HOW DO ORGANISMS

REPRODUCE
 WHAT IS
REPRODUCTION……?????
 Definition :Process by which living organisms produce new individuals
of the same species.
 It is essential for the following:
➢ Continuation of life on earth
➢ Addition of new species
➢ Replacement of dead organisms
➢ Transfer of variations from one generation to another
 If organisms do not reproduce, their population decreases and species
will become extinct.
 DO ORGANISMS CREATE
EXACT COPIES OF
THEMSELVES….???
• The DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules in the
chromosomes in the nucleus is responsible for the transfer of
characters from the parents to the off springs.
• During reproduction the reproductive cells produce two
copies of the DNA which separated into two cells.
• The DNA copies will be similar but not identical to each
other. So the new individuals have slight variations from
their parents.
• This is the basis for variations and evolution of new species.
• Formation of new DNA strands from older ones –
REPLICATION OF DNA
 IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION
 DNA copying is important for maintaining the body designs
of different organisms to survive in the existing environment.
 But the environment is constantly changing due to changes in
temperature, climate, water levels etc.
 If organisms cannot adjust themselves to the changes in the
environment then their species will become extinct.
 Only some individuals of a species may be able to survive
the changes in the environment.
 So variations in species is necessary for the survival of
different species and for the evolution of new species.
• Population of bacteria living in temperate water
• If the temperature increases due to global warming, most
of the bacteria would die
• But the variants which are resistant to heat would
survive and grow further
• Thus, variations are important for survival of species
 MODES OF REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction
• The production of offspring from a single parent without the fusion of
sex cells called gametes, is known as asexual reproduction
• Involves only one organism
• Offspring have exactly the same features as the parent
• No variation seen

Sexual reproduction
• In this 2 organisms of the same species are involved-male and female are involved
• Each sex contributes reproductive sex cells or gametes
• Male produces sperms
Females produce eggs or ova
• Offspring is produced by the fusion of sperm and egg
• Offspring has a mix of features of both parents and is not identical to either parent
• Variation seen
 Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
The production of new animals by a single The production of a new animal by the
parent without the involvement of gametes existing two parents, by the fusion of their
is called asexual reproduction. gametes, is called sexual reproduction.
Offspring are identical to parent Offspring can or cannot be identical to
parent

Variation not seen Variation seen

Zygote not formed Zygote are formed

Involvement of single parent Involvement of both the parents

Mostly seen in unicellular organism like Mostly seen in multicellular organism like
amoeba, hydra, yeast etc. fish, frog, cow, dogs, humans
 Asexual reproduction
• Asexual reproduction occurs by mitotic
cell division where single parent divides
into 2 daughter cells having similar
number of chromosomes as parent cell.
• Commonly observed in unicellular
organisms like bacteria, some plants and
simple multicellular animals like Hydra.
• Reproductive units can be:
▫ Whole body
▫ A bud
▫ A fragment of the body of parents
▫ Spores
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS

1) FISSION
 Simplest and common method
 Organism splits into two or more identical parts.
 Each part later becomes a complete organisms
 FISSION

BINARY MULTIPLE
FISSION FISSION

TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL
IRREGULAR
BINARY FISSION BINARY FISSION
BINARY FISSION
IN PARAMECIUM, IN EUGLENA,
IN AMOEBA
BACTERIA LEISHMANIA
 BINARY FISSION
 BINARY MEANS 2 AND FISSION MEANS SPLITTING
 THE DIVISION OR SPLITTING OF A CELL INTO TWO
EQUAL PARTS IS CALLED BINARY FISSION.
 IT TAKES PLACE UNDER FAVORABLE CONDITIONS
IRREGULAR BINARY FISION IN AMOEBA
 Binary fission in Amoeba is a form of Asexual
Reproduction where a single parent cell divides into two
identical Daughter Cells.
 This process is vital to the survival and growth of
Amoebae populations and allows them to quickly
multiply in favorable conditions.
 The Steps of Binary Fission in Amoeba
GROWTH OF
AMOEBA CELL
 The first step in Binary
Fission is growth.
 Amoeba cells grow in
size and metabolic
activity, preparing for the
division process.
 The metabolic rate of the
cell increases the
synthesis of organelles
and Genetic Material.
DUPLICATION OF
ORGANELLES AND
GENETIC MATERIAL
 The organelles and Genetic
Material within the parent cell
are duplicated.
 This is achieved through DNA
replication, where the Genetic
Material is copied into two
identical sets.
 The synthesis of new
organelles also takes place in
this phase.
SEPARATION OF
GENETIC MATERIAL
AND NUCLEAR
DIVISION
 During this step, the
duplicated Genetic Material
separates into two sets, each of
that will be inherited by one of
the Daughter Cells.
 The cell also begins to form a
cleavage furrow that will
eventually divide the cell into
two parts.
DIVISION OF THE
CELL INTO TWO
AMOEBA DAUGHTER
CELLS
 Finally, the cell membrane
pinches inward along the
cleavage furrow, dividing the
parent cell into two identical
Daughter Cells.
 Each Daughter Cell receives
one set of the duplicated
Genetic Material and all the
necessary organelles for life.
 TRANSVERSE BINARY FISION IN
PARAMECIUM

The cytoplasm separates transversely between two pairs of nuclei, forming two
individuals. The splitting into two occurs by pinching off in the middle of the long axis of
the organism.
 LONGITUDINAL BINARY FISION
IN EUGLENA

In this type of binary fission, the body at divides into two halves
longitudinally, hence called longitudinal binary fission. Leishmania
(causative agent of Kala-azar) also develops by this method.
 MULTIPLE FISSION
 During unfavourable conditions, organisms
develop a protective covering called CYST around
the cell.
 Inside the cyst, the cell divides repeatedly through
mitosis, to produce many daughter cells.
 In favorable conditions, the cyst breaks open to
release daughter cells and each of it grows into a
new organism-multiple fission
 Eg :- Multiple fission in Plasmodium (malarial parasite
2) BUDDING
BUDDING IN YEAST (unicellular fungus)
 The formation of new organism from an outgrowth arising on the parent body called
BUDDING.
 It is known as BUD.
 A bud appears on the outer surface of the cell wall.
 The nucleus of the parent yeast divides into two parts in a way that one part moves into
the bud.
 Finally the bud detaches itself from the parent yeast cell and develops into a daughter
yeast cell.
 BUDDING IN HYDRA(multicellular)

• In hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell

division.
• The nutrition for bud growth is provided by the parent hydra.
• The development showed by bud starts to develop small tentacles
and a mouth.
• A full-grown bud detaches from the parent body and becomes an
independent organism.
 FISSION BUDDING
Occurrence only in unicellular Occurrence in both unicellular and
organisms multicellular organisms

New organisms are formed as a result Parent gives new outgrowth to form
of parent cell dividing into 2 new individual. Parent does not
daughter cells. Thus, identity of divide, so its identity is retained in
parent is lost in fission. budding.

Nuclear division is followed by Cellular outgrowth is followed by the

cytoplasmic division division of nucleus

Amoeba, Paramecium, Plasmodium Hydra, Yeast

 3) SPORE FORMATION
 Some bacteria, fungi, mosses and ferns reproduce
by forming spores
 Spores are tiny, spherical, unicellular bodies
protected by a thick wall
 In fungi like, Rhizopus thread like structure called
HYPHAE develops on bread.
 They bear areal hyphae called SPORANGIOPHORE.
 It bears black blobs at their
terminal end called SPORANGIA
 It contains numerous dark spores
which are liberated by the rupture of
sporangial wall.
 The spores are covered by thick wall that protects them
until they come in contact with some moist surface.
 During favorable conditions each spore develops
into a new individual on being released from the
spore sac
A spore is a singled celled reproductive structure that
detaches from the parent and gives rise directly or
indirectly to a new individual.
Non motile spore-APLANOSPORES (depends on water
current for motility)
Motile spores – ZOOSPORES(has flagella like structure )
 3) FRAGMENTATION
 Body of an organism breaks into 2 or more parts or
fragments
 Each fragment develops and grows into a complete
individual
 Example: Filamentous algae, Spirogyra
4) REGENERATION
 Ability of an organism to regenerate or repair its lost
body parts ( due to injury or any other reason) is called
regeneration.
 Commonly observed in lower plants like algae, fungi and
also in animals like Planaria, Hydra, sponges, starfish,
lizards.
 Some specialized cells ( stem cells) are involved which
proliferate into many cells.
 5.Vegetative propagation
 Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual
reproduction in which new plants are produced
from vegetative parts of the plant like roots,
stems, leaves and buds.
 Vegetative part is the part of plant which have the
capability to develop a whole new plant
 Vegetative
propagation

Natural Artificial
vegetative vegetative
propagation propagation

By roots Cutting
Layering
By stem Grafting
By leaves Tissue culture
 VEGETATIVE PROPGATION IN PLANTS
NATURAL METHOD ARTIFICIAL METHOD
Propagation Propagation from stem Propagation
from roots Underground stem from leaves
Tubers
Bulbs Cutting
Corms Grafting
Rhizomes Layering
Subaerial stems Tissue culture
Runners
Stolons
 NATURAL
VEGETATIVE
PROPAGATION
 1.Propagation from roots
 Roots of some plants like Sweet Potato, Dahlia and Asparagus
develop fleshy tuberous roots with adventitious buds.
 Such roots are planted in the soil and new plants are produced.
 2.Propagation from stem
Subaerial stems
a) STOLONS
 In some plants like
strawberry, a slender/lateral
branch arising from the base
of the stem grows upwards
and bends to touch the soil.
 It develops roots and buds at
the point of contact with the
soil and develops into a new
plant
 2.Propagation from stem
Subaerial stems
B) RUNNERS
 In some grasses and mints
branches that grow from the
base of the stem creep some
distance away parallel on ground
from mother plant.
 These branches of runners at the
nodes, grow into new roots and
new leaves where they touch the
soil. This gives rise to new
2.Propagation from stem
Underground stems
 The organs that store food are also
the organs from reproduction
 They store starch during the summer
months
 In autumn, the plants die but the
organs, full of stored food, remain
dormant underground and survive
the winter
2.Propagation from stem
Underground stems
A.TUBER- Potato
 Swollen fleshy underground stem.
 The leaves growing on shoots above the
ground make starch and this is passed
down the stem into the underground
branches to form new tubers – STEM
TUBERS
 Potato tuber has many small buds
called eyes, each of which can grow into
a new plant.
 2.Propagation from stem
Underground stems
B. RHIZOME- Ginger
 Short, branched underground stem.
 They grow horizontally under the ground.
 Has distinct nodes and internodes bearing buds, which can grow into
a new plant.
 2.Propagation from stem
Underground stems
C. CORMS-Gladiolus
 Thickened, round
underground stem that
consists of a swollen
base surrounded by
scale leaves.
 It has 1 or more buds
that grow into a new
plant.
 2.Propagation from stem
Underground stems
D. BULBS-Onion, garlic, tulip
 “The onion bulb is actually large underground bud covered with
scaley leaves.”
 It stores food for the growth of new leaves and flowers.
 They bear a terminal bud, which grows into a new plant
 These organs (potato, ginger and onion)
reproduce new plants asexually year after
year and so are called PERRENATING
ORGANS
 Perrenating means ‘throughout the year’
 3.Propagation from leaves
 The leaves of plants like Bryophyllum ,Begonia and Kalanchoe
produce buds on the notches of their margins.
 When these leaves get detached from the plant and touch moist soil,
the buds grow into new plants
 Natural Methods of Vegetative Propagation

ROOTS Sweet potato, carrot, Dahlia and

Asparagus
LEAVES Bryophyllum, Kalanchoe and Begonia

STEM- Underground stem

TUBERS Potato
BULBS Onion, garlic, lily and tulip
CORMS Gladiolus
RHIZOMES Water lily, turmeric and ginger
STEM- Horizontal/ subaerial stem
RUNNERS Mint and grass
STOLONS Jasmin and strawberry
 ARTIFICIAL
VEGETATIVE
PROPAGATION
 “The process of growing plants using artificial methods
is called artificial propagation”
 Used in agriculture and horticulture
 Some of these are traditional methods such as
layering
cutting
grafting
 Cutting and layering are preferred by gardeners;
while grafting is a little more advanced technique used by
horticulturists
 For commercial purposes – TISSUE CULTURE
 1.LAYERING
 A young branch is bent and pressed into moist soil
 After sometime, roots develop from the covered part under
the soil.
 The branch is then cut off from the main plant and planted in
the soil.
 Eg: Jasmine, lemon, black raspberries
2. CUTTING
 In this method, stem with few nodes and internodes is cut
and planted in the moist soil.
 After a few days , roots and leaves develop from the cut
stem.
 This method is used for growing rose, hibiscus,
Bougainvillea, sugar cane etc.
3. GRAFTING
 Common method employed in
horticulture to develop new varieties of
plants
 It involves
 Scion-stem cutting of 1 plant
 Stock-rooted stem of another plant
 Scion and stock tied together the joint
is covered with wax to prevent
evaporation and control infection.
 They merge due to rapid cell division
 Stock supplies nutrients to the scion
 It helps to combine desirable features of two plants
 Eg. Many varieties of mango, like…
high-yielding variety + same species known for its
toughness = a tough, high-yielding variety of mango
 4.TISSUE CULTURE
 Modern method of vegetative propagation
 A piece of tissue is cut from a plant called explant and kept in a
nutrient medium under controlled conditions(aseptic condition)
 This tissues grows in a small mass of cells called callus.
 Certain hormones are added to the medium which induce
plantlet formation. Thousands of plantlets are formed from a
small tissue.
 These plantlets are then transferred to the moist soil for further
growth.
 Orchids, Chrysanthemum, Asparagus and many other plants
are grown by this method.
 ADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION :
 Quick method
 Easier and cheaper then collecting seeds
 Require less time to mature and bear more fruits, than
those grown from seeds.
 The new plants are exact copies of the parent plant as
they are produced from a single parent. So, all good
desired qualities of the parent plant can be replicated in
the new plant.
 Maintains genetic stability.
 Even seedless plants, like banana, sugarcane and
pineapple are easily grown by this method.
 DISADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION:
Diseases present in parent plants spread to all
the daughter plants.
Plantlets are difficult to transport.
Easy to damage during storage
Chances of overcrowding as there is no
dispersal.
No genetic variation, so less adaptability to the
environment.