge on either side of the junction is termed as the depletion
region. Due to this positive space charge region on either side of
the junction, an electric field with the direction from a positive
charge towards the negative charge is developed. Due to this
electric field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves to
the n-side of the junction. This motion is termed the drift. Here, we
see that the direction of the drift current is opposite to that of the
diffusion current.
• Biasing Conditions for the P-N Junction Diode
• There are two operating regions in the P-N junction diode:
• P-type
• N-type
• There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction diode, and
this is based on the voltage applied:
• Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode.
• Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is
connected to the p-type while the negative terminal is connected
to the n-type.
• Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is
connected to the p-type and the positive is connected to the n-
type.
Forward Bias
Reverse Bias
The formula used in the P-N junction depends upon the built-in potential difference created by the electric field is given as:
Where,
•E0 is the zero bias junction voltage
•VT is the thermal voltage of 26mV at room temperature
•ND and NA are the impurity concentrations
•ni is the intrinsic concentration.
V-I characteristics
• VI characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and current through the circuit. Voltage is taken
along the x-axis while the current is taken along the y-axis. The above graph is the V-I characteristics curve of the P-N
junction diode. With the help of the curve, we can understand that there are three regions in which the diode works, and
they are:
• Zero bias
• Forward bias
• Reverse bias
• When the P-N junction diode is in zero bias condition, there is no external voltage applied and this means that the
potential barrier at the junction does not allow the flow of current.
• When the P-N junction diode is in forward bias condition, the p-type is connected to the positive terminal while the n-type
is connected to the negative terminal of the external voltage. When the diode is arranged in this manner, there is a
reduction in the potential barrier. For silicone diodes, when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium diodes, when the
voltage is 0.3 V, the potential barriers decrease, and there is a flow of current.
• When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly, and the curve obtained is non-linear as the voltage
applied to the diode overcomes the potential barrier. Once the diode overcomes the potential barrier, the diode behaves
normally, and the curve rises sharply as the external voltage increases, and the curve obtained is linear.
• When the P-N junction diode is in negative bias condition, the p-type is connected to the negative terminal while the n-
type is connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage. This results in an increase in the potential barrier.
Reverse saturation current flows in the beginning as minority carriers are present in the junction.
• When the applied voltage is increased, the minority charges will have increased kinetic energy which affects the majority
charges. This is the stage when the diode breaks down. This may also destroy the diode.
Diode current equation
• The diode current equation expresses the relationship between
the current flowing through the diode as a function of the
voltage applied across it. Mathematically the diode current
equation can be expressed as:

•I is the current flowing through the diode

•I0 is the dark saturation current,
•q is the charge on the electron,
•V is the voltage applied across the diode,
•η is the (exponential) ideality factor.
• is the Boltzmann constant
•T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin.
• The avalanche breakdown occurs when a high reverse
voltage is applied across the diode. As we increase the
applied reverse voltage, the electric field across the
junction increases. This electric field exerts a force on the
electrons at the junction and frees them from covalent
bonds. These free electrons start moving with high
velocity across the junction and collide with the other
atoms, thus creating more free electrons. This results in
a rapid increase in net current. Both these breakdowns
occur in Zener diodes.
Difference between Zener and Avalanche
Breakdown
Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown

The process in which the electrons move across the The process of applying high voltage and increasing
barrier from the valence band of p-type material to the the free electrons or electric current in semiconductors
conduction band of n-type material is known as Zener and insulating materials is called an avalanche
breakdown. breakdown.

This is observed in Zener diodes having a Zener This is observed in Zener diode having a Zener
breakdown voltage Vz of 5 to 8 volts. breakdown voltage Vz greater than 8 volts.

The valence electrons are pulled into conduction due The valence electrons are pushed to conduction due to
to the high electric field in the narrow depletion the energy imparted by accelerated electrons, which
region. gain their velocity due to their collision with other
atoms.

The increase in temperature decreases the breakdown The increase in temperature increases the breakdown
voltage. voltage.

The VI characteristics of a Zener breakdown has a The VI characteristic curve of the avalanche
sharp curve. breakdown is not as sharp as the Zener breakdown.

It occurs in diodes that are highly doped. It occurs in diodes that are lightly doped.
Working of FWR