MSN 660

Advanced Manufacturing Techniques in Materials Engineering

2024 2025 Fall [email protected]

Assistant Prof. Mustafa TEKİN (0216) 578 04 52

Faculty of Engineering
Materials Science and Nanotechnology Engineering Department
Course Plan

Week 1 Introduction And Overview of Manufacturing

Week 2 Mechanical properties of materials

Week 3-5 Metal forming by thermomechanical processes

Week 6 Sheet Metal Forming

Week 7 Midterm Exam

Week 8-9 Metal machining

Week 10-12 Casting processes

Week 13 Welding and joining processes

Week 14 Brazing, soldering and adhesive bonding

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Forming
Metal Forming Processes

Metal forming: Large set of manufacturing processes

in which the material is deformed plastically to take
the shape of the die geometry. The tools used for such
deformation are called die, punch etc. depending on the
type of process.

Plastic deformation: Stresses beyond yield strength of

the workpiece material is required.

Categories: Bulk metal forming, Sheet metal forming

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Bulk Forming
Forging
It is a deformation process in which the work piece is compressed between two dies, using either impact load or
hydraulic load (or gradual load) to deform it.
It is used to make a variety of high-strength components for automotive, aerospace, and other applications. The
components include engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural components, jet engine turbine parts
etc.

Category based on temperature: cold, warm, hot forging

Category based on presses: impact load => forging hammer; gradual

pressure => forging press

Category based on type of forming: Open die forging, impression die Open die forging
forging, flashless forging
In open die forging, the work piece is compressed
between two flat platens or dies, thus allowing the
metal to flow without any restriction in the
sideward direction relative to the die surfaces.

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Bulk Forming
Forging

In impression die forging, the die surfaces contain a shape that is given
to the work piece during compression, thus restricting the metal flow
significantly. There is some extra deformed material outside the die

impression die
impression which is called as flash. This will be trimmed off later.
forging

In flashless forging, the work piece is fully restricted within the die and
no flash is produced. The amount of initial work piece used must be
controlled accurately so that it matches the volume of the die cavity.

flashless forging

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Bulk Forming
Open Die Forging
In actual forging operation, the deformation will not be homogeneous as bulging occurs because of the presence of
friction at the die-billet interface. This friction opposes the movement of billet at the surface. This is called barreling
effect.
The barreling effect will be significant as the diameter-to-height (D/h) ratio of the work part increases, due to the
greater contact area at the billet–die interface. Temperature will also affect the barreling phenomenon.

Start of compression Partial compression Completed compression

In actual forging, the accurate force evaluation is done by using, Where Kf = forging shape factor, μ = coefficient of friction,
D = work piece diameter, h = work piece height
F = Kf σf A by considering the effect of friction and D/h ratio.
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Bulk Forming
Closed Die Forging
Closed die forging called as impression die forging is performed in dies which has the impression that will be imparted to the work piece
through forming.
In the intermediate stage, the initial billet deforms partially giving a bulged shape. During the die full closure, impression is fully filled with
deformed billet and further moves out of the impression to form flash.
In multi-stage operation, separate die cavities are required for shape change. In the initial stages, uniform distribution of properties and
microstructure are seen. In the final stage, actual shape modification is observed. When drop forging is used, several blows of the hammer
may be required for each step.

Starting stage Intermediate stage Final Stage

(flash formation)

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Bulk Forming
Example
Question
A hot upset forging operation is performed in an open die. The workpart has initial diameter = 25 mm and initial
height = 50 mm. The work metal at this elevated temperature yields at 85 MPa (strain-hardening exponent = 0).
The coefficient of friction at the die-work interface = 0.40. Determine the final height of the part and the forging
force.

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Bulk Forming
Example
Question
A hot upset forging operation is performed in an open die. The workpart has initial diameter = 25 mm and initial
height = 50 mm. The work metal at this elevated temperature yields at 85 MPa (strain-hardening exponent = 0).
The coefficient of friction at the die-work interface = 0.40. Determine the final height of the part and the forging
force.

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Bulk Forming
Example
Question
A hot upset forging operation is performed in an open die. The workpart has initial diameter = 25 mm and initial
height = 50 mm. The work metal at this elevated temperature yields at 85 MPa (strain-hardening exponent = 0).
The coefficient of friction at the die-work interface = 0.40. Determine the final height of the part and the forging
force.

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Bulk Forming
Example
Question
A hot upset forging operation is performed in an open die. The workpart has initial diameter = 25 mm and initial
height = 50 mm. The work metal at this elevated temperature yields at 85 MPa (strain-hardening exponent = 0).
The coefficient of friction at the die-work interface = 0.40. Determine the final height of the part and the forging
force.

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Bulk Forming
Extrusion
Extrusion is a bulk forming process in which the work metal is forced or compressed to flow through a die hole to
produce a desired cross-sectional shape.
Example: squeezing toothpaste from a toothpaste tube.
Advantages:
- Variety of shapes are possible, especially using hot extrusion
- Grain structure and strength properties are enhanced in cold and warm extrusion
- Close tolerances are possible, mainly in cold extrusion

Types of extrusion: Direct or forward extrusion, Indirect or backward extrusion

Direct extrusion:
- A metal billet is first loaded into a container having die holes. A ram compresses
the material, forcing it to flow through the die holes.
- Some extra portion of the billet will be present at the end of the process that cannot
be extruded and is called butt. It is separated from the product by cutting it just
beyond the exit of the die.

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Bulk Forming
Extrusion
Extrusion is a bulk forming process in which the work metal is forced or compressed to flow through a die hole to
produce a desired cross-sectional shape.

Characteristics of Extrusion

• Similar to closed die forging

• Forging
– slug (bulk) is forging
– flash (extrusion) is waste

• Extrusion
– extrusion (flash) is part
– billet (bulk) is waste

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Bulk Forming
Extrusion Types
Extrusion is a bulk forming process in which the work metal is forced or compressed to flow through a die hole to
produce a desired cross-sectional shape.

Direct

Indirect

Tubular

Hydrostatic

Cold Impact

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Bulk Forming
Extrusion Types
Extrusion is a bulk forming process in which the work metal is forced or compressed to flow through a die hole to
produce a desired cross-sectional shape.

1 2
1 – direct
2 – indirect
3 – heading (forging also)

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Bulk Forming
Extrusion - Flow Types
Extrusion is a bulk forming process in which the work metal is forced or compressed to flow through a die hole to
produce a desired cross-sectional shape.

 “Laminar”

 “Turbulent”

– redundant work

– can bring outside of billet into center

– leaving the skin keeps outside scale out of final

extrusion

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Bulk Forming
Extrusion Types
Steel Extrusion

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Bulk Forming
Direct Extrusion
 In direct extrusion, a significant amount of friction exists between the billet surface and the container walls, as the billet
is forced to slide toward the die
 opening. Because of the presence of friction, a substantial increase in the ram force is required.
 In hot direct extrusion, the friction problem is increased by the presence of oxide layer on the surface of the billet. This
oxide layer can cause defects in the extruded product.
 In order to address these problems, a dummy block is used between the ram and the work billet. The diameter of the
dummy block is kept slightly smaller than the billet diameter, so that a thin layer of billet containing the oxide layer is
left in the container, leaving the final product free of oxides.

Direct extrusion

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Bulk Forming
Direct Extrusion

Direct extrusion

Hollow sections like tubes can be made using direct extrusion setup shown in above figure.

The starting billet is prepared with a hole parallel to its axis. As the billet is compressed, the material
will flow through the gap between the mandrel and the die opening.

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Bulk Forming
Indirect Extrusion
Indirect extrusion:
- In this type, the die is mounted to the ram and not on the container. As the ram compresses the metal, it flows through the
die hole on the ram side which is in opposite direction to the movement of ram.
- Since there is no relative motion between the billet and the container, there is no friction at the interface, and hence the
ram force is lower than in direct extrusion.
- Limitations: lower rigidity of the hollow ram, difficulty in supporting the extruded product at the exit

Indirect extrusion: solid billet and hollow billet

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Bulk Forming
Simple analysis of extrusion

Pressure distribution and billet dimensions in

direct extrusion

The actual pressure for extrusion will be

greater than in ideal case, because of the
friction between billet and die and billet and
container wall.

Average flow stress

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Bulk Forming
Simple analysis of extrusion

There are various equations used to evaluate the actual true strain and associated ram pressure during extrusion.
The following relation proposed by Johnson is of great interest.

In direct extrusion, assuming that friction exists at the interface, we can find the actual extrusion pressure as follows:
billet-container friction force = additional ram force to overcome that friction

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Bulk Forming
Simple analysis of extrusion

L is the billet length remaining to be extruded, and D0 is the initial

diameter of the billet.
Here p is reduced as the remaining billet length decreases during the
extrusion process.
Ram pressure variation with stroke
for direct and indirect extrusion is
shown in Figure.
The shape of the initial pressure build up
depends on die angle. Higher die angles cause
steeper pressure buildups.

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Bulk Forming
Extrusion

A complex extruded cross section for a

heat sink.

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Bulk Forming
Example

A billet that is 75 mm long with diameter = 35 mm is direct extruded to a diameter of 20 mm. The extrusion die has a die
angle = 75°. For the work metal, K = 600 MPa and n = 0.25. In the Johnson extrusion strain equation, a = 0.8 and b = 1.4.
Determine
(a) extrusion ratio,
(b) true strain (homogeneous deformation),
(c) extrusion strain, and
(d) ram pressure and force at L = 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, and 10 mm. Use of a spreadsheet calculator is recommended for
part (d).

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Bulk Forming
Example

A billet that is 75 mm long with diameter = 35 mm is direct extruded to a diameter of 20 mm. The extrusion die has a die
angle = 75°. For the work metal, K = 600 MPa and n = 0.25. In the Johnson extrusion strain equation, a = 0.8 and b = 1.4.
Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain (homogeneous deformation), (c) extrusion strain, and (d) ram pressure and
force at L = 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, and 10 mm.

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Bulk Forming
Example

A billet that is 75 mm long with diameter = 35 mm is direct extruded to a diameter of 20 mm. The extrusion die has a die
angle = 75°. For the work metal, K = 600 MPa and n = 0.25. In the Johnson extrusion strain equation, a = 0.8 and b = 1.4.
Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain (homogeneous deformation), (c) extrusion strain, and (d) ram pressure and
force at L = 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, and 10 mm.

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Bulk Forming
Example

A billet that is 75 mm long with diameter = 35 mm is direct extruded to a diameter of 20 mm. The extrusion die has a die
angle = 75°. For the work metal, K = 600 MPa and n = 0.25. In the Johnson extrusion strain equation, a = 0.8 and b = 1.4.
Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain (homogeneous deformation), (c) extrusion strain, and (d) ram pressure and
force at L = 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, and 10 mm.

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Bulk Forming
Example

A billet that is 75 mm long with diameter = 35 mm is direct extruded to a diameter of 20 mm. The extrusion die has a die
angle = 75°. For the work metal, K = 600 MPa and n = 0.25. In the Johnson extrusion strain equation, a = 0.8 and b = 1.4.
Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain (homogeneous deformation), (c) extrusion strain, and (d) ram pressure and
force at L = 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, and 10 mm.

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Bulk Forming
Example

You are forward, cold extruding Al-1100 (K = 140 MPa, n = 0.25), 10-cm diameter billet to a diameter of
5 cm at 1 m/min. The billet is initially 25 cm long.
• The ram is made of a high-strength steel with a yield stress of 1.5 GPa.
• Determine the extrusion force and power.
• Determine the safety factor for indenting the ram.

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Bulk Forming
Example

You are forward, cold extruding Al-1100 (K = 140 MPa, n = 0.25), 10-cm diameter billet to a diameter of 5 cm at 1
m/min. The billet is initially 25 cm long.
• The ram is made of a high-strength steel with a yield stress of 1.5 GPa.
• Determine the extrusion force and power.
• Determine the safety factor for indenting the ram.

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Bulk Forming
Example
You are forward, cold extruding Al-1100 (K = 140 MPa, n = 0.25), 10-cm diameter billet to a diameter of 5 cm at 1
m/min. The billet is initially 25 cm long.
• The ram is made of a high-strength steel with a yield stress of 1.5 GPa.
• Determine the extrusion force and power.
• Determine the safety factor for indenting the ram.

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Bulk Forming
Example
You are forward, cold extruding Al-1100 (K = 140 MPa, n = 0.25), 10-cm diameter billet to a diameter of 5 cm at 1
m/min. The billet is initially 25 cm long.
• The ram is made of a high-strength steel with a yield stress of 1.5 GPa.
• Determine the extrusion force and power.
• Determine the safety factor for indenting the ram.

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Bulk Forming
Example
You are forward, cold extruding Al-1100 (K = 140 MPa, n = 0.25), 10-cm diameter billet to a diameter of 5 cm at 1
m/min. The billet is initially 25 cm long.
• The ram is made of a high-strength steel with a yield stress of 1.5 GPa.
• Determine the extrusion force and power.
• Determine the safety factor for indenting the ram.

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Bulk Forming
Extrusion dies
- Two important factors in an extrusion die are: die angle, orifice shape.
- For low die angles, surface area of the die is large, resulting in increased friction at the die-billet interface. Higher
friction results in higher ram force.
- For a large die angle, more turbulence in the metal flow is caused during reduction, increasing the ram force required.
- The effect of die angle on ram force is a U-shaped function, shown in Figure. So, an optimum die angle exists. The
optimum angle depends on various factors like work material, billet temperature, and lubrication.

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Bulk Forming
Extrusion

 The extrusion pressure eqns. derived earlier are for a circular die orifice.
 The shape of the die orifice affects the ram pressure required to perform an extrusion operation, as it determines the
amount of squeezing of metal billet.
 The effect of the die orifice shape can be assessed by the die shape factor, defined as the ratio of the pressure required
to extrude a cross section of a given shape relative to the extrusion pressure for a circular cross section of the same
area.

Where kx is the die shape factor in extrusion; Cx is the perimeter of the

extruded cross section, and Cc is the perimeter of a circle of the same
area as the actual extruded shape.

varies from 1 to 6.

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Bulk Forming

Die materials

For hot extrusion - tool and alloy steels. Important properties of

die materials are high wear resistance, high thermal conductivity
to remove heat from the process.

For cold extrusion - tool steels and cemented carbides. Carbides

are used when high production rates, long die life, and good
dimensional control are expected.

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Bulk Forming
Other extrusion processes

Impact extrusion:
- It is performed at higher speeds and shorter strokes. The billet is extruded through the die by impact pressure and not
just by applying pressure.
- But impacting can be carried out as forward extrusion, backward extrusion, or combination of these.
- Impact extrusion is carried out as cold forming. Very thin walls are possible by backward impact extrusion method.
Eg: making tooth paste tubes, battery cases.
- Advantages of IE: large reductions and high production rates

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Bulk Forming
Other extrusion processes

In hydrostatic extrusion, the billet is surrounded with fluid inside the container
and the fluid is pressurized by the forward motion of the ram.

There is no friction inside the container because of the fluid, and friction is
minimized at the die opening. If used at high temperatures, special fluids and
procedures must be followed.

Hydrostatic pressure on the work and no friction situation increases the material’s ductility. Hence this process can be used on metals that
would be too brittle for conventional extrusion methods.
This process is also applicable for ductile metals, and here high reduction ratios are possible.
The preparation of starting work billet is important. The billet must be formed with a taper at one end to fit tightly into the die entry
angle, so that it acts as a seal to prevent fluid leakage through die hole under pressure.

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Bulk Forming
Extrusion
Using a fixed mandrel: In this
case, a mandrel is attached to a
long support bar to control the
inside diameter and wall thickness
during the operation. The length
of the support bar restricts the
length of the tube that can be
drawn.

Using a floating plug: As the

name suggests the mandrel floats
inside the tube and its shape is
designed so that it finds a suitable
position in the reduction zone of
the die. There is no length
restriction in this as seen with the
fixed mandrel.

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Bulk Forming
Defects during extrusion
Centerburst:
-This is an internal crack that develops as a result of tensile stresses along the center axis of the workpiece during
extrusion. A large material motion at the outer regions pulls the material along the center of the work. Beyond a
critical limit, bursting occurs.
-Conditions that promote this defect are: higher die angles, low extrusion ratios, and impurities in the work metal. This is
also called as Chevron cracking.

Centerbust – Chevron Cracking Defect

• Hydrostatic tension
– outer layer in compression
– inner layer in tension, if entire part is not plastic

• eliminate by using a fluid

– hydrostatic compression
– reduces friction Centerburst

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Bulk Forming
Defects during extrusion
Centerburst:
-This is an internal crack that develops as a result of tensile stresses along the center axis of the workpiece during
extrusion. A large material motion at the outer regions pulls the material along the center of the work.
Beyond a critical limit, bursting occurs.
-Conditions that promote this defect are: higher die angles, low extrusion ratios, and impurities in the work metal.
This is also called as Chevron cracking.
Centerburst

Piping: Surface cracking:

It is the formation of a sink hole in the end of the This defect results from high workpiece temperatures that cause cracks
billet. This is minimized by the usage of a dummy to develop at the surface. They also occur at higher extrusion speeds,
block whose diameter is slightly less than that of the leading to high strain rates and heat generation. Higher friction at the
billet. surface and surface chilling of high temperature billets in hot extrusion
also cause this defect.

Surface cracking

Piping

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Bulk Forming
Defects during extrusion

• Surface materials drawn into center

– pipe, tail pipe

• Surface Materials extruded

– eliminate by leaving skin

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Bulk Forming
Standard Extrusions

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Bulk Forming
Metal Forming Processes
Metal forming: Large set of manufacturing processes
in which the material is deformed plastically to take
the shape of the die geometry. The tools used for such
deformation are called die, punch etc. depending on the
type of process.

Plastic deformation: Stresses beyond yield strength of

the workpiece material is required.

Categories: Bulk metal forming, Sheet metal forming

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Bulk Forming
Drawing

Rod/Wire Drawing Introduction Rod/Wire Drawing Analysis

Rod/Wire Drawing Defects

Equipment

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Bulk Forming
Drawing
Basic Process: A metal rod is pulled through a die by application of a tensile force at die exit

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Bulk Forming
Drawing
Tube drawing
Deformation mechanism: most of the plastic flow is caused by compression force which arises from the reaction of the
metal with the die

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Bulk Forming
Drawing
Tube drawing
Deformation mechanism: most of the plastic flow is caused by compression force which arises from the reaction of the
metal with the die

Bar, wire and tube drawing are usually carried out at room temperature. Temperature rise is considerable during the
process because of large deformations

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Bulk Forming
Tube drawing

 This operation is used to reduce the

diameter or wall thickness of the
seamless tubes and pipes. Tube drawing
can be done either with or without
mandrel.

 The simplest method uses no mandrel

and is used for diameter reduction
called as tube sinking. But inside
diameter and wall thickness cannot be
controlled. So, mandrel is required.

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Bulk Forming
Wire, rod, bar drawing

In this bulk forming process, a wire, rod, bar are

pulled through a die hole reducing their cross-section
area.

Wire, rod, bar drawing

Difference between wire drawing and rod drawing: Initial stock size:
 The basic difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is the stock size that is used for forming.
 Bar drawing is meant for large diameter bar and rod, while wire drawing is meant for small diameter stock.
 Wire sizes of the order of 0.03 mm are produced in wire drawing.

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Bulk Forming
Drawing equipment

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Bulk Forming
Operating stages - drawing
Bar drawing is generally done as a single stage In contrast, wire is drawn from coils consisting of several
operation, in which stock is pulled through one hundred meters of wire and is drawn through a series of dies.
die opening. The inlet bars are straight and not in The number of dies varies between 4 and 12. This is termed
the form of coil, which limits the length of the as ‘continuous drawing’ because of the long production runs
work that can be drawn. This necessitates a batch that are achieved with the wire coils. The segments can be
type operation. butt-welded to the next to make the operation truly
continuous.

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Bulk Forming
Rod / Wire Drawing

 Drawing Practice:  Dies: tool steels and carbide; coatings SCD/PCD

fine wires: 15-25% reduction  Lubrication:
coarse wires: 20-50% reduction soft metal coatings for dry drawing
drawing speeds: 30-300ft/min; up to 10,000ft/min grease, powder, soap
drawing loads: up to 300,000lb entire die immersed in lubricating fluid for wet drawing
Entry of wire

Cemented tungsten
carbide support
annulus
Shaper hole

Polycrystalline diamond
core

Exit of wire

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Bulk Forming
Rod / Wire Drawing

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Thank You!
Any questions ?

[email protected]

(0216) 578 04 52