MSN 660

Advanced Manufacturing Techniques in Materials Engineering

2024 2025 Fall [email protected]

Assistant Prof. Mustafa TEKİN (0216) 578 04 52

Faculty of Engineering
Materials Science and Nanotechnology Engineering Department
Bulk Forming
Metal Forming Processes
Metal forming: Large set of manufacturing processes
in which the material is deformed plastically to take
the shape of the die geometry. The tools used for such
deformation are called die, punch etc. depending on the
type of process.

Plastic deformation: Stresses beyond yield strength of

the workpiece material is required.

Categories: Bulk metal forming, Sheet metal forming

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Classification of basic sheet forming processes

Sheet forming: Sheet metal forming involves forming and cutting operations performed on metal sheets, strips, and coils.
The surface area-to-volume ratio of the starting metal is relatively high. Tools include punch, die that are used to deform
the sheets.

Bending: In this, the sheet material is strained by punch to give a bend shape (angle shape) usually in a straight axis.
Deep (or cup) drawing: In this operation, forming of a flat metal sheet into a hollow or concave shape like a cup, is
performed by stretching the metal in some regions. A blank-holder is used to clamp the blank on the die, while the punch
pushes into the sheet metal. The sheet is drawn into the die hole taking the shape of the cavity.
Shearing: This is nothing but cutting of sheets by shearing action.

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Sheet forming
Involves plastic deformation of sheets like deep drawing, cutting, bending, hemming, flanging, curling, stretch
forming/stretching, stamping etc.

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Sheet forming

düz flanş bükme germeli flanş bükme sıkı flanş bükme

katlama dikme kıvırma

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Sheet Metalworking

Sheet forming

Cup deep drawing

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Cup deep drawing

It is a sheet forming operation, in which the sheet is

placed over the die opening and is pushed by punch
into the opening. The sheet is held flat on the die
surface by using a blank holder.

The clearance ‘c’ is defined to equal to 10% more than the sheet thickness ‘t’. If the clearance between the die and the
punch is less than the sheet thickness, then ironing occurs.

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Cup deep drawing

Stages in deep drawing: (i) As the punch pushes the sheet, it is subjected to a bending operation. Bending of sheet occurs
over the punch corner and die corner. The outside perimeter of the blank moves slightly inwards toward the cup center.
(ii) In this stage, the sheet region that was bent over the die corner will be straightened in the clearance region at this
stage, so that it will become cup wall region. In order to compensate the presence of sheet in cup wall, more metal will be
pulled from the sheet edge, i.e., more metal moves into the die opening.
(iii) Friction between the sheet and the die, blank holder surfaces restricts the movement of sheet into the die opening.
The blank holding force also influences the movement. Lubricants or drawing compounds are generally used to reduce
friction forces.
(iv) Other than friction, compression occurs at the edge of the sheet. Since the perimeter is reduced, the sheet is squeezed
into the die opening. Because volume remains constant, with reduction in perimeter, thickening occurs at the edge. In thin
sheets, this is reflected in the form of wrinkling. This also occurs in case of low blank holding force. If BHF very small,
wrinkling occurs. If it is high, it prevents the sheet from flowing properly toward the die hole, resulting in stretching and
tearing of sheet.
(v) The final cup part will have some thinning in side wall.

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Cup deep drawing

Stages in cup deep drawing

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Cup deep drawing

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Cup deep drawing

Drawing ratio: ratio of blank diameter, Db, to punch diameter, Dp. The greater
the ratio, the more severe the drawing operation.

The limiting value for a given operation depends on punch and die corner radii, friction conditions, draw depth, and
quality of the sheet metal like ductility, degree of directionality of strength properties in the metal.

As the ratio decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases.

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Cup deep drawing

The maximum drawing force, F , can be estimated approximately by the following equation .

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Cup deep drawing

A cup drawing operation is performed in which the inside diameter = 80 mm and the height = 50 mm.
The stock thickness = 3 mm, and the starting blank diameter = 150 mm. Punch and die radii = 4 mm.
Tensile strength = 400 MPa and a yield strength = 180 MPa for this sheet metal. Determine: (a)
drawing ratio, (b) reduction, (c) drawing force, and (d) blankholder force.

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Sheet Metalworking

Cup deep drawing

A cup drawing operation is performed in which the inside diameter = 80 mm and the height = 50 mm. The stock
thickness = 3 mm, and the starting blank diameter = 150 mm. Punch and die radii = 4 mm. Tensile strength = 400 MPa
and a yield strength = 180 MPa for this sheet metal. Determine: (a) drawing ratio, (b) reduction, (c) drawing force, and
(d) blankholder force.

(a)

(b)

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Sheet Metalworking

Cup deep drawing

A cup drawing operation is performed in which the inside diameter = 80 mm and the height = 50 mm. The stock
thickness = 3 mm, and the starting blank diameter = 150 mm. Punch and die radii = 4 mm. Tensile strength = 400 MPa
and a yield strength = 180 MPa for this sheet metal. Determine: (a) drawing ratio, (b) reduction, (c) drawing force, and
(d) blankholder force.

(c)

(d)

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Redrawing
In many cases, the shape change involved in making that part will be severe (drawing ratio is very high). In such cases,
complete forming of the part requires more than one deep drawing step.
Redrawing refers to any further drawing steps that is required to complete the drawing operation.

Guidelines for successful redrawing:

First draw: Maximum reduction of the starting blank - 40% to 45%
Second draw: 30%
Third draw: 16%

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Reverse redrawing
In reverse redrawing, the sheet part will face down and drawing is
completed in the direction of initial bend.

Drawing without blank holder

The main function of BH is to reduce wrinkling. The
tendency of wrinkling decreases with increase in thickness to
blank diameter ratio (t/Db). For a large t/Db ratio, drawing
without blank holder is possible. The die used must have the
funnel or cone shape to permit the material to be drawn
properly into the die cavity.
Limiting value for drawing without BH:
Db - Dp = 5t

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Sheet Metalworking

Plastic anisotropy
The main cause of anisotropy of plastic properties is the preferred orientation of grains, i.e., tendency for grains to have certain orientations.
This is cause mainly by mechanical forming of metals. A useful parameter to quantify anisotropy is R, the plastic strain ratio, which is the ratio
of true plastic strain in width direction to that in thickness direction. Higher R, large resistance to thinning.

For isotropic materials, R = 1; for anisotropic materials: R > 1 or R < 1

In many sheet forming operations like deep drawing, the materials exhibit some anisotropy in the sheet
plane. So averaging is done to find a value quantifying all the variations in the sheet surface as given by
the following equation. But this is practically impossible.

Usually, the following equation is used by considering orthotropy is accurate.

Another parameter that takes care of planar anisotropy is ΔR given by, This is a measure of how different the 45°
directions are from the symmetry axes.

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Defects in deep drawing

Wrinkling in flange and cup wall: This is like ups and downs or waviness that is developed on the flange. If the flange is
drawn into the die hole, it will be retained in cup wall region.
Tearing: It is a crack in the cup, near the base, happening due to high tensile stresses causing thinning and failure of the
metal at this place. This can also occur due to sharp die corner.
Earing: The height of the walls of drawn cups have peaks and valleys called as earing. There may be more than four ears.
Earing results from planar anisotropy (ΔR), and ear height and angular position correlate well with the angular variation
of R.
Surface scratches: Usage of rough punch, dies and poor lubrication cause scratches in a drawn cup.

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Sheet Metalworking

Cutting operations

Cutting of sheet metal is accomplished by a shearing action between two sharp cutting edges. The shearing action is depicted in the four stop-
action sketches of Figure, in which the upper cutting edge (the punch) sweeps down past a stationary lower cutting edge (the die). As the
punch begins to push into the work, plastic deformation occurs in the surfaces of the sheet. As the punch moves downward, penetration
occurs in which the punch compresses the sheet and cuts into the metal. This penetration zone is generally about one-third the thickness of the
sheet. As the punch continues to travel into the work, fracture is initiated in the work at the two cutting edges.

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Sheet Metalworking

Shearing, Blanking, and Punching

Shearing is a sheet-metal cutting operation along a straight line between two cutting edges, as shown in Figure. Shearing is typically used to
cut large sheets into smaller sections for subsequent pressworking operations. It is performed on a machine called a power shears, or squaring
shears. The upper blade of the power shears is often inclined, as shown in Figure, to reduce the required cutting force.
Blanking involves cutting of the sheet metal along a closed outline in a single step to separate the piece from the surrounding stock, as in
Figure. The part that is cut out is the desired product in the operation and is called the blank.
Punching is similar to blanking except that it produces a hole, and the separated piece is scrap, called the slug. The remaining stock is the
desired part. The distinction is illustrated in Figure.

Shearing operation Blanking punching.

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Other sheet metal operations

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Sheet bending
Sheet bending is defined as the straining
of the metal around a straight axis as
shown in figure.
During bending operation, the metal on
the inner side of the neutral plane is
compressed, and the metal on the outer
side of the neutral plane is stretched.
(b) both compression and tensile
Bending causes no change in the (a) Bending of sheet metal elongation of the metal occur in bending.
thickness of the sheet metal.

In V-bending, the sheet metal is bent between a V-shaped punch and die set up. The included angles range from very
obtuse to very acute values. In edge bending, cantilever loading of the sheet is seen. A pressure pad is used to apply a
force to hold the sheet against the die, while the punch forces the sheet to yield and bend over the edge of the die.

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Engineering analysis of bending

The metal of thickness t is bent through an angle called the bend
angle a. This results in a sheet-metal part with an included angle a’,
where a + a’ =180.
The bend radius R is normally specified on the inside of the part,
rather than at the neutral axis, and is determined by the radius on the
tooling used to perform the operation. The bend is made over the
width of the workpiece w.

Bend Allowance If the bend radius is small relative to stock thickness, the metal tends to stretch during bending. It is important to be able to
estimate the amount of stretching that occurs, if any, so that the final part length will match the specified dimension. The problem is to
determine the length of the neutral axis before bending to account for stretching of the final bent section. This length is called the bend
allowance, and it can be estimated as follows:

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Engineering analysis of bending

Spring back

• Spring back occurs because of the variation in bending stresses across the
thickness, i.e., from inner surface to neutral axis to outer surface. The tensile
stresses decrease and become zero at the neutral axis.

• Since the tensile stresses above neutral axis cause plastic deformation, the
stress at any point (say ‘A’) in the tensile stress zone should be less than the
ultimate tensile strength in a typical tensile stress-strain behavior. The outer
surface will crack, if the tensile stress is greater than ultimate stress during
bending.

• The metal region closer to the neutral axis has been stressed to values below
the elastic limit. This elastic deformation zone is a narrow band on both sides
of the neutral axis, as shown in Fig. The metal region farther away from the
axis has undergone plastic deformation, and obviously is beyond the yield
strength.

• Upon load removal after first bending, the elastic band tries to return to the
original flat condition but cannot, due to the restriction given by the plastic
deformed regions. Some return occurs as the elastic and plastic zones reach an
equilibrium condition and this return is named as spring back.

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Engineering analysis of bending

Spring back

• Spring back can be minimized by overbending, bottoming and

stretch forming.
• In overbending, the punch angle and radius are made smaller
than the specified angle on the final part so that the sheet metal
springs back to the desired value.
• Bottoming involves squeezing the part at the end of the stroke,
thus plastically deforming it in the bend region. Spring back is
defined by the equation:

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Engineering analysis of bending

Bending force
The force required to perform bending depends on the geometry of the punch-and-die and the strength, thickness, and
length of the sheet metal. The maximum bending force can be estimated by means of the following equation:

Where F= bending force, N(lb); TS = tensile strength of the sheet metal,

MPa(lb/in2); w = width of part in the direction of the bend axis, mm (in); t = stock
thickness, mm (in); and D = die opening dimension

Kbf is a constant that accounts for differences encountered in an

actual bending process. Its value depends on type of bending: for
V-bending, Kbf = 1.33; and for edge bending, Kbf = 0.33

Die opening dimension D: (a) V-die, (b) wiping

die.

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Example

A sheet-metal blank is to be bent as shown in Figure 20.15. The metal has a modulus of elasticity ¼ 205 (103) MPa, yield
strength = 275 MPa, and tensile strength = 450 MPa.
Determine (a) the starting blank size and (b) the bending force if a V-die is used with a die opening dimension = 25 mm.

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Sheet Metalworking

Example

A sheet-metal blank is to be bent as shown in Figure 20.15. The metal has a modulus of elasticity = 205 (103) MPa, yield
strength = 275 MPa, and tensile strength = 450 MPa.
Determine (a) the starting blank size and (b) the bending force if a V-die is used with a die opening dimension = 25 mm.

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Other bending and forming operations

Some sheet-metal operations involve bending over a curved axis rather than a straight axis, or they have other features
that differentiate them from the bending operations described above.

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Other bending and forming operations

Flanging
Flanging is a bending operation in which the edge of a sheet-metal part is bent at a 90o angle (usually) to form a rim or
flange. It is often used to strengthen or stiffen sheet metal. The flange can be formed over a straight bend axis, as illustrated
below, or it can involve some stretching or shrinking of the metal, as in (b) and (c).

(a) (b) (c)

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Other bending and forming operations

Hemming
Hemming involves bending the edge of the sheet over on itself, in more than one bending step, as in (a). This is often done to eliminate the
sharp edge on the piece, to increase stiffness, and to improve appearance.
Seaming
Seaming is a related operation in which two sheet-metal edges are assembled. Hemming and seaming are illustrated below in (b).
Curling
Curling, also called beading, forms the edges of the part into a roll or curl, as in (c). In hemming, it is done for purposes of safety, strength, and
aesthetics. Examples of products in which curling is used include hinges, pots and pans, and pocket-watch cases. These examples show that
curling can be performed over straight or curved bend axes.

(a) (b) (c)

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Other bending and forming operations

Miscellaneous Bending Operations
Various other bending operations are depicted in Figure 20.18 to illustrate the variety of shapes that can be bent.
Most of these operations are performed in relatively simple dies similar to V-dies.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

channel bending U-bending air bending offset bending corrugating tube forming
kanal bükme U-bükme havada bükme dirsek bükme kırıştırma tüp şekillendirme

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Dies and presses for sheet metal processing

• Dies: Nearly all of the preceding pressworking operations are performed with conventional punch-and-die tooling.
The tooling is referred to as a die.

Components of a punch and die for a blanking operation.

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Dies and presses for sheet metal processing

The components of a stamping die to perform a simple blanking operation are
illustrated in Figure. The working components are the punch and die, which
perform the cutting operation. They are attached to the upper and lower portions of
the die set, respectively called the punch holder (or upper shoe) and die holder
(lower shoe).
The die set also includes guide pins and bushings to ensure proper alignment
between the punch and die during the stamping operation. The die holder is
attached to the base of the press, and the punch holder is attached to the ram.

Actuation of the ram accomplishes the pressworking operation. In addition to these components, a die used for blanking or hole-punching must
include a means of preventing the sheet metal from sticking to the punch when it is retracted upward after the operation. The newly created
hole in the stock is the same size as the punch, and it tends to cling to the punch on its withdrawal. The device in the die that strips the sheet
metal from the punch is called a stripper. It is often a simple plate attached to the die as in Figure, with a hole slightly larger than the punch
diameter.
For dies that process strips or coils of sheet metal, a device is required to stop the sheet metal as it advances through the die between press
cycles. That device is called (try to guess) a stop. Stops range from simple solid pins located in the path of the strip to block its forward motion,
to more complex mechanisms synchronized to rise and retract with the actuation of the press. The simpler stop is shown in Figure.
There are other components in pressworking dies, but the preceding description provides an introduction to the terminology.

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Presses

A press used for sheet metalworking is a machine tool with a

stationary bed and a powered ram (or slide) that can be driven
toward and away from the bed to perform various cutting and
forming operations. A typical press, with principal components
labeled, is diagrammed in Figure.

Presses are available in a variety of capacities, power systems,

and frame types. The capacity of a press is its ability to deliver
the required force and energy to accomplish the stamping
operation.

Components of a typical (mechanical drive) stamping press.

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Sheet Metalworking

Roll bending and roll forming

• The operations described in this section use rolls to form sheet metal.
• Roll bending is an operation in which (usually) large sheet-metal or plate-metal parts are formed into curved sections by
means of rolls.
• Roll forming (also called contour roll forming) is a continuous bending process in which opposing rolls are used to
produce long sections of formed shapes from coil or strip stock.

Roll bending. Roll forming of a continuous channel section: (1) straight rolls, (2) partial form, and (3) final form.

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Spinning
Spinning is a metal-forming process in which an axially symmetric part is gradually shaped over a mandrel or form by means of a rounded
tool or roller. The tool or roller applies a very localized pressure (almost a point contact) to deform the work by axial and radial motions over
the surface of the part
Conventional spinning is the basic spinning operation. As illustrated in Figure, a sheet-metal disk is held against the end of a rotating mandrel
of the desired inside shape of the final part, while the tool or roller deforms the metal against the mandrel.
The alternatives are manual spinning and power spinning. Power spinning has the capability to apply higher forces to the operation, resulting
in faster cycle times and greater work size capacity. It also achieves better process control than manual spinning

Conventional spinning:
(1) setup at start of process;
(2) during spinning; and
(3) completion of process.

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Spinning
Shear spinning In shear spinning, the part is formed over the mandrel by a shear deformation process in which the outside
diameter remains constant and the Wall thickness is therefore reduced.

This shear straining (and consequent thinning of the metal)

distinguishes this process from the bending action in conventional
spinning.
Several other names have been used for shear spinning, including flow
turning, shear forming, and spin forging.
The process has been applied in the aerospace industry to form large
parts such as rocket nose cones.

Shear spinning:
(1) setup and (2) completion of process.

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Spinning
Tube spinning Tube spinning is used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the length of a tube by means of a roller
applied to the work over a cylindrical mandrel

Tube spinning is similar to shear spinning except that the

starting workpiece is a tube rather than a flat disk.
The operation can be performed by applying the roller
against the work externally (using a cylindrical mandrel on
the inside of the tube) or internally (using a die to surround
the tube).
Tube spinning:
(a) external; (b) internal; and (c) profiling.

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Bending of tube stock

Several methods to bend tubes (and similar sections) are illustrated in Figure.

Stretch bending is accomplished by pulling and bending the tube around a fixed
form block, as in Figure in (a).

Draw bending is performed by clamping the tube against a form block,

and then pulling the tube through the bend by rotating the block as in (b).

A pressure bar is used to support the work as it is being bent.

In compression bending, a wiper shoe is used to wrap the tube around the
contour of a fixed form block, as in (c).

Roll bending, generally associated with the forming of sheet stock, is also used
for bending tubes and other cross sections.
Tube bending methods: (a) stretch bending, (b) draw bending, and (c) compression
bending. For each method: (1) start of process, and (2) during bending. Symbols v
and F indicate motion and applied force, respectively.

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Thank You!
Any questions ?

[email protected]

(0216) 578 04 52