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Torah scroll Thai Buddha statue Celtic cross Sikh Khanda

Indian battle axe Mogul spiked mace Browning pistol Gatling gun Grant M3A3 tank

Emperor Tiberius Catherine the Great Abraham Lincoln

Astrolabe Newton's telescope Sextant Newcomen steam engine Gramophone Motion-picture camera
—

Wr
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
In 2024

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Ss

First published in Great Britain in 2011 ACIP catalogue record for this book is available from
This abridged edition published in 2013 the British Library.
by Dorling Kindersley Limited, 80 Strand, London WC2R ORL ISBN: 978 1 4093 4237 3
_ Penguin Group (UK) ;
Colour reproduction by Alta Images, London
a |
Printed and bound in China by South China
001 - 223819 - Sept/2013
Copyright © 2011, 2013 Dorling Kindersley Limited
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, Discover more at
or otherwise, without prior written permission of the copyright owner. www.dk.com
HUMAN ORIGINS TRADE AND INVENTION TECHNOLOGY AND SUPERPOWERS
Dr Fiona Coward Joel Levy R.G. Grant
Research Fellow at Royal Holloway Writer specializing in history and scientific History writer who has published more
University of London; contributed history; books include Lost Cities and than 20 books, including Battle, Soldier,
to DK’s Prehistoric. Lost Histories. Flight, and History for DK.
Additional text by Dr Jane McIntosh ©
REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION Sally Regan
EARLY CIVILIZATIONS Thomas Cussans Contributor to several books for DK
Dr Jen Green Author. and contributorto The Times including History, World War II, and Science;
Author of over 250 books on a range newspaper; previous titles for DK include award-winning documentary maker whose
of subjects, from history and geography Timelines of World History and History. films include Shell Shock and Bomber
to nature and the environment. Additional text by Frank Ritter Command for Channel 4.
Additional text by Dr Jane McIntosh
THE AGE OF REVOLUTION GLOSSARY
THE CLASSICAL AGE Dr Carrie Gibson Richard Beatty
Philip Parker Writer who has contributed to The Guardian
Historian and writer; books include The and Observer newspapers; gained a
Empire Stops Here and DK Eyewitness doctorate in 18th- and 19th=-century history
Companion to World History. from the University of Cambridge, UK.
SMITHSONIANINS TON
Smithsonian contributors include
historians and museum specialists from:
CONSULTANT
9 National Air and Space Museum
The Smithsonian's National Air and Space
Dr Jane McIntosh Dr David Parrott Museum is one of the world’s most popular
8mya-700BCE 1450-1749 museums. Its-mission is to educate and
Senior Research Associate, Faculty of Asian Fellow in History and University inspire visitors by preserving and displaying
and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Lecturer, New College, University aeronautical and space flight artifacts.
Cambridge, UK of Oxford, UK
National Museum of American History
Professor Neville Morley Dr Michael Broers The Smithsonian's National Museum of
700BcE-599CE 1750-1913 American History dedicates its collections
Professor of Ancient History, School of Fellow and Tutor, Lady Margaret Hall, and scholarship to inspiring a broader
Humanities, University of Bristol, UK University of Oxford, UK 5 ae
understanding of the American nation and its
many peoples. ;
Dr Roger Collins Professor Richard Overy National Museum of Natural History
600-1449 1914-present The Smithsonian's National Museum of
Honorary Fellow, School of History, Classics, Professor of History, University of Natural History is the most visited natural
and Archaeology, University of Edinburgh, UK Exeter, UK history museum in the world and the most
visited museum in the Smithsonian complex.
Sez
-
8mya-30008ceE 3000-700sce. 700BcE-599cE = 600-1449

010 HUMAN ~ 018 EARLY 032 THE

ORIGINS
084 TRADE &
_ CIVILIZATIONS CLASSICAL AGE INVENTION
<) 6
VASO 749 Vo0 W713 1942011

134 REFORMATION 206 THE AGE 272 TECHNOLOGY — 380 GLOSSARY, INDEX,
& EXPLORATION OF REVOLUTION & SUPERPOWERS & ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 ivanen;
i #

.,
448
.
Foreword
Like many people, my early exploration and commerce. This is
enthusiasm for history focused on an exhilarating and comprehensive
particular dates and events: 1588 account of human creativity as much
and the defeat of the Spanish as its destructiveness, of discovery
Armada; the battle of Waterloo and understanding as well as
in the year 1815; the fall of natural disasters and human
Constantinople in 1453. Some had folly. Spectacularly illustrated and
personal connections: 1 July 1916, succinctly explained, key events in
when my grandfather, serving as an history from the first beginnings of
artilleryman, had lost several of agriculture to the most recent
his closest friends on the first day astrophysical discoveries are
of the Somme offensive. laid out along what is probably
From the earliest times history the most comprehensive timeline
had been cast as a grand chronicle ever assembled.
of events and actions, the work of No less exciting for me in helping
often larger-than-life protagonists, to compose this book and to choose
and was intended to enthral and from all facets of human history to
capture the imagination in the same build up the timeline, is the
way as a great novel. But during the contribution that History Year by Year
20th century academic historians makes to an understanding of global
grew sceptical about the “history of history. Throughout the book events,
the event”. Most often the events discoveries, and achievements
were battles, treaties, and political occurring in Europe and North
struggles, a narrative which America are set against the equally
excluded the lives of the great momentous and significant events in
majority of men, women, and the Middle and Far East, India,
children. In reaction to this, Africa, or South America and the
historians focused on cultural, Pacific Rim. This is a history which
social, and economic continuities, stimulates awareness of a wider
looked for their evidence in everyday world by placing events from across
objects, trading records, accounts of that world side by side and
childhood and old age. The result reminding us that progress and
was certainly a richer and more discovery, feats of social
diverse account of human organization, and challenges to a
experience, but one that often left political status quo are no monopoly
little sense of change over time. of the Western world, but as likely to
As the present book shows, history originate in India or Egypt as in
constructed on a timeline does not France and Spain.
have to be a narrow account of war The design of this book offers a
and conquest, treaties and treason. unique opportunity to appreciate a
All of these feature here, but so do global history of mankind in all its
the dates of intellectual and facets. | hope that you enjoy reading
technological innovations, the History Year by Year and using it as a
creation of key works of art, crucial source of reference as much as we
snifts in patterns of agriculture, enjoyed planning and writing it.

DAVID PARROTT
University of Oxford

Lost city of the Incas

Perched 2,430m (7,970ft) above sea level,
in the Peruvian Andes, the Inca citadel of
Machu Picchu was probably constructed in
the 15th century, and abandoned in the 16th.
 ae - z=

Bae

Our earliest ancestors lived in Africa almost eight million

years ago. Over seven million years later, we appeared and
developed the skills - including sophisticated tool-making |
and agriculture - that allowed us.to colonize the world. - -
Lies

Le ye B s ‘ Aas
ae
8-—4.5 mya : | 4.5-2 MYA

Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania is a site of great archaeological significance and it is sometimes referred
to as the “Cradle of Mankind”. At least two species of early hominin are associated with this area.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEVERAL DIFFERENT : and still lived partially in trees. ULTIMATELY, THE
HUMAN AND OTHER APES’ DNA AUSTRALOPITHECINE species Their brains were about the size PARANTHROPINES’ WAY OF LIFE
and blood proteins suggest that lived in Africa between 4.2 and of those of modern chimpanzees, was unsuccessful and they became Boxgrove
a Swanscombe
our lineage separated from that 2 MYA. Although they walked on :; but some australopithecines seem extinct after about 1.2 MYA, while 0.95 MYA Ay Ma
Mauer =»
of the chimpanzees between two legs most of the time, they : to have used tools. The earliest their cousins Homo habilis and
Atapuerca @
8 and 6 million years ago (mya). were rather small and ape-like © stone tools come from Ethiopia H. rudolfensis survived. These
Only a few fossil specimens date : and date to 2.6 MYA, but bones early Homo species were not very Ceprano@&
_ lsernia
to this time: Sahelanthropus : with cut marks made by stone different from australopithecines. la/Pineta er
It was with Homo ergaster (1.8 Kocabas.@
tchadensis (7-6 mya), Orrorin : tools have been found associated
with Australopithecus afarensis yA] that our ancestors started
: nearby, and date to 3.4 yA. The to look much more familiar.
: australopithecines’ descendants H. ergaster was tall and slender,
followed two distinct modes of and may have been the first

THE TIME : life: members of the genus hominin [a term used to describe
: Paranthropus had huge jaws humans and their ancestors)

WHEN a: : and big teeth for eating tough without much body hair. Their
: vegetable foods; meanwhile, Homo | brains were larger than those of
THE FIRST | Dh Eos \ | rudolfensis and H. habilis seem to | their ancestors, and they lost the

HUMAN Pars
\ | have eaten more protein, using last of their adaptations to

ANCESTOR = & / 77 b-\NSO narrow ones

| : tools to get at the protein-rich tree-climbing to become fully
| marrow inside long-bones by adapted to walking and running.
APPEARS fo +) A ; scavenging from carnivore kills.

tugenensis (6.1-5 mya),and t Ss OLDOWAN TOOL NOT LONG AFTER THE

two species of Ardipithecus, | APPEARANCE of Homo ergaster,
kadabba (5.8-5.2 mya] and hominins expanded their range
ramidus (4.4 mya). While all beyond Africa for the first time.
of these species seem to A species called H. georgicus
have walked on two legs appeared in Dmanisi in Georgia by
like us, it is not certain
)
1.7 MYA. Another close relative of
whether any were actual Homo ergaster, Homo erectus,
ancestors of humans. lived in China and Indonesia
Because species are ACHEULEAN TOOL
perhaps not long afterward.
constantly evolving, and Some archaeologists believe that
individuals of those species earlier groups of hominins may
can vary, it is difficult to tell also have left Africa, as some of
from isolated and often poorly Many animal species use natural objects as tools, but the the skulls from Dmanisi and from
preserved fossils which species manufacture of stone tools is unique to hominins. The earliest are | the much later site of Liang Bua
they should be assigned to, or how ee simply sharp flakes broken off stone cobbles by striking them with in Flores in Indonesia (currently
these are related to one another. a “hammerstone”. These are known as “Oldowan’ tools, after known as Homo floresiensis)
This unusually complete skeleton
However, these fossils do tell us Olduvai Gorge where they were first found. Later tools, such as resemble those of Homo habilis
of Australopithecus afarensis,
a great deal about what the last discovered in Kenya in 1974, was Acheulean handaxes, required more skill. Our manufacture of tools and Homo rudolfensis.
common ancestor we shared named after the Beatles’ song might be one explanation for the evolution of the human brain. Living further north would have
with chimpanzees was like. “Lucy in the sky with diamonds". required a different way of life
 1.6-0.35mva.

n palaeontologist, from Iave Landed: theendof

tural
eee 2002

ACHEULEAN HANDAXES made by While Homo Erectus continued

Homo ergaster and H. erectus were : to thrive in Asia, Homo antecessor
produced across most of Africa had appeared as far west as
and Eurasia, and demonstrate the : northern Spain and Italy by 1.2mya.
ability to learn complex skills Marks on their bones at the site of
from one another and pass them Atapuerca in Spain suggest they
down over generations. To make : practised cannibalism. However,
these tools, knappers had to think : these early colonists may not
several steps ahead in order to : have thrived in these unfamiliar
select a suitable stone and to : landscapes, as very few sites are
prepare and place each strike. : known. By 600,000 years ago,
Handaxes were used for a wide » anew hominin species, Homo
range of activities, including - heidelbergensis, had spread
butchery, but they might also have : much more widely across Europe.
been important for personal or H. heidelbergensis seem to have
group identity, demonstrating : been good hunters, or at least
their makers’ strength and skill. ! proficient scavengers. Burying the dead
= Trinil BY AROUND 350,000 YEARS AGO, Neanderthals often disposed
39M WPe Mojokecto while Homo erectus continued to of their dead with care. Some
Ngandong Homo heidelbergensis were buried in graves, as here
Australopithecines
KEY
1,204 cubic cm
hold sway over eastern Asia,
461 cubic cm at Kebara Cave in Israel, which
© Site of fossil finds (28 cubic inches) (73 cubic inches) Homo heidelbergensis in Europe
dates to 60,000 BCE.
— More likely route and Western Asia had evolved into
~» Less likely route eet | Paranthropines Homo neanderthalensis.
517 cubic em
(32 cubic inches) Neanderthals were stockier and their throat and voice box anatomy
: Hominins beyond Africa 2. Homo neanderthalensis stronger than modern humans, suggests that a Neanderthal
: Our earliest ancestors evolved in . Homo habilis ~ 1,426 cubic cm
: Africa. Possible dispersal routes (87 cubic inches} and their brains were as large language may have been limited
_ Homo rudolfensis
i from Africa are shown on this map, 648 cubic cm or even larger, although shaped compared to that of humans, they
: with dates referring to the earliest (40 cubic inches) slightly differently. Neanderthals must have communicated in some
: fossils known from each region. _ Homo erectus were almost certainly very fashion, perhaps by combining a
_ Homo ergaster ee : Homo sapiens accomplished hunters. They were less complex form of vocalization
to life in the African savanna. 969 cubic cm 1,478 cubic cm also highly skilled at making with expressive miming.
(59 cubic inches} (90 cubic inches}
: The climate was cooler and stone tools and heavy thrusting
+ environments were more spears with which they tackled
seasonal, with significant even large and dangerous animal
: variation in food resources prey, such as horses and bison.
: over the course of a year. Humans have a disproportionately large brain for a primate of However, despite burying their
Fewer edible plants meant their size, but archaeologists di sagree about how and why this dead - which may have indicated THE NUMBER
: that hominins would have had expansion happened. Switching to fatty and calorific foods such ceremonial practices or belief in
: to rely more on harder-to-find as bone marrow and meat may have “powered” brain growth, and an afterlife - Neanderthals do not OF YEARS THE
: and fiercely competed-for
- animal protein for food. They
also demanded more complex tools and effective hunting and
foraging skills. Social skills were also a part of this process, as
seem to have created more than
the most limited art or used any
NEANDERTHAL
: needed to move over greater increasing group co-operation and pair-bonding were necessary symbols, as all modern humans DOMINATED
_ distances and work together to to sustain the longer periods of childhood that infants needed do. Whether or not they spoke ina
EUROPE AND
WESTERN ASIA
: share resources and information for their larger brains to develop. similar way to modern humans is
: to survive in these regions. also difficult to establish. Although
_ 160,000-45,000va |45,000-35,000va 35,000-28,000 va
% i,

aa
These cave painttings from Lascaux in France date to around 17,000 years ago, Most cave paintings
are from a similar
period, though some were created by the earliest Homo sapiens to arrive in western Europe, around 32,000 yearsago.

IN AFRICA, HOMININ FOSSILS

gradually began to reveal the
| HUMANS SPREAD RAPIDLY
across Europe and Asia. In
: Flores date to less than 38,000
: years ago, and seem to represent
464 THE
characteristic skeletal traits of | Europe, modern humans : specialized, extremely small NEANDERTHALS
Homo sapiens from around
400,000 YA: smaller brow ridges,
| appeared in Turkey from 40,000ya,
| and in western Europe shortly
forms of Homo erectus, or
perhaps even the descendants
WERE NOT
higher and rounder skulls, and _ afterwards. In Asia, fossils of : of earlier hominins. More APE-MEN..
chins. DNA analysis of living
humans suggests that the
' Homo sapiens in Indonesia and
| China date to at least 42,000 Ya,
: evidence comes from Denisova
: Cave in Russia - DNA analysis
THEY WERE
common ancestors of all living _ and the sea crossing to Australia - of bones found here reveals AS HUMAN AS
humans (known as Mitochondrial
Eve} lived in Africa around
_
|
occurred before 45,000yva. These
dates suggest that the earliest
: genetic material distinct from US, BUT THEY
© that of both modern humans and
200,000
Ya. An Ethiopian fossil | modern humans in Asia may Neanderthals, dated to around REPRESENTED
_ have encountered groups of : 40,000yA. It seems increasingly A DIFFERENT
| Homo erectus, who survived in : likely that several groups
: Prepared core and flake
| China until at least 40,000 years ' descended from hominins who BRAND OF
: Neanderthals and other hominins
: prepared a stone core before | ago. In Indonesia the picture left Africa before Homo sapiens HUMANITY. 99
:_ striking offasharp flake to use. | was even more complicated. : may have coexisted in Eurasia
: In Europe this technology is | Fossils found on the island of : at this time. Chris Stringer and Clive Gamble, from

WHEN HOMO : known as the “Mousterian”. In Search of the Neanderthals, 1993

SAPIENS FIRST : time and, in such harsh conditions, IN EUROPE, MODERN HUMANS

APPEARED : complex modern language and

: symbolism would have allowed
overlapped with Neanderthals,
who survived until at least 30,000
: groups to exchange resources years ago. How and why
: and information with one Neanderthals died out is one of
skull from 160,000YA is almost another, which could have made the most intensely debated topics
modern in shape; this has been : the difference between survival in archaeology. There is little
identified as a subspecies of : and extinction. However, others evidence of violent interactions
modern humans, Homo sapiens argue that the impact of the between the species, and
idaltu. Humans moved north into : eruption of Mount Toba has been comparison of DNA increasingly
Western Asia some time before : exaggerated, and that achaeology suggests that there may have
100,000 yA, but they do not seem - in Africa suggests complex hunting been some exchange of mating
to have stayed there for long. : practices and the development of HOMO SAPIENS NEANDERTHAL partners between the groups.
It is debated whether uniquely : symbolism even before this. Early humans may have
human behaviours such as | Itis not clear when modern outcompeted their relatives for
language and the ability to use : humans first spread into Eurasia. food and raw materials in the
symbols evolved before or after Some researchers argue they left Neanderthal skulls (right) were about the same size as _ rapidly changing environmental
modern human anatomy. One : Arabia before 74,000yYa. Others anatomically modern human skulls (left}, but they had lower, conditions. Environments at the
theory is that such behaviours : say the major migration occurred more sloping foreheads and a double arch of bone over their time were highly unstable, so
became vital only after 74,000 Ya, : later, 50,000 ya, and via western eyes that created heavy brow ridges. Their lower faces jutted even a slight increase in
when the massive eruption of : Asia, after developing a new form out and they did not have chins. Overall, Neanderthal skeletons competition could have been
Mount Toba in Indonesia triggered : of stone-tool technology that reveal that they were much more muscular than modern humans, significant. However, populations
a global “volcanic winter”. DNA : involved producing long, thin flint as well as being extremely physically active and well-adapted were small and spread out, and
analysis suggests that many : “blades”, which probably formed to cold climates. co-existed for up to 10,000 years
human groups died out at this : part of composite tools. in Europe, and more than 30,000
 28,000-21,000
ya 21,000-18,000v, \ 18,000-12,0001,
=

ATLANTIC
. ~Se0CEAN
: in Indonesia. Alternatively, the PACIFIC IN EUROPE, SOPHISTICATED BONE : and art objects may have helped
exchange of resources and ‘ : OCEAN
INDIAN and antler points, needles, and : establish group identities and
information allowed by modern OCEAN harpoons characterize the : territories, as the number of
humans’ language and symbol “Magdalenian” technologies that : archaeological sites in this period
use, and their planned and were used to hunt a wide range of : suggests that populations were
flexible technologies made species, especially reindeer. : growing, and competition for rich
Homo sapiens better able to The Magdalenian (18,000- : and localized resources may have
withstand climatic downturns 12,000 YA) is famous for its : been intensifying.
than Neanderthals. beautiful art objects, engravings, A rise in temperature led to the
Others believe that these European climates after 23,000BcE grew steadily cooler, and and cave paintings. There are many retreat of the ice sheets that had
behaviours were not unique to during the “Last Glacial Maximum” (21,000-18,000
vA) ice-caps theories about what these mean - covered northern Europe, and
modern humans. Hominins covered most of northern Europe. Further south huge areas of and why they were produced. As : these areas were rapidly
would have needed to use rafts grassland with few trees offered good hunting for groups of most depict animals that were : recolonized, with groups
or boats to reach the island of humans able to survive the cold. hunted, the paintings may » expanding as far north as Siberia
Flores in Indonesia by 800,000ya . represent a magical means of : by around 14,000-13,000 yA.Some
: Some late Neanderthal sites ensuring hunting success, or : groups later moved on into Alaska
: also contain elements of THE “GRAVETTIAN” CULTURE OF AT THE HEIGHT OF THE GLACIAL show information about the best : and the Americas. Further east in
: technologies normally associated Europe and Russia (28,000- | Maximum, when the ice caps ways to hunt different species. : China and in the Jomon culture of
: with Homo sapiens, although it is 21,000 YA) is known for its were at their maximum extent, Paintings of imaginary half-human, : Japan, some of the first pots
: possible that Neanderthals may elaborate sites, which often have people living in more northerly half-animal creatures and the : manufactured from clay appeared
: have copied, traded with, or even complex structures and burials, and mountainous areas retreated inaccessibility of some cave art ; between 18,000 and 15,000ya.
stolen from modern humans. as well as large amounts of shell to “refuge” areas such as — in suggests that painting may have
: A combination of environmental jewellery, and sculpted bone and | Europe - northern Spain and been a magical or ritual activity,
Altamira cave paintings
unrest and increased competition antler. Also found at Gravettian southwest France, where this perhaps practised by shamans : This Paleolithic cave painting
: is currently considered to be the sites are some of the earliest period is known as the “Solutrean”. or during initiation or religious of bison was discovered at the
: most likely explanation for | known clay objects, including some | Globally, many groups probably ceremonies. Alternatively paintings : Altamira cave site in Spain.
: Neanderthal extinction. ' of the famous “Venus” figurines. | died out, but some held on in
These may have been fertility or more sheltered regions. To survive
religious charms, or part of a the harsh conditions, much time
system of exchange between and effort was invested in hunting.
EUROPE social networks across the region Weapons include beautifully
2 &
* ®
as the Ice Age intensified. worked points known as ‘leaf-
ATLANTIC bs | points”. Although little evidence
OCEAN Lea |
“Venus” statuette survives beyond finely worked
Ss
This figurine | bone needles, people probably
ry Leo, i
C7.
| from Willendorf | developed sophisticated clothing
e 2,55 in Austria depicts
to keep them warm. Perhaps
a stylized pregnant
°
Se.

| or obese female more importantly, hunters

: KEY ® Neanderthal sites figure. would have worked hard to
: © Modern human sites predict and intercept the
- movements of herds of large
: Neanderthal and human ranges
animals, ensuring the
: Modern humans and Neanderthals exaggerated
: co-existed for several thousand belly hunting success that was
i years. Sites appear to show evidence the difference between life
: for interaction between the groups. and death.
 10,000-3000 sce

Megalithic (large stone] archite e was used for monumental tombs in Neolithic Europe. Developments around
3300BCE included the construction of stone circles, such as this example at Castlerigg in northern England.

6700- Settled communities lived here productivity. Farming was : were domesticated in the Yellow
6400B8cE by 70008CE, including the © therefore a choice that people River valley and rice in the Yangzi
Chinchorro who created the : made, increasing local valley in China, from where they
7500- y
world’s first mummies [see productivity, often at the cost of spread through East and Southeast
6700BCE _ gee’
panel, opposite}. increasing work and risk. Their : Asia. In Africa, other millets and
8500- fe Another area with : reasons for farming may have : African rice were domesticated
75008ce Fe favourable conditions was included extending their period of : after 3000BCE. In the Americas,
9600- Ve West Asia. Here, residence in a settled village, maize was the principal cereal.
8500BcE vegetation included wild providing extra food for feasting or
However, although it was cultivated
cereals that could be to support a growing population, by 6000BCeE, it was not until
13,000- ; = stored, sustaining : and boosting the supply of 2000 8cE that maize was
Lepinski Vir “fish god”
9600BCE > communities throughout the preferred or declining foodstuffs. : sufficiently productive to support
Abundant fish supported a settled
year when Cereals were common staples of :: permanently settled villages. : hunter-gatherer village on the
Population density : supplemented : early agriculture. Wheat and barley | Pulses and vegetables were S Denuiaain Soa lis OAS
The population in western Asia grew : by other wild : were domesticated in West Asia, grown alongside cereals in many : carved fish-human sculptures,
rapidly from 13,000 to 6400 BCE. : foods such as spreading into North Africa, parts of the world. | probably representing gods.
: gazelle. A period Europe, and Central and South Tubers, such as manioc and
AS STEEPLY RISING TEMPERATURES of cold, arid : Asia. Broomcorn and foxtail millet : yams, and treecrops were meat. However, in the Americas
between 12,700 and 10,800 8cE : conditions from : Cultivated in moist tropical only the Andes had animals
melted the northern ice sheets, 10,800 to 9600 BCE : regions, beginning at an early date : suitable for domestication:
global sea-levels rose, lakes led to a steep in the New Guinea highlands and : guineapigs, llamas, and alpacas.
formed, and rainfall increased, the rainforests of Central America Birds, particularly chickens,
promoting the : and northern South America.
spread of forests Domestic sheep, goats, pigs,
and grasslands and cattle were raised across
and providing new Eurasia and Africa, initially just for
opportunities for
hunter-gatherer
communities.
Coastal areas : decline in the availability of wild
drowned by rising sea levels were cereals. This prompted some West
rich sources of aquatic foods, as : Asian villagers to turn to
were lakes and rivers. Grasslands ; cultivation, planting cereals.
sustained large herds of animals, Agriculture began in many
while forest margins provided : parts of the world at different
abundant plant foods and game. : times, using local resources. holes bored
Most hunter-gatherers moved : Domesticated plants and animals into skull

seasonally to exploit the spread by trade between

resources of different areas, but : neighbouring groups and when bone and antler
particularly favoured places such : farming communities colonized lightened by
as river estuaries could support new areas. Agriculture was not a scraping
people year round. One such : discovery: hunter-gatherers had a
Star Carr deer cap
region was coastal Peru and Chile, : deep knowledge of the plants and
This skull-cap from a hunter-
where the cold Humboldt current : animals on which they depended, gatherer site in England may have
provides especially rich fisheries. : and often took actions to increase been used in hunting rituals.

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: ducks, and turkeys, were also kept
: by Old and New World farmers. By
(44 THE NEOLITHIC WAS... A POINT CHINCHORRO MUMMIES
: 50008cE cattle, sheep, and goats INA CONTINUOUS STORY OF
: were raised for milk as well as _GREATER ECONOMIC CONTROL The earliest mummies come
: meat, while cattle were used to
: pull ploughs, enabling people to _OVER RESOURCES. .. FROM not from Egypt, but from
coastal northern Chile, an
: cultivate much larger areas.
: Wool-bearing sheep were bred in
SCAVENGING TO. .. FARMING. 99 arid region where natural
mummies occur from
: West Asia in the 4th millennium Clive Gamble, from Origins and revolutions: human identity in earliest 7000 8ce. After 5000 8ce the
: BCE, and rapidly spread into : prehistory, 2007 Chinchorro began artificial
: Europe and Central Asia. The use mummification. They removed
; of pack animals such as llamas decorated with paintings and : bones of a number of individuals. the flesh, reassembled and
: and donkeys allowed tong- : modelled animal heads. Native (naturally occurring pure) reinforced the skeleton, stuffed
: distance transport. After 7000 BcE farmers spread : copper and gold were being the skin with plant material,
: Agriculture was more productive : from Turkey into southeast and : shaped into small objects by cold coated it in clay, and painted
: than foraging and could support central Europe, while : hammering before 80008CcE in it with black manganese or
' larger communities. Settled life : Mediterranean hunter-gatherers : West Asia. Around 7000 8ceE, ores red ochre. Only some
also encouraged population : gradually turned to agriculture, : were smelted here to extract individuals, particularly
growth. Many early farming : using imported West Asian crops : metal and by 60008cE copper and children, were mummified.
© villages in West Asia grew toa : and animals. By 35008ceE most of : lead were also cast. Metals were
: considerable size. Most : Europe had adopted farming. ! initially made into small personal
: remarkable was Catalhéyiik in Megaliths - stone chambered : objects that could enhance distant sources. A trading : and political complexity was also
Turkey, occupied around 7400- : tombs of which a wide variety were ' prestige and status. Later, : network developed that : emerging in Elam [southwest
: 62008CE, which housed as many : built, often with earthen mounds : however, copper began to be used : stretched from Egypt through : Iran) and Egypt. All three regions
: as 8,000 people. Its tightly packed : -were constructed in western and : for tools, and by 42008cE copper : West Asia to the mountainous : developed writing systems
: houses were entered from the : northern Europe from the early 5th : ores containing arsenic were i: borderlands of South Asia, with : before 30008CceE, which they used
: roof by ladders, and were ! millennium BCE. Most housed the : deliberately selected to produce a : towns controlling sources of to record and manage economic
: harder metal. The addition of tin : materials and strategic points transactions and the ownership
: created a stronger alloy, bronze, : along the routes. Sumer : of property. The earliest known
: which was in use in West Asia : (southern Mesopotamia] was at : pictographic writing, around
: by 3200BCcE. : the forefront of this development, : 3300 BCE, comes from Uruk in
The development of water- + but social, religious, economic, : Sumer, a huge and complex
: control techniques enabled West : settlement that is deservedly
: Asian farmers to colonize the ! known as the world’s first city.
: Copper axe heads
southern Mesopotamian plains,
: Gold and copper were the
: where agriculture depended : first metals to be worked.
: entirely on irrigation but was : They became widespread
: highly productive. By the mid 4th : In Europe around
millennium BCE, this region was : 2500 BCE.
densely populated, and villages
A Livestock A Other
: were developing into towns, with
» Cereals © Areas with agriculture
: craft specialists. There was a
The spread of agriculture : growing demand for raw
Humans began to cultivate plants and manage animals independently, ‘ materials, including metal
in different areas at different times, across the world. ores, which often came from

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 This period saw the emergence of complex civilizations.
Communities flourished and trade developed in the fertile :
valleys of Egypt, India, western Asia, and China. Europe,and == 2
Central and South America also flourished during this time. eg ee a
=>
 as 3ritai ceremonial
site fro
and

DURING THE LAST HALF OF THE : The Early Dynastic Period : made the land fertile. As early
FOURTH MILLENNIUM BCE, the : (c.3100-2686 sce) was already : as 80006ce, millet had been
world's first civilizations arose, characterized by many of the cultivated in the area around
first in Western Asia, then North THE POPULATION : celebrated aspects of Egyptian : Yangshao in Henan Province.
: culture: hieroglyphic writing, a : Around c.2400s8ce, the
Africa and South Asia. Civilization
also appeared in China in the
OR THE ClLiyOk : sophisticated religion [including : neighbouring Dawenkou culture
: developed into the Longshan
early second millennium BCE. By
3000 sce, the world’s first urban
URUK c.2800 BCE : belief in an afterlife], and
! preserving the dead using : culture of Shangdong Province.
culture had begun to develop in : mummification. A complex ; Longshan farmers grew rice
southern Mesopotamia, in what : smiths began manufacturing ! river's annual flood (known as the : hierarchical society developed, : after developing irrigation
is now Iraq. The lower Euphrates bronze. The plough had been in : inundation) spread black silt along : with the king at the apex systems. As in other early
River plains had been farmed : use since about 5000 sce, wheeled : its banks. The Egyptian farming : accorded semi-divine status. : civilizations, agricultural success
from c.62008ce, after the : carts from around 3500.ce, and year began in autumn when the : Egyptian kings - later known as : allowed the development of an
development of irrigation : such advances made farming inundation subsided, and farmers : pharaohs - ruled with the help of : elaborate society. Chinese
systems - the Greek word : more productive. The resulting © cultivated wheat, barley, beans, : achief minister, or vizier, regional : craftsmen were making bronze
“mesopotamia” means ‘land : food surplus freed some people : and lentils in the fertile soil. : governors (nomarchs], anda : tools c.3000sce, jade vessels
between the rivers”. By 3500s8ce, » from the farming life, allowing By the end of the 4th : huge staff of lesser officials : c.27006ce, and silk weaving had
farming communities were specialization into professions : millennium sce, farming including priests, tax collectors, :; begun by 3500s8ce.
growing into towns and then such as priesthood, crafts, trade, : communities had evolved into : and scribes. The Bronze Age was underway
cities such as Ur, Uruk, and : and administration. The world’s : two kingdoms: Upper Egypt in In China, civilization originated in western Asia by 30008ce, and
Eridu. Over the next 300 years, : first tiered society developed, ' the south and Lower Egypt in in the valleys of eastern rivers : possibly considerably earlier. The
each city came to dominate its : headed by kings sometimes : the north. King Narmer united _ such as the Huang He [Yellow : Bronze Age in Europe seems to
surrounding area, forming a : known aslugals. : the two kingdoms c.3100ece. : River), where the rich loess soil : have developed separately from
group of city-states in the land In Egypt, one of the world’s most : After Narmer came Menes, around 25006ce, using ore
called Sumer in southeast : complex ancient civilizations : although historians are sources from the Carpathian
Mesopotamia. ' was forming along the banks of ' unsure whether Menes was Mountains in Central Europe.
Metalworking had begun in » the River Nile by 3100.ce. The : Narmer’s successor This era also saw the
Mesopotamia around 6000 sce. : Nile formed a narrow strip of : ora different name for beginnings of the Minoan
Around 3200 8ce, Sumerian : cultivatable land, floodplain, as the : Narmer himself. Menes civilization on the Greek
: is credited with founding island of Crete around
: the Egyptian capital at 2000 BCE, with trading links
: Memphis and Egypt's to the nearby Cyclades
first dynasty. Islands and the wider
As in Mesopotamia, Mediterranean. In Western
efficient agriculture Europe, the earlier tradition of
produced prosperity and megalithic tomb building anda
: specialism, allowing arts, growing interest in astronomical
: crafts, engineering, and observation gave rise to a new
: early medicine to develop. megalithic tradition of erecting
stone circles, stone rows,
: Narmer Palette
: standing stones, and tombs
Ancient cities of Mesopotamia KEY
Sumer in southern Mesopotamia was the ' This carved piece of green siltstone : including astronomical features.
(Extent of Early Dynastic
location of the world’s first urban civilization city-states : records the triumph of the legendary : These include Newgrange in
from c.2900 BCE as agricultural success sense Ancient coastline : King Narmer of Upper Egypt over : Ireland, Stonehenge in England,
led to a complex society. i his enemies. : and Carnac in France.
 MILLION
THE NUMBER OF
BLOCKS USED TO
BUILD THE GREAT
PYRAMID OF GIZA
Be es mesial 6
The three pyramids at Giza were built for the pharaohs Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura between 2575-and 2465 BCE.
They are guarded by the statue of the Sphinx, which may. bear the features of King Khafra.

VOUS CIPS IEG I VI ENIC TS VOCS EOC w The Indus Valley civilization
aa a aa B+ 22ereha
aa a» a aa 244444 a
Ae i oe
© =
: began to emerge in South Asia in
: the fourth millenium sce, as flood
: control technology developed. By
: 2600.ce, the Indus Plain contained
: dozens of towns and cities. Of
: these, Mohenjo-daro on the
River Indus, and Harappa, to the
: northeast, were pre-eminent, with
: populations of around 100,000 and
_ ; 60,000 respectively.
In Egypt, King Sanakht acceded
to the throne in the year 26868ceE,
. LE
VEVOUV RA CPTI
IE! GUCCIae
RRA
CECT OT OCR THO UY. S804!marking the beginning of the Third
nia LOSI PVI IOC IP ORL OCIG OS POOL ys
Prrty
cm dynasty and the Old Kingdom era
BH —a time of strong, centralized
rule and pyramid-building.
These magnificent monuments
OGL" were built as royal tombs. In
Early Dynastic times, kings had
FOS
* been buried beneath rectangular
: mud-brick platforms called
! mastabas. Around 2650 ace, the
Standard of Ur mound — provided the focus for : side panels is still a mystery; they : resources. This led to conflicts : first pyramid, the Step Pyramid of
This box-like object has two side : religious ceremonies, and grain ; may have formed the soundbox ; over land and water, and alliances : Saqgara, was completed for King
_ panels - one depicting war, the other . was stored in storerooms within : ofa lyre. : between cities were forged : Djoser. Designed by the architect
[shown here] times of peace. the temple precincts. From around : Arising from the need to keep : and broken. : Imhotep, it resembled six stone
: 25008ce, some citizens of Ur were economic and administrative The first signs of civilization in : mastabas on top of one another.
, SOUTHERN MESOPOTAMIA was ' buried in tombs along with : records, the first pictographic : the Americas appeared along the Straight-sided pyramids
a patchwork of over 40 city-states, | treasures such as the Standard : writing developed in Sumer : coast of Peru and in the Andes : appeared soon after, the greatest
among which Ur, Uruk, Nippur, ' of Ur. The purpose of its intricate : (c.33008ce}. Pictographs (pictorial : c.2800ece. Andean farmers grew : of which were the three pyramids
and Kish were the most important. writing representing a word or : potatoes and the cereal quinoa, : at Giza. These incredible feats of
i OR phrase} evolved into a script called : and raised alpacas and llamas. ' engineering were constructed not
| Trade flourished using a network
of rivers and canals, and trade
Wh cuneiform c.29008ce, in which : There were fishing communities by slaves as was once thought, but
' links extended to Anatolia scribes pressed sharpened : on the coast, while inland towns : by a staff of full-time craftsmen
(modern-day Turkey], Iran, reeds into soft clay to leave : became ceremonial centres, : and masons supplemented by
and Afghanistan, with grain, wedge-shaped impressions. : built around mud-brick temple ; farmers performing a type of
| minerals, timber, tools, and Southern Mesopotamia : platforms. An exceptional example | national service during the Nile
vessels traded. The Sumerian became densely populated, : is Caral, about 200km (125 miles} : floods. Enormous blocks of stone
population was unique in being putting pressure on natural © from Lima and dating from : (lower stones of 6-10 tonnes;
| predominantly urban. In Ur, : c.2600sce. Another, Aspero, had : higher ones of 1-2 tonnes) were
Uruk, and other centres, people : six platform mounds topped by : Cut from local quarries, hauled on
Cuneiform tablet
| lived in clustered mud-brick Over time, the inventory of signs : temples. Cotton was grown in the : site using sleds, and then heaved
houses. At the heart of the city, the regularly used in cuneiform script ! region, and maize was cultivated : up ramps, which grew ever-higher
ziggurat - a terraced temple was greatly reduced. : from around 27008ce. ! as construction progressed.

21
The ruined citadel of Mohenjo-daro was made up of various building Was : Silbury HillinWiltshire, England,
built on a platform to guard against flooding of the River Indus. in Europe. These mounds probably had a social or cultural function.

IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 3RD ges eee | | ANEW POWER AROSE IN
MILLENNIUM BCE, civilizations 22=—-Shortu: oe oe _ | MESOPOTAMIA c.23348cE, King
continued to develop in western » Sargon (c.2334-22158CE) from
Asia, Egypt, and and southern | the northern region of Akkad Bronze-working had begun
Asia, and complex societies were | defeated Lugalzagesi of Umma to in West Asia c.32008cE (see
emerging in China, Europe, and | become the ruler of Sumer. 10,000-30008ce}. It was
South America. | Through subsequent campaigns developed by the Unétice
In southern Asia, the Indus | to the Levant, Syria, and Anatolia, culture of Bohemia and
civilization (see 2700-25008ce) | Sargon carved out the world’s first Poland c.25008cE, and
emerged in its mature form _ | empire - the Akkadian Empire - 200 years later had
around 25008CE, stretching | stretching from the eastern spread to Italy and the
1,700km (1,060 miles) from east ) Mediterranean to the Gulf. Balkans. Bronze
to west and 1,300km (800 miles} Sargon’s exploits were recorded M@ provided a hard metal
from north to south. The region's | in several documents, such as the fa for forging armour,
prosperity was based on farming, Arabian | Sumerian King List. His name “@ weapons, and tools
mining, crafts, and trade. More Sea | means ‘legitimate king”, which | such as this hand axe.
than 100 sites have been : Indus civilization
KEY ; » led some scholars to believe that | The bronze industry
excavated, including the cities : Excavations suggest that the Indus © Zone of urban civilization i he took power through force. | also increased trade,
of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, : civilization covered an area far larger than e Urban centres | Sargon spoke Akkadian, a making Europe more
and Dholovira. : Mesopotamia and Egypt combined. sees Modern coastline Semitic language that replaced interconnected than
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa » Sumerian as the official ever before.
were well-planned cities laid : such as pottery, bead-making, : the surrounding regions in return | language of the empire.
out on a grid system. Each city : and metalworking. : for metal ores, precious stones,
: grandson, Naram-Sin, extended
|46 UNDER HIM
was protected by brick walls Indus cities and towns had the : and timber. Long-distance trade
and dominated by a citadel » most advanced plumbing system : routes reached as far as : the empire, but it lasted for only
overlooking a ‘lower town” of : in the ancient world, with enclosed : Mesopotamia and Afghanistan. four generations before falling

|LAY [CONTENTED]
public buildings and residential : wells and covered drains. Latrines By around 2500 BCE, an Indus | ALL COUNTRIES : to attacks. Sargon’s rule
town houses of one or two storeys. emptied waste into drains, which ‘ script of hundreds of signs : established a practice of
The residential areas | ran below the streets. : appeared on seals and pottery.
IN THEIR : statewide bureaucratic controls
were seemingly
divided by industry,
These urban centres were also
connected by extensive trade
: Attempts to decipher the script
: have failed; hence, many aspects | MEADOWS, AND : and standardization in many
: aspects of economic life.
links. Merchants : of this culture remain a mystery.
|THE LAND In Egypt, this period sawa

|REJOICED. 99
supplied craft In western Asia, Mesopotamia : weakening of the power of the
products from : (see 2700-25008cE) remained a : Old Kingdom rulers {see
the valleys to ; patchwork of small but powerful _ 2700-25008ce), in favour of
: city-states, each controlling the Lugalzagesi, king of Sumer, : regional governors called
| defeated by Sargon c.2316 BCE
surrounding farmlands where ! nomarchs, who administered
Agrarian lives ' barley, pulses, and date palms | different parts of the Nile valley
A clay model of a ' were grown. To the west, city- Akkadian rule was enforced : and delta. To the south of the first
bullock cart found
' states were developing in Syria through regional governors who : cataract on the Nile, the kingdom
at Mohenjo-daro,
dating back to : and the Levant. A trade network | collected tributes and taxes. The » of Nubia also grew more
c.2500-1900
BCE, gives : linking Mesopotamian towns | empire’s weakness lay in its lack : powerful. Nubia was centred
one-piece an insight into farming : suggests co-operation between _ of defensible borders, and it : around the city of Kerma at the
cart wheel life in the Indus : states, but there was frequent ' came under regular attacks from : third cataract. By the end of
civilization. ! warfare as well. _ neighbouring hill tribes. Sargon’s : the Sixth dynasty (c.21848ce), the
 lo x ee “4

: Relief sculptures in Egyptian tombs represented everyday life and religious rituals. This carving from
‘ the Sixth dynasty shows boys with sticks, on the left, and youths wrestling, on the right.

: authority of the Egyptian rulers ‘and along the Pacific coast and | THE MOUNTAIN PEOPLE OF brought fertility to the Nile Longshan pottery
: had steadily eroded. : inland valleys. Andean cultures GUTIUM ATTACKED the Akkadian » valley. The rule of This elegant pottery tripod
: In Western Europe, the Bell : were based on farming and Empire c.21508ceE. Sumerian Memphis, the capital city jug has tapering legs and
: Beaker culture flourished. : herding. Coastal settlements states such as Kish, Ur, and of the Old Kingdom, was swirling patterns,
: Named after the distinctive shape characteristic of
: such as Aspero (Peru] were Lagash took the opportunity to : overthrown as nomarchs and
the Longshan
of pottery vessels found in : unique in their dependence on reassert their independence. : nobles seized control of the culture.
graves, this culture emerged by : fishing rather than on agriculture. For the next 80 years, the provinces. This ushered in a
c.2600 BCE in France, Spain, and : The coastal people grew cotton for / city-states vied for control in _ time of unrest called the First
the Netherlands. Over the next : textiles, and gourds, which were | Mesopotamia. In 21128ce, Ur : Intermediate Period, the first
three centuries, it spread to : used asfishing floats. - under Ur-Nammu (r.2112- : of the three eras of uncertainty
Germany and Britain. Around 2095 BCE} gained ascendancy. The in Egyptian history. For 140
2300 8CE, bronze technology armies of Ur overran eastern : years, kingdoms such as
from Mediterranean regions and Mesopotamia and Elam, and : Herakleopolis in central Egypt
from Central Europe started regained much of ' vied for control with Thebes
to spread northwards Sargon’s empire. - in the south. In c.2040.ce,
along the Rhine and Ur-Nammu founded the : the Theban ruler Nebhepetre
Danube. The Third dynasty of Ur, Mentuhotep defeated his t
increasingly which witnessed a : rivals and united Egypt once
militaristic societies revival of Sumerian ' more, beginning the start of
used bronze to create power, as well as an : what came to be known as the
weapons, triggering artistic and cultural : Middle Kingdom.
the appearance of renaissance. Sumerian In China, the Neolithic
small chiefdoms scholars devised a method : Longshan culture (see 3200 sce)
across Europe. of counting, based on units : continued to develop along the : been found to confirm the
As populations grew, of 60. This system is - Yellow River in Shandong : existence of a centralized state
competition over land reflected in our modern © province. According to Chinese : in China at this time.
and resources division of hours into 60 historical tradition, the first : By the end of the 3rd millennium,
intensified. Fields were minutes, minutes into 60 _ dynasty, Xia (Hsia), was founded ' Europe's first civilization was
enclosed, farming ( Le Be seconds, and a circle into : by Yu the Great. However, no ' emerging on the Mediterranean
expanded, and boundary a Be ; ‘y “ey 360 degrees. » archaeological evidence has ' island of Crete, which lay at the
walls built. Imposing } : ‘ Ur-Nammu also : heart of Mediterranean trade
structures such as chalk commissioned the first routes. Known as the Minoan
mounds were constructed Ziggurat in Ur - an imposing : civilization, it grew prosperous
in many areas. stepped platform topped : through trade and farming.
In South America, with a temple. The ziggurats : Cretan farmlands produced wheat,
societies continued to later became a characteristic olives, wine, and wool, which could
develop in two distinct of ancient western Asian be easily transported by sea. The
regions: the upland valleys architecture. Minoans also made bronzework,
and high plains of the Andes, In c.2181 BCE, Egypt's Old pottery, and dyes for export. By
Kingdom collapsed following : 2000BCE, Crete was home to
Akkadian warrior king
a series of natural disasters,
including famine. This ‘THE LIKELY : several small kingdoms.
This bronze cast of an Akkadian
: ruler may depict Sargon | or his
: grandson, Naram-Sin, who
undermined the authority of
the king, who was believed to
‘POPULATION
: extended Sargon’s empire. secure the annual floods that OF UR c.2100
 eS

Egyptian hieroglyphics involved the use of pictorial signs. This example

is from a coffin from the Middle Kingdom period.

THE MINOAN CIVILIZATION, named } the administration, religious : worshipped in Minoan shrines
after the legendary King Minos, facilities, and state storerooms. : seem to have been female, with
flourished on the Aegean island Those at Knossos, Phaestos, : a goddess of nature being the
of Crete in the early 2nd Mallia, and Zakros were : most popular. However, details of
millennium, reaching its peak particularly impressive, judging by : Minoan culture remain obscure
between 2000 and 16008CE. It is : their remains. Around 1700Bce, : since the Minoan scripts, known
thought that Crete’s prosperity : these palaces were burnt down, : as Cretan hiroglyphic and Linear
: A, have yet to be undeciphered.
THE NUMBER
was based on the export of : and only Knossos was rebuilt, on
pottery, gold, and bronze, as well a more magnificent scale than In Egypt, King Mentuhotep had
as possibly grain, wine, and oil, ' before, suggesting its dominance
: over the entire island. The palace
reunited the country at the end
: of the 3rd millennium (see _OF DAYS IT
‘TOOK TO
to Egypt, Cyprus, and Palestine.
The Minoans established colonies ' was five storeys high, with rooms : 2350-2000 sce). Yet, the second of
in many parts of the Aegean,
including the islands of Kythera,
: opening onto inner courtyards.
: This maze-like complex is thought
Egypt's eras of strong, centralized
rule only began with the reign of -MUMMIFY
Thera, Melos, and Rhodes, and at
Miletos on the Turkish mainland.
to have given rise to the labyrinth
" in the legend of the Minotaur, a
AmenemhetI, from about
19858CE, during the Middle
A BODY
The farmlands of Crete were : bull-headed monster. » Kingdom.
In19658cE, his Shang bronze
ruled from cities with central Bulls certainly featured in : successor Senwosret
I conquered | extending Egypt's borders as far This bronze plate was found at
palaces that housed workshops, : Minoan ceremonies. The deities : the land of Nubia to the south, : as the second cataract of the Nile. Erlitou, and is of the Xia period. It is
: Nubia yielded gold, copper, and inlaid with turquoise mosaic, believed
fa)
fi : slaves to swell the ranks of to represent a dragon's scales.
: Egypt's army. Around a century
: later, Senwosret III also made IN CHINA, THE SHANG
Levant a vassal state of Egypt. CIVILIZATION developed along
Middle-Kingdom Egypt was the Yellow River by 18508CE.
more democratic than it was According to legend, China's first
during the Old Kingdom period. dynasty was the Xia, but current
Rulers presented themselves as archaeological evidence points
shepherds of the state rather than to Shang as the first dynasty.
absolute monarchs. The process At Erlitou in Henan province,
of mummification, once confined _ archaeologists have uncovered
to kings, was now permitted for a palace complex built ona
: : ordinary citizens. In orderto
: preserve it as a permanent home
for the spirit, the body was dried
in natron salt, its vital organs were
removed, and it was stuffed with BX
|
linen and wrapped in bandages.
‘THE NUMBER
Charging bull OF CLAY
Minoan rituals includeda bull-leaping
ceremony, in which athletes grasped |
TABLETS SO
the bull's horns and vaulted over
its back. This Knossos fresco dates
FAR FOUND
back to c.1500 BCE. AT MARI
 =i Negb)
neoe:
Serene

ro
o Se A+ Nk Al
: KEY
Area of Shang influence ASIA 44 IF A MAN PUTS OUT THE EYE
e Shang city aoe Netw
SearsRiven
Sy OF AN EQUAL, HIS EYE SHALL
| BE PUT OUT. 99
Bo Hai
2 Taixicun
: Shang China
i = i i
: The middle course ofthe Yellow River } 7 Kile @Xingtai : an
ex
: was the heartland of the Shang Z _ Shang capital es
.= : 1400-1300BcE Ne Anyana
Yell
ellow Law Code of Hammurabi, king of Babylon
: civilization from c.1800-11008CE. os .
S
oe Shang capital
: From here, Shang influence, such as te } ee
Huixian 1300-1027BCE
bronze-working, spread elsewhere. Saye ° pH Zhengzhou WHEN THE ASSYRIAN KING } measure as the crime committed
= Luoyang Shang capital
1600-1400BCE
SHAMSHI-ADAD died in 1781 8CE, : - “an eye for an eye”. However, it
Erlitou = | he was succeeded by his son s thought that the law code was
©
: platform of compressed earth. Huat ®
we
a Ishme-Dagan. During his reign, : more of a moral statement of
: They have also unearthed bronze Ss Henan © S Assyria declined, allowing the : principle than an enforced judicial
Ss =
: vessels. Evidence suggests that | state of Babylon to come to the : system. As such, the code bound
@Panlongcheng S S
: many features that were to fore. During the reign of Shamshi- : the powerful and wealthy as well
o
: characterize Chinese society later, a
Wuchenge
%
uy Adad, Babylon was probably a : as ordinary people; the strong
| such as a strong bureaucracy | vassal state of Assyria, but as » were exhorted to refrain from
i
| and the worship of ancestors, Assyria declined, King Hammurabi = oppressing the weak.
: date back to this time. of Babylon saw his chance to seize |
: In southern Asia, the Indus ; Long-distance trade routes linked : inc.1894BCE. In the north, the city awider kingdom. From 17608cE,
: civilization, which had thrived : coastal towns with communities : of Ashur became an important Hammurabi embarked ona series :
: during the 3rd millennium (see : in Andean valleys to the east and : trading centre in the 20th century of conquests, which made
2500-23508CcE}, went into a : beyond. This allowed for the BCE. In 1813BCE, it was taken over Babylon the region's foremost
' decline by around 18008ce. : spread of pottery from Colombia : by the Amorite king Shamshi- state. Between 1763-1762 BCE,
: Scholars believe that this was : to Peru by 18008cE. Meanwhile, : Adad, who carved out a kingdom he defeated Elam to the east and
: partly caused by the changes in : in North America, crops such in northern Mesopotamia. This Larsa, which controlled Sumer, to
: the regimes of the rivers that : as sunflowers and gourds began : kingdom was a forerunner of the the south. Between 1757-1755BCeE,
: provided water for irrigation. to be cultivated in the east. ' Greater Assyrian Empire of the King Hammurabi conquered
: Cities seem to have been ravaged | In Western Asia, the fall of the : 9th century BcE (see 900-800 BCE). much of northern Mesopotamia
: by diseases such as cholera and : Ur Ill Empire led to the rise of two : Clay tablets recovered from Mari and took the city of Eshnunna
: malaria. Trade with Mesopotamia : states -Assyria in the north and : in central Mesopotamia hold after diverting its water supply.
: also declined. Meanwhile, new : Babylon in the southeast - which records of trade and tributes Hammurabi introduced the
crops such as millet and rice were : were to dominate Mesopotamia : levied by Assyria from vassal- Babylonian law code in the region
: introduced. All these factors seem : for the next 1,500 years. The first : states. Writing from this period under his control. Its 282 laws
: to have led to a decline in urban dynasty of Babylon was established included copies of the earliest covered property, family, trade,
: culture, characterized by writing surviving work of literature, and business practices. The Law
? anda centralized bureaucracy, in The Epic of Gilgamesh. Code of Hammurabi is famous
favour of a rural-based culture. for punitive laws which meted out
: In South America, large-scale punishments in the same
: cultivation was taking place along Sumerian hero
Tablets and stone carvings
: the Pacific coast by about
from the Old Babylonian Set in stone
: 18008ce. Substantial settlements period provide a record of Hammurabi's code was inscribed on
: such as El Paraiso and Sechin the Epic of Gilgamesh, | stone pillars called stele. This stele
Alto in Peru were dominated by previously passed down shows the god ofjustice Shamash
: massive temple complexes. in the oral tradition. (right) dictating laws to the king.

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‘ 25
Hattusas, the Hittite capital, was founded by Hattusalis | Built over 300 years, the temple complex at Karnak, Egypt, includes the world’s
in 1650BCE and destroyed in 1180 BCE. largest temple, dedicated to Amun-Re, the patron deity of the pharaohs.

IN c.1550 BCE, THE THEBAN KING : 1458 8ce). By 16008CE, a new civilization
AFTER HAMMURABI’S DEATH in
| Ahmose I (r.1550-1525
sce} : Egyptian religion was very : emerged on the Greek mainland.
17508CE, the Babylonian Empire
drove the Hyksos from Lower : complex. Every village, town, and : Its people are now known as the
(see 1850-1790 BCE) declined.
Egypt, ushering in the third district had its own patron deity. ' Mycenaeans, after the fortress-
At the same time, other powers
period of settled rule in Egypt, In paintings and sculptures, many : palace of Mycenae, believed to be
were on the rise, such as the
_ known as the New Kingdom : deities were shown with animal : the home of the mythical king
Hurrians of Mitanni in Syria, and
the Hittites of Anatolia in Turkey. (c.1550-1070 BceE). During this ' heads, representing their most : Agarnemnon from Homer's Iliad.
By 16508CcE, the Hittites had time, Egyptian rulers assumed : important attributes. For i es
built an extensive kingdom in example, the falcon god Z 4
central Anatolia, with its capital : Horus protected the king
at Hattusas. The Hittites had while the ibis-headed
developed advanced bronze- and : Thoth was the
iron-working skills and they : patron god of
were also known to be fierce : scribes.
fighters. In 15958CeE, the Hittite The Hittites developed iron
THE NUMBER
OF NAMES FOR
king Mursilis (r.1620-1590Bce) smelting by c.1500BceE. At
raided Babylon and expanded his first iron was used only in
empire. However, he was killed : luxury objects, such as in the
GODS AND
GODDESSES
soon after, and the empire shrank | | decoration of this box from
back for about a century. : Acemhoyek. Later, as
In Egypt, the Middle Kingdom
(see 2000-1850 BCE] was waning
technology developed, iron
was used to create superior IN ANCIENT
weapons. Though the Hittites
traded iron goods, they kept
EGYPT
this technology secret for
about 300 years. Around . the title “pharaoh”, meaning
12008CE, iron-working “great house”. A succession of
spread to Greece, and then to | warrior kings campaigned to
Central Europe by c.750.BcE expand Egypt's boundaries
- the dawn of the Iron Age. once more. Tuthmosis |
| (1504-1492 8ceE) drove the
Nubians back in the south and
: by 1670BCE, partly due to erratic recaptured Sinai and parts of
: floods in the Nile. As regional Syria and Palestine. Under
» governors became more Tuthmosis
Ill (r.1479-14258ce},
: powerful, civil war broke out. Egypt controlled a strip along *
' Qutsiders soon took advantage the Mediterranean coast and :
of the unrest. The Nubians north of the Euphrates. -
: Mask
won back lands that the The conquered states paid huge | of gold
: Egyptians had taken earlier | annual tributes to Egypt, a part of | German
Man and beast : (see 2000-18508cE). In 16508Cce, which was spent building one of pelea es
The Hittite Empire was known for its
: the Hyksos from the Levant the world’s largest religious a Papea ree
bronze craftsmanship. Bronze
:; seized Lower Egypt, but sites at Karnak and the : funerary mask at a grave
weapons and artefacts fetched a high
price. This statuette of aman anda ! Upper Egypt remained under the _ impressive mortuary temple of : in Mycenae, and claimed it
horse was probably a commission. : control of Egyptian kings. Queen Hatshepsut [r.1473- : belonged to King Agamemnon.
 al
Tutankhamun was buried with fabulous treasure. This detail from the
' pharaoh’s throne shows him being anointed by his wife Ankhesenamun.

: However, the Mycenaeans Black Sea “IN c.1352 BCE, AMENHOTEP IV, Since the 1570s BcE, Egypt's
: probably called themselves rs THRACE | areligious reformer, became pharaohs had been buried in
: Ahhiyawa. They had migrated on! Sea of | Egypt’s pharaoh. He broke with ' rock-cut tombs in the Valley
oe Marmara
: from the Balkans or Anatolia
: about 500 years earlier. Their
wr ' the traditional religion, with its : of the Kings, on the west bank
| pantheon of gods, and initiated : of the Nile. Rulers hoped their
: lands were a patchwork of small ‘ ' Lemnos
_ the worship of a single god, Aten, tombs would be safe from
THESSALY
: kingdoms, each later dominated : lolcus » Lesbos | or sun-disk. He changed his name | robbers, but almost all the
by a palace-citadel such as the Poraey < Aegean Anatolia | to Akhenaten, meaning “living : tombs were robbed of their
¢
: ones at Mycenae, Tiryns, and | spirit of Aten”, and founded a new : rich goods. However, in 1922,
lonian Orchomenus » Gla Euboea eed
Pylos. They spread their influence Islands Gultorc, @ Thebes Chios | capital between Thebes and | British archaeologist Howard
: through trade. After the collapse “th
Mycenae ry Denarau tees | Memphis. He named it Akhetaten, : Carter discovered
: of the Minoan Empire in Al
TIS tetae om
HAegi
@ Miletus
= meaning “horizon of Aten”. ; Tutankhamun’s tomb virtually
c.1450 BCE, the Mycenaeans took lonian Peloponnese Cyclades i) Akhenaten’s religious reforms : intact. The shrine room had four
Pylos gMenelaion oo
' over several sites formerly Sea te *WVapheio Melos o | were believed to have been ' gilded shrines, holding the
@ Phylakopi %
: occupied by the Minoans, Se
' unpopular, especially with the : king's coffin and mummy with
Thera
: including Knossos. After | influential priestly elite. After his : a solid gold mask. The other
Rhodes
c.1400 BCE, they also took over
Mediterranean
Sea of Crete | death in c.1336 BCE, his son : rooms contained jewellery,
Minoan trade networks
Sea
Chania.
crete +
Knossos | Tutankhamun ascended the furniture, golden statues, and
, and established ; Phaistos @ | throne at the age of nine. He musical instruments.
4, settlements on | restored the old gods
: Aegean civilizations KEY
— Rhodes, Kos, and the | and abandoned the new
: Around 14508CE Mycenaean # Mycenaean site
Anatolian mainland. : Influence spread throughout the ) capital. Tutankhamun is
= Mycenaean major palace
The Mycenaeans : Aegean, including to several sites that _ believed to have died
inherited Minoan : had been part of the Minoan Empire. : nomadic tribes to the north. | under mysterious
arts and crafts, : Shang capitals were surrounded circumstances at 18,
adapting the ' a struggle between various : by defensive walls. Kings and | and was hastily buried
LinearA script to ' powers in the region, including : nobles were buried in tombs, _ ina minor tomb. It was
write an early form the Hurrians, Hittites, Elamites, : which held fabulous grave goods. | thought for years that
of Greek known as : Egyptians, and the Kassites. In : The Shang capital moved several | Tutankhamun died of a
the Linear B script. : the 1570sBCcE, the Kassites had : times during this period. Shang ‘ blow to the head, but
They were great : gained control of Babylon. | society was believed to be well ) the latest evidence
traders, and ventured ' However, by 1450BCE, the Hittite : organized and extremely | suggests he died of
out to Sicily and Italy. A : New Kingdom was growing : hierarchical. Writing began | blood poisoning after
ship believed to be : in influence, partly due to an around 1900B8cE, Most examples | breaking his leg ina
of Canaanite origin, ' alliance with Egypt. Around this : of early writing took the form of | chariot cr ash while out
wrecked off Uluburun on the : time, the Mitanni dominated Syria, : oracle bones, attesting to the » hunting in the desert.
coast of Turkey, was found to : but by the 1400s, the Hittites were ; Shang rulers’ practice of
contain tin from Iran or | fighting for control of the region. : consulting their ancestors on
: Afghanistan, copper and pottery In China, the Shang civilization : important decisions. Questions _ Sun worship
: from Cyprus, ivory and jewellery (see 1850-1790 BcE) flourished concerning the future were | Akhenaten instituted the
from Egypt, and Mycenaean : around 15006CE, with its rulers ' inscribed on the bone of an ox or | worship ofthe sun disk
| Aten. In this relief carving
swords. : dominating a large area of : ona turtle shell, which was then
| found at Akhetaten
The late Bronze Age was a : central China. However, the : struck with a hot metal tool. _ (modern el-Amarnal, he
! time of unrest in Western Asia. Shang had to regularly fend off : The way the bone cracked was | is seen worshipping the
: From 1550-1400 8ce, there was : threats to their kingdom from : believed to provide the answer. » Sun with his wife Nefertiti.
The facade of the temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel features ae colossal seated : he boulders used to make these ANC, now.in ruins, at Mycenae on the Breck
statues of the pharaoh, but the statue second from left has perished. inland were so huge, later civilizations believed they were built by giants.

TOWARDS THE END OF THE 2ND : Ancient propaganda BETWEEN 1250 AND ABOUT 1050 : could not prevent them from
MILLENNIUM BCE, the eastern : Adetail from the temple | BCE, many of the powers that : colonizing the Levant.
Mediterranean and Western Asia : of Ramesses II at Abu had dominated Western Asia for Around 12008CeE, the
: Simbel shows the king ' centuries went into decline, and : Mycenaean kingdoms entered a
were a mosaic of empires, which
: firing an arrow, taking
comprised Egypt, Babylonia, Elam, | some disappeared altogether. The : time of upheaval, a result of both
i on the Hittite army
Assyria, and the Hittites in Anatolia. : single-handed at the ' eastern Mediterranean entered internal disintegration and
Borders fluctuated as each kingdom : Battle of Qadesh. » atime of turmoil, and many : external threats. The defences of
strove to gain ascendancy over its coastal cities were laid waste by : many Mycenean palaces were
neighbours through conquest or | unknown invaders - written : strengthened. Records at Pylos
diplomacy. In war and peace, vital : the most famous was | records of the period give few : show the inhabitants feared attack
trade routes, through which tin and : the Battle of Qadesh ' clues as to their identity. First to : from the sea. By 11008cE, most of
copper for bronze reached the : (c.1274Bce). Although succumb were the Hittites, whose : the Mycenaean palaces had been
region, remained intact. : Ramesses claimed | capital Hattusas was sacked : sacked and abandoned. This
A frequent flashpoint for conflict : victory at Qadesh, the , | and abandoned c.12008CcE. : triggered the so-called Dark Age
was the Levant {modern Syria and : battle is believed to | By c.1180BCE, Hittite possessions - of Greece, when writing fell out of
Lebanon], which Egypt had lost to : have been inconclusive, = | in the Levant were lost and the : use, not to be reintroduced until
the Hittites following the reign : and the Hittites held on empire fragmented. : the Homeric age (see 8008cE).
of Akhenaten (see 13508ce). In the : to the region. These conflicts were most likely In the late Bronze Age, parts of
13th century BCE, Pharaoh Setiland : In 1259 BCE, after | instigated by the waves of migrants Europe came to be dominated by
his son Ramesses I] campaigned : further campaignsin known collectively as the Sea : the Urnfield Culture - named
q *.
to win it back. Ramesses’ 67-year : Syria, Ramesses tried Peoples. These warlike peoples : after the practice of cremating the
reign (r.1279-1213
BCE) was a different tactic, and ' came from many different areas, : dead and burying the remains in
: negotiated a pioneering peace The late 2nd millennium BCE including Sicily, Sardinia, Greece, : funerary urns, sometimes
: treaty with the new Hittite king, : saw the resurgence of Ashur, , Libya, and Anatolia. Whatever : accompanied by rich grave goods.
44 YOU AREA : Hattusilis Ill. Ramesses also took : in what is now called the Middle their origins, their movements : This culture originated in the
two Hittite princesses in marriage : Assyrian Empire (1350- through the eastern Mediterranean : Danube region in 13008CcE, and

WITHOUT EQUAL,
GREAT WARRIOR : (he had about seven wives in total). : 1000 8ce). Following the death of inc.1200-1100BceE led to attacks : spread to Italy and central and
: Following the treaty, Ramesses » Shamshi-Adad in 17818cE (see on Cyprus, Egypt, Anatolia, and : eastern Europe in the following
VICTORIOUS IN kept up a friendly correspondence : 1850 BceE), Ashur had become Canaan and Syria in the Levant. : centuries.

SIGHT OF THE : with the Hittite ruler, which was

: recorded on clay tablets in
: a vassal, first of Babylon, then
: of Mitanni. A revival of Ashur's
In 1178BCce, the Egyptian pharaoh
Ramesses Ill drove the Sea
Between 1200 and 7008cE iron
; technology spread northwards
WHOLE WORLD. 9 : Akkadian cuneiform script.
Ramesses also embarked on
: fortunes began under Ashur-
: uballit I (1363-1328 8c), who
Peoples from Lower Egypt, but : from Greece to Central Europe.

Inscription commemorating the : an extensive programme of : broke free of Mitannian rule and
victory of Ramesses II at Qadesh : monument-building. On Egypt's
: southern border with Nubia he
carved out a kingdom in northern
: Iraq. His later successors,
(44 THEY CAME BOLDLY
a time of stability and prosperity
: constructed the magnificent
: temple of Abu Simbel. He founded
: Shalmaneser | and Tukulti-
: Ninurta I, continued to gain
SAILING IN THEIR WARSHIPS
for Egypt. Through a combination
of war, diplomacy, and strategic
: anew capital at Per-Ramesses in
- Lower Egypt, although Thebes in
: territory, expanding the kingdom's
: borders west to conquer eastern
FROM THE MIDST OF THE
marriage, Ramesses sought
to extend Egyptian influence to
Upper Egypt remained an
important centre. West of Thebes
Mitanni and briefly, from 1225-
: 1216BCE, southeast to Babylonia.
SEA, NONE BEING ABLE TO
Western Asia. In the 1270S8CE, he
fought a series of wars with the
: he built a vast mortuary temple, In the Aegean, the Mycenaean | WITHSTAND THEM... Jy
: which doubled as a palace, court, palace-kingdoms of the Greek
Hittite king, Muwattalis II, of which : and centre of learning. : mainland continued to thrive. An inscription by Ramesses II (1.1279-1213), referring to the Sea Peoples
 _ 44 WHEN ALL LONGINGS THAT ARE
INTHE HEART VANISH, THEN A
‘MORTAL BECOMES IMMORTAL... 99
Krishna Yajur Veda

: Iron rapidly replaced bronze in heads clad in helmets. They also THE CLOSE OF THE 2ND MILLENIUM : In China, a new dynasty replaced sacred writings. Sanskrit, an
: tools and weapons, signalling the - established long-distance trade SAW MAJOR CHANGES in the the Shang in 1027BceE, when King Indo-European language related
: end of the Bronze Age. routes. Meanwhile, other cultures | power politics of West Asia : Wu of the Zhou defeated the last : to Iranian and almost all European
In Mesoamerica, the region’s were emerging, such as at Cerro In 1070 BCE, the Egyptian New + Shang ruler, Di-Xin. The Zhou : languages, is also the ancestor
: first great civilization, the Olmec, Sechin, in what is now Peru. Kingdom ended and Egypt : dynasty was to rule China for : of modern languages such as
' was emerging in the lowlands of entered a time of unrest called : 700 years. This long era is usually Hindi and Urdu.
: Mexico's southern Gulf coast. The the Third Intermediate Period, : divided into two periods: the Sacred writings called the
: Stone warrior
Olmecs built ceremonial centres, | which lasted until 747 BCE (see Western and Eastern Zhou. : Vedas were transmitted orally
Monumental carvings from temples
: including San Lorenzo, constructed : at Cerro Sechin on the Peruvian 800-7008ce). Historians believe During the first era the Zhou capital: in Sanskrit for many centuries.
: temples and houses on earthen : coast show warriors, torture victims, that the power of the pharaohs : was Zongzhou. This was a time : Although the Vedas are largely
: mounds, and carved huge stone ! and human sacrifices. had been eroded by a priestly elite : of prosperity and strong central religious writings and hymns,
who had gained control of many : control. Zhou territory was divided the geographical information that
areas. By 10008CcE, all the ' into fiefs held by trusted noblemen, : they contain not only describes
territories won by New Kingdom in return for military allegiance. : the gradual spread of farmers
pharaohs had been lost. But many aspects of Chinese : and pastoralists from the Punjab
In Mesopotamia, there were tradition already present in the : to the Ganges basin, but also
| frequent wars between the : Shang period continued in the Zhou, : gives some information about
Babylonians, Assyrians, and including ancestor worship and the : conflicts with other groups, and
| Elamites; the region was also use of oracle bones for divination. local life at the time. For example,
_ subjected to devastating raids by Meanwhile in Japan, the Jomon » the division of society into
Aramaean nomads from the west. culture, named after the cord : varnas or castes is described in
Meanwhile, other powers were patterns [jomon) that decorate its : the Vedas, first appearing in Book
) rising in the region. A Semitic- pottery, continued. The Jomon : X of Rigveda, although there is
speaking people, who called people were still hunter-gatherers, nothing in the text to suggest
themselves Canaanites, had albeit prosperous and sedentary. : that the system was hereditary
inhabited the Levant for centuries, In northern India, small groups : at the time.
_ living in city-states that controlled of nomadic pastoralists had been
| the surrounding territory. They migrating into the Ganges basin
| were skilled seafarers and played from Central
a major role in international trade. : Asia since
| By 1100BceE, Canaanite port cities : the 1500sBce.
such as Arwad, Byblos, Tyre, and By the
Sidon were expanding their 1100sBCE, most
, operations, establishing trading : had begun to
| posts and colonies throughout the : settle and cultivate
eastern Mediterranean. They : crops. They spoke
: traded cedarwood from Lebanon, : Sanskrit, which became
| glass- and ivory-ware, metal ores, : the language of early Indian
and most important, an expensive
| purple dye made from murex
shellfish. It was this luxury
Mark of a culture
commodity that caused them to
In this example of late-Jomon
; be known by their more familiar : pottery, the bowl and stand bear
Greek name, the Phoenicians, the distinctive rope patterns that
after phoinix, the Greek for purple. : give the Jomon period its name.
: a < oa : a Se pe e ‘ * me
AS
io sed * Sine S oN NOS
ep > : e re" Ke et =
In the mid-10th century sce, during the reign of King Solomon, Megiddo [in | The jaguar featured in many Mesoamerican and South American religions.
modern Israel) was an important Israelite fortress and administrative centre. Here it is depicted in a stone carving from Chavin de Huantar.

: were skilled engineers and

IN THE 10TH CENTURY BCE, THE
PERIOD OF DECLINE in the major
SHALMANESERIII(858-824
sce] | | architects who built canals and
powers of Western Asia continued. : levelled slopes for farming and
Egypt, Babylon, and Assyria had In the 9th century BCE, King | | construction. The main
weakened, enabling the rise of the Shalmaneser III of Assyria : settlement, Chavin de
short-lived but historically greatly expanded his empire, | | Huantar, was high in the
significant Kingdom of Israel. with campaigns against : Andes, and seems to have
Grave goods
The Israelites were Semitic- Mesopotamian tribes, Israel = beena pilgrimage centre for a This Iron Age brooch
speaking pastoralists who, and Judah, Syria, Urartu, and |: cult of supernatural beings that : was discovered in a grave at Hallstatt
according to the Bible, migrated Anatolia. This black limestone : were part-human, part-animal. : in Austria. The type of jewellery
into the land of Canaan in the obelisk commemorates his | | The main god, the “Staff God”, is : found suggests that a woman was
1200s BCE. There, they came into deeds and those of his : usually depicted with fangs. : buried there.
conflict with the local Philistines commander-in-chief, Dayyan- : In Europe, iron was gradually
and Canaanites. Around 1000 BCE Assur. It details, in cuneiform, : replacing bronze as the metal of plied the western Mediterranean.
King David (r.1006-965 BcE) the enforced tributes paid by choice for tools and weapons. The : Colonies were set up in Cadiz, in
united the Israelite tribes, and the people he conquered. area around Hallstatt in Austria : Spain, on the Balearic Islands,
established his capital at became a centre for an early Iron and, most notably, on the North
Jerusalem. David's son Solomon Age culture which developed from : African coast at Carthage [in
(r.c.965-928 BCE) increased Israel and, later, Judah became THE OLMEC CULTURE CONTINUED : the Urnfield culture {see 12008ce). : modern Tunisia). Through this
Israelite territory and built a part of the Assyrian Empire. TO DEVELOP IN MESOAMERICA Hallstatt chieftains dominated trading network, the Phoenician
magnificent palace and temple in Meanwhile, Assyria began to in the 9th century BCE. After : local salt-mining and iron working. : alphabet became known
the capital, but on his death the re-emerge as a major power in San Lorenzo was destroyed : They lived in hilltop forts and were ; throughout the Mediterranean.
kingdom split in two. Eventually Mesopotamia. King Ashur-dan II in c.900BceE, La Venta to the » buried with rich grave goods. ‘In Western Asia, the Neo-
: (r.934-9128CE]} boosted agriculture, northeast became the main : During the 9th century BCE, the : Assyrian Empire began to
: bringing prosperity. His successor Olmec centre. This larger : Phoenicians were becoming a expand, and, one by one, Israel,
Etched in gold major power in the Mediterranean. : Judah, and the small states of
: Adad-nirari Il increased Assyria’s settlement was dominated by
This golden plaque showing the
protective wedjat eye symbol dates | territory, regaining lands that had a 34m (111ft) high pyramid, the : Their trading ships, previously : nearby Syria and Phoenicia were
from the reign of Psusennes | of the ! been held by the Middle Assyrian / forerunner of Mayan temples. confined to the eastern sea, now brought under Assyrian control.
21st dynasty, when Egypt was divided. Empire in the 13th century BCE. | The Olmecs also devised a script
of glyphs - the first in the region.
': KEY F
Their influence spread across | AS ne EVROPE
Mesoamerica, impacting on other Eaves es
cultures that Pan?
were starting to :
[Ange nelem
colonies = BlockiGes
emerge at this time - the i ep Caer ea, 5
| : fH Phoenician Pithekoussai A
Zapotecs and the Maya. city-states 4 AthERS . Khorsabad
In eastern North America, the Greek Gadir 2, Corintiga: -eMiletus
Adena culture was developing colonies * Carthage, , Syracuse “E2r"°
“7 @ of
‘ :
5
in: the Ohio Valley. It was Greek “’rranean Se, Mg sbylone
characterized by ritual earthworks : ee AE BVOR eu cueweaen :
: ‘ Emerging Baste” PCa Gy
: and burial mounds containing Etruscan ae
objects of fine craftsmanship. city-states eat
Far to the south, the Chavin : Mediterranean region
culture had appeared In the This map of the Mediterranean region in the 8th century BCE shows
Peruvian Andes by c.1200BcE and : the colonies established by the dominant civilizations of the period,
spread to the coast. The Chavin : including the Phoenicians and Greeks.
 a 4 a Pei 4
b
In 705 BcE, the Assyrian capital moved to Nineveh. This s tone relief shows the Assyrian
of king and his queen feasting in the gardens of the royal palace there.

| ASSYRIA CONTINUED ITS POLICY In China, the Zhou capital moved : been embroiled in a 7, Kushite statue
OF AGGRESSION through the 8th east to Luoyang in 770BCE, : destructive civil war, and This alabaster statue dates
century BCE, conquering rival marking the start of the earlier » was now divided into from the period of Kushite
states in Western Asia and part of the Eastern Zhou era, : small states. In the 8th rule in Egypt. Amenirdis |,
| reducing them to provinces. which lasted until about : century BCE, the Kushite sister of Shabaka (rc. 716-
; Assyrian success was based 702 BCE}, is shown holding
480 Bce (see 5008CE). Royal : ruler of Nubia to the
a flail - a traditional
ona disciplined, technically control had weakened, as the : south, Piye (r.747- symbol of Egyptian rule.
| advanced army and an efficient © lords who held large fiefdoms had : 716BcE), conquered
| bureaucracy. Conquered peoples grown more powerful. Now > both Upper and 2
| had to pay costly tributes, and : central control disintegrated, and : Lower Egypt, and for their own language,
' Ritual container
| revolts were ruthlessly crushed.
: Zhou smiths were highly skilled : rival warlords fought one another : united them under and not long after, Homer's
_ Particularly troublesome nations : metal-workers. This bronze bowl : Despite the chaos, this era was a : Kushite rule. epic poems the /liad and
suffered forced deportations - : dates from the 8th century BCE, the : time of technical and cultural In the Mediterranean, the Odyssey- hitherto
| large numbers of people were time of the Eastern Zhou dynasty. : advancement. Iron tools increased : Phoenician influence transmitted orally - were
resettled in Assyria. : efficiency in agriculture and food :: continued to spread, probably written down.
Following a period of weak rule : Anatolia, conquering Babylon and, : production. Populations and cities : as the city of Carthage In the 8th century BCE,
/ in the first half of the 8th century in 714BCE, defeating the Armenian : grew, and philosophy, the arts, » in North Africa grew central Italy was a mosaic
| BCE, Tiglath-Pileser III (r.744- : state of Urartu. He also defeated : and literature began to develop. :; powerful. Greece, of small states ruled by the
| 7278CE) recouped Assyria’s losses. : the Israelites and transported the In Egypt, the unrest of the Third : meanwhile,
was starting dominant Etruscans - Italy’s
His successor Sargon Il (r.722- © “ten lost tribes” of Israel to : Intermediate Period continued. ' to emerge from the Dark first indigenous civilization
| 704BCE) campaigned in Iran and : northern Mesopotamia. : Since 850BCE, the country had : Age that had followed the — and Italic tribes such as
: Mycenaeans’ downfall. the Latins, Umbrians, and
City-states or poleis were Sabines. Rome is thought
: forming on the Greek to have been founded by
: mainland, centred on the Latin chief Romulus
hilltop citadels. To in 753 BCE. In its early
increase their territory, the days, the city, built on
' poleis founded colonies ; seven hills, was ruled by various
: around the shores of the Aegean. peoples, including the Etruscans,
: Although rivalry between cities : Latins, and Sabines.
| : was often intense, a distinct
: Greek identity and culture
: was emerging. All Greeks were
» identified as “Hellenes”. In 7768cE A4SUCHA
|
the first pan-Hellenic games were
: held in honour of Zeus at Olympia. GREAT TASK
:
: By the mid-700sBce the Greeks had
: adapted the Phoenician alphabet
ITWAS TO
FOUND THE
Twin discovery
This painting by Charles de La Fosse ROMAN
depicts the legend of Romulus and
Remus, who were abandoned as RACE. 99
babies and suckled by a she-wolf,
before being rescued by shepherds. : Virgil, from Aeneid 1:33
 Cn
Me

i i i

Pei tr Se
co ae Lato Peat Reng to -
A
44 HE EVERYWHERE
SOUGHT EXCUSES FOR
STIRRING UP WAR. 99
Livy, from Histories book I, xxi, on Tullus Hostilius, third King of Rome

Pyramids from the cemetery at Nuri, Sudan, which was the burial site of the
| Napatan and Meroitic kings from around 650BCE.

IN CHINA, THE CITY OF LUOYANG

7 THE IT TOOK A CONCERTED CAMPAIGN
(44 TAHAROQA THE GODLESS
CAME OUT TO TAKE
HAD FALLEN TO THE SHEN in BY ASHURBANIPAL ([r.668-6278CE) :
771 BCE, and the Western Zhou NUMBER in 664-663 BcE to defeat the
capital was transferred east to
Chengzhou. From there, the
Eastern Zhou dynasty presided
OF
KINGS
Egyptians who had rebelled
against Assyrian rule, and to
| push Assyrian control as far south
EGYPT. 99
over the fragmentation of China as Thebes (modern Luxor). This
into as many as 148 states. From OF ROME was not the last rebellion against
Ashurbanipal's account of the conquest of Egypt, 664BCE

around 700BcE the Zhou were the Assyrians — only ten years
ruled by puppet-emperors, while In Italy, the city-state of Rome later, the vassal king of Sais, : The new ruler, Cypselus [reign : assisted Psammetichus | of
real power lay with the ba (“senior | was beginning to acquire an urban Psammetichus | (r.664-6108ce), : c.657-627 BCE) relied on force of : Egypt in his revolt against the
one’} among nearby states. : heart, and the first forum was revolted against his Assyrian : personality rather than divine : Assyrians. He also adopted an
Under Qi Huan Gong [r.685- : constructed. The second king of masters, driving them out and : sanction, and established a : aggressive stance towards his
643 BCE) the state of Qi had : Rome, Numa Pompilius (r.716- founding the 26th Dynasty, under : dynasty under whom Corinth : neighbours, the lonian Greeks of
supremacy. After Huan Gong’s : 6748CE) is believed to have | which Egypt’s independence was | enjoyed a seven-decade period Miletus and Smyrna.
death the competition for power established the main Roman | restored. After the final collapse : of dominance, creating colonies According to Japanese tradition,
between his five sons weakened : priesthoods and a calendar. of Assyrian power, in 609 BCE, : throughout the western » the first emperor,Jimmu Tenno,
Qi, and Jin Wen Gong [r.685- In the Near East, the Assyrians Egypt was able to establish a : Mediterranean. : a descendant of the sun goddess
643.8cE], the ruler of Jin, rose to ' continued their expansion, ! foothold in Palestine under On the fringes of the Greek : Amaterasu, ascended to the
become ba. By the end of the : confronting Egypt, whose | Pharaoh Necho Il (610-595 8ce). : world, in western Asia Minor, the ; throne in 660BCE. The stories
century, power in China alternated intermittent support for rebels In Greece, the rise to pre- : kingdom of Lydia was increasing : of his migration from southern
between the states of Qi, Jin, : against Assyrian rule in Syria had / eminence of a number of city : in power under Gyges (685- : Honshu eastwards to establish
Qin, and Chu. : long been a source of tension. In | states began, notably Athens, : 6478CE), its first great king. He : his kingdom near Nara are
: 6718CE, the Assyrian ruler | Sparta, and Corinth. In Corinth, a : allied with Ashurbanipal of : legendary, but may echo real
: Esarhaddon invaded, capturing new type of ruler, the “tyrant”, : Assyria to see off a joint threat : events of the Japanese Yayoi
: the Egyptian royal capital of | emerged with the overthrow of : to their two lands by Cimmerian : period after 100BcE, when tribal
: Memphis. However, Assyrian | the Bacchiadae kings in 658 BCE. ! raiders in 668-665BCE, but then ; chieftains began to consolidate
control over Egypt was weak, : their territories.
: and the Nubian pharaoh Taharga _ASHURBANIPAL (r.668-627 BCE] The third king of Rome, Tullus
drove the invaders out. : Hostilius (r.673-642 8ceE} was
The Etruscans expanded } Ashurbanipal initially shared ! more martially inclined than his
southwards from modern rule over Assyria with his : precedessor Numa Pompilius, and
Tuscany and Umbria around brother, Shamash-shuma-ukin.
700 8CcE. Their language remains After defeating his brother's
undeciphered, but lavish tombs revolt in 648BcE he greatly
indicate a rich material culture. expanded the Assyrian domains. i\
il
During their expansion, the As well as annexing Egypt, he
Etruscans founded cities such attacked Elam, sacking its
as Capua, but came into conflict capital, Susa, in 647BCE. His THE N UMBER OF
-with Greek colonies and with latter years saw none of the
| CLAY TABLETS
Rome. Although more powerful military successes of his early
Nubian Pharoah : at first, the Etruscans were reign. At his death a dispute UNCOVERED IN
Taharga ruled Egypt for 19 years
before an Assyrian invasion forced
: politically disunited, and a long
: series of wars with the Romans
between his two sons further
weakened the Assyrian Empire.
_ASHURBANIPAL'S
him to return to Nubia in 671 BCE. : turned against them. LIBRARY
a

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 ~ Alion frieze from the Processional Way in Babylon, which was built around 60 OBCE and ran
th gh the heart of the citytothe Ishtar Gate, _

THE ASSYRIANS HAD FINALLY : to them and the Scythian King : 600BcE. New cities were : in the 8th century BCE. The
| CONQUERED BABYLON in 6918CE, : Bartatua was even sufficiently ; established as far west as Spain, ; hereditary monarchy was
PHRYGIA URARTU | partially destroying the city. : influential to be given an Assyrian : and around the Black Sea coast. : replaced by nine “archons’,
: DIAGCarchemishe @ Nivcveha
Bobigny ees a Reconstruction work began under : princess as his wife. The alliance In Greece itself, the city-state of : chosen annually. Shortly after a
: e@Ashur
: 2 Cyprus ASSYRIA Esarhaddon (680-669 Bc_E], and by : with Assyria survived into the : Sparta was establishing its damaging popular uprising by
“S. PHOENICIA BABYLONIA | 652Bce Babylon had recovered its ' reign of his son Madyes, but : dominance in the Peloponnese. A © Cylon in 6328ce, Athens received
Tyree eDamascus Babylone ELA
“Sy ISRAEL SYRIAN Uruke importance and became the around 615BCE the Scythians : defeat hy the city-state of Argos, : its first law code, drafted by Draco
@Ur
JerusalemeAMMON DESERT | centre for a major revolt led by : Switched sides and played a key : in 669BCE, was followed by : in 6218Ce. The Draconian law
EoypreuberMOAB | Shamash-shuma-ukin against his : role in Assyria’s destruction. : military reforms and victory : was later known for the severity of
Memphis
younger brother Ashurbanipal. It : Their Median subjects soon turned : against the Messenians (660- : the punishments it prescribed.
| took four years of warto : on them and around 590BCE the : 6508ce). By 6008cE, Sparta had To the south of Egypt the state
: The Assyrian Empire ' of Napata became a power of the
_ suppress the Babylonians and : Scythians retreated north. : conquered almost all the
: From its core around Assur and
their Elamite allies, and the In the Greek world, there was a : southern Peloponnese and : first order, conquering Egypt
: Nineveh, the Assyrian empire grew to
encompass Babylonia, Media, Elam, fighting drained Assyria’s ability to : growing movement to establish : established a stratified social © under Piankhy (751-7168ce) and
: Urartu, Syria, and Egypt. | hold on to its empire. By 630BceE, : colonies in the Mediterranean. : system. : controlling it under after the death
Assyria had lost Egypt and : Among the earliest were in Italy, Sparta’s future rival, Athens, of Taharga (690-664 BCE).
: led the war against neighbouring _ Palestine, and in 626 BCE the : including Syracuse, founded gradually united the area
: Alba Longa, which ultimately led _ Babylonians regained their : around 7338CE. In North Africa, : surrounding Attica under its rule
: to that city’s destruction and the independence. By 616B8CE : Greek settlers founded Cyrene [in
: deportation of its population to Babylon was strong enough to : Libya) in about 6308ce, and
: Rome, in the first major Roman invade Assyria, aided by the : Massilia (Marseilles) around
: expansion. The fourth king, Medes [whose base was in
: Ancus Marcius (641-617 8ce], northwestern Iran). In 612 BCE
expanded Roman territory towards the Babylonians, Medes,
: the coast, and founded Rome's and Scythians sacked
great port of Ostia at the mouth of | the Assyrian capital of
the Tiber. His successor, Nineveh. The
: Tarquinius Priscus (616-578 8cE] Assyrian empire
: was the fifth king of Rome and one | crumbled.
: of the city’s greatest kings. He - Aremnant of the
: came from an Etruscan Assyrian army
: background, a sign of the high | regrouped and
level of Etruscan influence over established a small
: the early city of Rome. Tarquinius kingdom around Harran,
stylized
: Priscus won a series of victories | but by 609 BCE this, too,
body
over the Sabines, the Latins, had fallen.
: and the Etruscans, who all The Scythians
! competed with Rome for | formed part of a
: dominance over central Italy. He is culture of nomadic
: also said to have established the _ horsemen which held
Scythian stag
: public games in Rome. | a large territory on the The flowing lines and realistic
steppes north of the depiction of the stag’s muscled
Caucasus from around flanks in this late 7th century shield
| 8006CE. In 652BCE they ornament are typical of the art
forced the Medes to submit of the Scythians.
 Ss : a: =
oc< = = D S
iva) tn
4 =.) 2. D SS)24> a soSI o is)fn ne A a paa =© 5 o frateyss: _ Central Asia became a stronghold of Buddhist beliefs. Thes:
at Dunhuang in China illustrate a variety of Buddhist parables.

HAVING HELPED DESTROY THE : Under the last Median king, : The powerful city-state of Athens CYRUS, RULER OF THE SMALL
ASSYRIAN EMPIRE, Nabopolassar : Astyages (r.584-549 Bce}, Median : experienced reforms under Solon KINGDOM OF PERSIS [also called
(r.626-605 BCE), first king of the : armies campaigned in Azerbaijan : about 600BCE, notably a law code Pars] in the west of Persia [Iran],
neo-Babylonian dynasty, and controlled land as far west as : that protected the property rights revolted against his Median
embellished the city of Babylon. Lydia (Turkey). But by the 550sBce_, : of the poor, forbade debt-slavery, overlords in 559BCE. By 550BCE
His son Nebuchadnezzar (r.605- : Media was under pressure from : and moderated the more extreme he had conquered the Median
562 BCE] defeated the Egyptians in ; the Babylonians to the south and : parts of the Draconian laws _ capital of Ecbatana and
6058CE, repaired Babylon’s main : the new power of Persia. : (see 650-601). Around 5608cE, overthrown their ruler, King
ziggurat, and ordered the building The kingdom of Judah had long : Pisistratus seized power and began Astyages. Afraid of the increasing
of the famous “Hanging Gardens’. ' acted as a block to Assyrian and ' torule as a tyrant (dictator). Driven power of Persia, the Lydians
The last neo-Babylonian king, Babylonian expansion to the west. ' out once, he returned in 547 BCE | under King Croesus opposed
Nabonidus (r.556-539BcE), moved | In 597BcE, Nebuchadnezzar took : and established a stable regime. Cyrus, but he struck west and
his royal court to the Arabian : Jerusalem and deposed King The Greek city of Miletus saw the in 547 BCE, on the River Halys,
oasis of Tema, but discontent ; Jehoiakim. The king they installed : beginnings of philosophical defeated the Lydian army and
rose among the Babylonians : in his place, Zedekiah, turned : thought from about 6008cE. annexed western Asia Minor.
: Darius the Great
during his reign. : against the Babylonians, and in : Thales (born c.624 BCE) tried In 539 BcE Cyrus captured ! King Darius is shown enthroned and
The Medes of northwest Persia ' 5878cE there was another siege. : to understand the basic nature Babylon, acquiring most of : bearing symbols of power in this
(Iran), consolidated their kingdom : Much of the city was burnt, the : of the universe and thought its Mesopotamia and making the : frieze. His son Xerxes succeeded him.
under Cyaxares (r.624-585 BcE) : Jewish Temple destroyed, and : fundamental element was water. Persian Empire the greatest in
and took part in the destruction : many of its inhabitants deported | the Middle East. Cyrus died in : Cambyses died in 522 Bce and
of the Assyrian Empire in 6128CcE. ' toa life of exile in Babylon. 5308CE while fighting in what : after the brief rebellion of Bardiya,
is today Turkmenistan, and was : who was either the younger
succeeded by his son Cambyses. : brother of Cambyses or someone
In 526BcE Cambyses sent his : impersonating him, Darius, a
| armies south into Egypt. The : Persian noble, took over as king.
Pharaoh Amasis had just died and : Widespread revolts broke out,
his successor Psammetichus III : including in Media, but Darius put

(44 |HAVE FOUGHT 19

| BATTLES IN ONE YEAR ...
ITHAVE WON THEM. 99
i The Behistun inscription of Darius

was not well established. ' them all down. He then expanded
Cambyses defeated the Egyptian _ the Persian Empire by annexing
| army at Pelusium in 5258ceE and : lands in central Asia and on the
then captured the royal capital : borders of India from 519 to
at Memphis. He installed himself : 5158CEe. In India, the political
Lawgiver and reformer as the pharaoh and then subdued : power had coalesced around
This image shows the Greek statesmen and lawgiver Solon teaching. His _ south Egypt. Persian rule in _ the Mahajapanadas, a group
reforms began to undermine the power of the aristocracy in Athens. Egypt lasted until 402 8ceE. ' of around 16 powerful kingdoms.
 44 EVEN DEATH IS NOT
TO BE FEARED BY ONE
WHO HAS LIVED WISELY. 99
Gautama Siddharta (Buddha), 563-483 BcE

: Roman aristocrats led by consuls were elected by the :; material life. He is known as : Spring and Autumn period. From
: Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius : popular assembly each year. : the Buddha (which means the : the age of 15 he devoted himself
: Tarquinius Collatinus [the king’s Some time around 530BCE, > “awakened one” in Sanskrit) and : to scholarship, and the political
ee : cousin) won over the army and Gautama Siddharta, a Hindu : his followers, who became known : philosophy he developed reflects
: i
THE NUMBER
: barred the gates of the city to : prince of Kapilvastu {now in : as Buddhists, spread his ideas : the turbulent times. He taught
: the king, who was deposed. Nepal, had a religious revelation : throughout South Asia and, in the : that the righteous man (orjunzi)

OF YEARS OF : The coup leaders then : and rejected his noble upbringing : late 3rd century CE into China and : must have regard to others and

‘THE ROMAN
: established a republic in which : to embark ona quest for : thence to Korea, Japan, and _ inflict no unnecessary harm.
: supreme authority was held by : “enlightenment”. Six years later : Southeast Asia. : His philosophy, as developed

REPUBLIC : two magistrates called consuls.

: The power of the consuls was
: he received it and began to preach
: away of moderate asceticism to
Confucius (or Kong Fuzi) was
born around 551 BCE, in a period of
: by his disciples, taught respect for
: elders and became a cornerstone
: of the later imperial system.
: limited by the fact that new : gain release from the suffering of : political instability during China’s
Of these, Magadha was the
: most important state. Afterwards,
: Darius subdued most of the Greek
i city-states of lonia, before he
: crossed into Europe in 513 BcE
: to conquer Thrace.
: In Italy, Servius Tullius (.578-
: 534), the sixth king of Rome and
: said to be a former slave, hag
: succeeded Tarquinius Priscus in
: 5788CE. During his reign he
: implemented important reforms,
: fixing the formal boundaries of
© the city by dividing the Romans
: into four “tribes”, a system that
would be extended as Roman
territory grew, and also into
: classes that were graded by Little is known about the
: wealth. The population was early life of Cyrus. He was
: divided by what equipment they the ruler of the kingdom of
: could afford and what role they Pars when he led a revolt
played in the Roman army. The against his Median overlord
: wealthiest class fought as cavalry, Astyages. By defeating
: the higher classes as heavy Astyages, Cyrus became king
© infantry, and the poor as light of the Medes. He then
: auxiliary troops.The votes of the continued to expand Persian
: richer classes carried much influence with the conquest
greater weight in the popular of Lydia. Cyrus adapted local
: assembly. The last king of Rome, ideas about kingship to cast
: Tarquinius Superbus [(r.534- himself as an ideal ruler in Ratios Gini Padfa 2a OY
: 509Bce) was an Etruscan. the cities he conquered. : Persian elite
: Concerned at the growing Cyrus died in 5398ce. : These archers from the palace of Darius at Susa were the elite of the Persian army, which
: tyranny of his rule, a group of : included representatives from provinces as far off as Ethiopia and Afghanistan.
44 THIS IS GOOD NEWS __ IF THE
PERSIANS HIDE THE SUN, WE SHAI
DO BATTLE IN THE SHADE. 99
Herodotus, ancient Gresk quoting words attributed to Dieneces, a Spartan, on being told that the
archers shot so many aztows they would conceal the Sun; from Histones

SS : SS
This 19th-century painting shows the Spartan king Leonidas | (centre, facing) and his menat the Battle
tle of
Thermopylee in 480s . Thermopylae became a byword for heroic defiance against overwhelming odds. —

THE KINGDOM OF MAGADHA manoeuvres to weaken each before seizing Eretria, which had
emerged as an important state In lonians in 499 BcE.
( c by outbreaks of war. gh the Athenians appealed
Bimbisara | BCE], In 490 ece, Darius | (54
[S) rta for aid, the only help
otector of Gautama Buddha of Persia decided t ed came from Plataea,
on the mainland G nt 1,000 reinforcements.
support of the lonian revolt he Athenians opted to march
jatashastru Darius despatched a t the Persians rather
r.491 engthened the n wait for a siege, on the
roya t Rajagirha and built and Datis, whict of their general, Miltiades
a centre at Pataligrama on the Cilicia, landing first at Naxos 350-489 sce). In 490 Bce at
G which later became
Pataliputra, the Mauryan royal
conquering Kosala
i, and annexing the Vrijji
cy, Ajatashastru turned
Plebeians withdraw from Rome
The departure a mM Persian winged-lion rhyton
split Rome irrepara 12, the political system of The Persian Empire enjoyed
the Spring and Autumn period vast wealth, as illustrated
ed int everyday items such as &
Y'

: golden drinking ve
directed huge resou
subjects of the Pers states engaged in
the conquest of Greece
since Cyrus conque constant round of diplomatic
previous overlord
550-501 gece). In 499 ace
Aristagoras, the ruler of Milletws
set out to mainland Gre
recruit allies for va planned

600 a
ocked by social
PERSIA
THE NUMBER
OF WARRING
STATES
Sj); they
The Battle of Lade : :
up an alternative
The lonian Greek navy fi animals were
Lade, but the pre-arra often the
of the Samians to the Persians led to omily D) nspiration fora
its utter defeat own representative rhyton’s shape
 Marathon, the Greek hoplite THE ATHENIANS ENJOYED EARLY
THRACE
: (heavy infantry) formation SUCCESS under the direction of
MACEDONIA Cimon (510-450 sce}, wresting
advanced head-on against a far
more numerous Persian force to Pellae Byzantium Eion on the Strymon river (in
2 . .
win an unlikely victory. THESSALY
e
Anatolia) from the Persians in
Chastened, the Persian eis Abydus 476ece and then attacking
expeditionary force withdrew from Artemisiumiaae ie MYSIA Carystos on Euboea (which had
Greece after Marathon, but in Thermopylae 480__S¢ LYDIA submitted to the Persians) in
481 sce¥ Xerxes | (519-465.8ce)
(c _ [Ze Plataea 479 ko»¥“ 4708ce. An attempt by the island
F Salamisi 480____ Bits
A 2 Sardis 498 Anatolia
despatched another huge Persian Pelo Ephesus : of Naxos to leave the Delian
5 ponnese Mycale 479.
army, which crossed over the sg 9% Miletus 494 League around the same time led
GREE / to an Athenian expeditionary force
Hellespont (near modern-day gE ON
: Istanbul) and proceeded south that powerfully suppressed the
: towards Athens. Many northern The Greco- Rhodes breakaway movement. In 469 6ce,
: Greek states chose to submit, Persian wars Athenian forces won a great All members of the Delian League
Crete
Aithough the Cyprus
but Athens and Sparta patched victory over the Persians at the had to deposit funds at treasuries on
Persians possessed KEY River Eurymedon on the south Delos, but the contribution of Athens
: together a league of southern vastly superior numbers, the A nnexed by Persi
Persia * i y
Greek victor coast of Anatolia, establishing was the most important.
: states. In 480sce, a heroic defence Greek forces were motivated —> Persian campaigns
: of the pass at Thermopylae by i to win crucial land and sea against Greece x Persian victory Athenian supremacy in the Aegean.
: the Spartan king Leonidas |, engagements. 490-4798CE x Indecisive battles Pericles (c.495-429 ace], the and by 462.ce their last stronghold
: in which he and all his 10,009 Athenian statesman largely at Ithome had been reduced. Soon
: soldiers died, bought time for the victories followed in June 479 8ce, After the initial defeats of the responsible for making Athens after, open conflict broke out
: Athenians to evacuate. The on land at Plataea in Boeotia and : Persians in 480-479 sce, Athens the political and cultural focus of between Sparta and Athens and
: Persians burnt the city, but soon at sea at Mycale off the lonian sought to formalize the league of Greece, tried but failed to their respective allies. The First
after, under the command of coast. The Greeks then took the anti-Persian allies. A treasury prosecute Cimon in 4638ce, ona Peloponnesian War was
| Themistocles (see panel below], offensive, and during 478-477 bce was set up on the island of Delos charge of having neglected a inconclusive. It ended in 451 sce
won a string of victories in lonia in around 477 sce. The league's chance to conquer Macedonia. with a five-year truce, extended in
: the Athenian fleet inflicted a
serious defeat on Xerxes's naval and Cyprus, which reversed most : funds were to be deposited here From this manoeuvre, Pericles’ 446ece to a Thirty Years Peace
: force at Salamis. Further Greek : of the Persians’ gains. : and regular meetings were to take vision and ideas of expansion for between the two sides.
: place. But this Delian League Athens were already evident. Meanwhile, the western part of
soon became little more than an When the leading figure among the Greek world was becoming
THEMISTOCLES (c.524-460 BCE]
: Athenian empire, and Sparta and the democrats, Ephialtes, was increasingly important, marked by
its allies refused to take part. assassinated in 461 8ce, Pericles, the rise of the Sicilian city-state of
A clever politician and strategist,
Themistocles persuaded the his protégé, swiftly took his place. Syracuse. Under a series of able

Athenians to use the wealth of a Periodically, the Persians had rulers (tyrants) that began with

| 44 THE GREAT
silver mine discovered at tried to bribe the Spartans into Gelon (r.485-478 sce} and his
Laurium in 483/2 sce to double diversionary attacks on Athens but brother Hieron (r.478-467 sce},

STRUGGLE
initially to little effect. In 4648ce, a Syracusan forces subdued the
their fleet. However, after the
revolt of the Messenian Helots neighbouring city of Acragas and
naval victory at Salamis, he
became the object of increasing
jealousy from political rivals. In
B HAS COME. 99 (unfree men) in the western
Peloponnese further distracted
expanded territory around Catana.
Although Hieron’s younger
the Spartans from any attempt to brother Thrasybulus was driven
about 470 sce Themistocles was
Herodotus, ancient Greek historian, stem the rising power of the : out in 466ece, the Syracusans
ostracized from Athens [exiled quoting Pausanias, the Spartan
Delian League. The Messenians retained their dominant position
by public vote]. » commander, before the Battle of
Plataea in 479 BCE; from Histories received little outside assistance, in Sicily beyond the 450ssce.

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 In the late 5th century, the Mexican city of Monte Alban began to build its public
buildings — the ancestors of its later magnificent pyramids, shown here.

: villages. Monte Alban’s centre

‘44 THE EMPIRE YOU POSSESS
IN THE ROMAN REPUBLIC, the two ATHENS AND SPARTA HAD FOUGHT
social classes — the patricians and : housed large-scale public EACH OTHER BEFORE (see 451 sce).
the plebeians [see 500-491 sce} -
were still divided. The two sides
:
:
buildings - including truncated
pyramids, great plazas, and
The Athenian Empire had the
naval advantage as it included IS BY NOW LIKE A TYRANNY
came to an agreement in 451 8ce,
appointing a group of ten men
: ballgame courts - as well as
: elaborate burial tombs. Within
most of the island and coastal
states around the northern and
| PERHAPS WRONGR®
(the decemviri] to govern Rome : 150 years, the population of eastern shores of the Aegean Sea. ACQUIRE IT, BUT CERTAINLY
‘DANGEROUS TO LET IT GO. 99
outside the normal constitution. : Monte Alban would swell to Meanwhile, the city-state of Sparta :
In 449 sce, the decemviri produced : around 17,000, making it the led an alliance of independent
the Laws of the Twelve Tables, : largest city in Mesoamerica. states from the Peloponnese and
which formed the basis of all central Greece, as well as Corinth, Thucydides, ancient Greek historian, relating a speech by Pericles to the
Roman law codes. and had the strongest army. : Athenians; from History of the Peloponnesian War, II.63
: Zapotec figure from Monte Alban
Around 450.ce in Central Despite the Thirty Years Peace of
: This elaborate ceramic deity is
Europe, a new Celtic culture typical of the production of Monte 446 sce, tensions remained high : hostilities in 430s8ce began three : force at Pylos southwest of
emerged called La Tene, which : Alban, which became Mexico's between Athens and Sparta. The : years earlier, when Athens had :; Sparta. Yet neither side could land
supplanted the earlier dominant ! premier site in the 5th century sce. events that led to renewed : intervened on behalf of Corcyra : a fatal blow and in 421 sce they
: in a dispute with Corinth; the : agreed the Peace of Nicias, which
: Spartans took it as a sign that : was supposed to last for 50 years.
: Athens had breached the peace. : The truce soon began to unravel.
; An attack by Thebes, a Spartan : Corinth refused to recognize its
: ally, on Plataea, which supported : authority, a pro-war leadership
: Athens, was similarly taken by : emerged in Sparta, and a complex
: the Athenians to indicate Sparta : set of political manoeuvres by
: was fixed on war. Athens, led by : Alcibiades (450-404 sce], the

THE NUMBER
: Pericles, achieved early success in © newly dominant politician in
the Peloponnesian War (431- : Athens, led to the renewal of the
OF TABLES OF 4048ce). In 4268ce, the Athenians : war in 419sce. The following year,

ROMAN LAW
invaded the Peloponnese, and : Sparta’s allies won a key victory
: the following year landed a large : at Mantinea. Athens struck back

SOCRATES (469-399BCE]
Halstatt culture. Ruled over by a
warrior aristocracy that buried its One of the greatest Greek
dead with swords, spears, and philosophers, Socrates served
funerary chariots, La Tene had on the Athenian Council in
important centres in Bohemia [in 406 sce, but his challenges to
what is now the Czech Republic} conventional morality at a time
and around the Marne and of political uncertainty gained
Moselle rivers (in modern France]. : him powerful enemies. He
In Oaxaca on Mexico's Pacific refused to mount a conventional #
Coast, a new centre arose shortly defence against charges of
before 450 sce at Monte Alban. corrupting the Athenian youth
This proto-city, on a hill top above and was sentenced to die by
the Oaxaca Valley, drew people drinking the poison hemlock.
from the surrounding agricultural

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 The Great AFTER ITS VICTORY IN THE (r.404-358 Bce). Cyrus was
THRACE Byzantiume Peloponnesian War | PELOPONNESIAN WAR, Sparta defeated and killed at the Battle
e Abdera
eThasos Sea of Marmara The period of 431 to found itself embroiled in a quarrel : of Cunaxa in 401 sce, but in its
Thasos Cyzicus 404 8ce saw the with Persia over whether the : aftermath some 10,000 Greek
ee ei Aegean «Simpsacus® “410 destruction of the
lonian Greek cities should regain mercenaries were left trapped in
Athenian Empire at the
. Cynossema ve their autonomy. Through the northern Mesopotamia. Under
= % cemnos at PHRYGIA hands of a coalition of
Carey Co THESSALY. PERSIAN Sparta and its allies. 390s 8c, sporadic fighting and Xenophon, the Greeks marched
abortive peace talks diverted _ to the Black Sea coast and
; Bprvrscie A
i, ad
er
Aegean
ce
Leshds
Glad,
EMPIRE
Sparta from a weakening position : safety near Trapezus (Trabzon
4h >¢ Arginusae
Leucasye i in mainland Greece. The “King’s in modern-day Turkey], a feat
<4 Almere: Phocaga@
Cephallenia Chalcis | Peace’, a definitive treaty with their commander immortalized
eEretria Chios
hebes IONIA KEY Persia in 386s8ce, deprived the in his book Anabasis.
Euboea Notium pe.
407 Ephesus 4
Athenian Empire
F | lonians of autonomy but allowed In Italy, the Romans widened
Zacynthus @Athens Sa dros :
‘acynthus SP the Spartans to quash any threats : their territory and annexed the
pidaurus EARIA Athenian ally
S i=) e Miletus 5 to its supremacy. In 3858ce, they : city of Veli in 396s8ce, whose
cyclades o Sparta and d allied states
®) Spart
attacked Mantinea in the central : submission represented the end
DQ neutral territory
Sphacteria_ 34ol AS Peloponnese and in 3828ceE of any Etruscan threat. However,
Be Melos 2, @Ciidus Athenian victory
© occupied Thebes. Spartan power : c.3908ce, an army of Celts, who
Rhod X Spartan victory
Cythera
hodes seemed unassailable. had been attacking the Etruscan
‘ & ® Lindus In Persia, the death of Darius II city of Clusium, turned south,
(r.423-404 sce) was followed by a : defeated a Roman army at the
brief civil war, when Cyrus the Battle of the Allia, and then took
7,000 Younger tried to overthrow his Rome itself. This disaster haunted
2 800 ATHENIANS 30 000 older brother Artaxerxes Il : the Romans for centuries.
5 Spartans , Spartans
ATHENIANS ATHENIANS ume

BATTLE OF SPHACTERIA 425BCE BATTLE OF DELIUM 424BCE SIEGE OF SYRACUSE 415-413 BCE

: in 416sce by capturing Melos - the in Athens was briefly overthrown. In Magadha in India the
: only main Aegean island not in Democracy was restored the Haryanka dynasty founded by
: its possession — but fatally following year, and, though the : Bimbisara was replaced c.4138ce
over-reached itself in 4158ce with : Athenians won victories at Cyzicus : after the death of Ajatashatru
: an expedition to Sicily, ending in in 4108ce and Arginusae in 4068ce, : (c.459ece) and a series of
: the total destruction of the : the total destruction of their : ineffectual rulers. Shishunaga
: Athenian force by the Syracusans : fleet at Aegospotami off lonia in founded a new dynasty, which
: in 413ece. The Spartans, : 405ece left Athens defenceless. was responsible for overseeing
meanwhile, established a fort at : The Spartans blockaded the city, : the final transfer of the Magadha
: Decelea in Attica, which denied and, despite a determined ' royal capital to Pataliputra.
© the Athenians access to the rich resistance, the Athenians were : The Shishunaga dynasty lasted
: silver mines. An alliance with » forced to surrender. Athens was : only 500 years.
: Persia further strengthened : deprived of its fleet and in 404 8ce | Etruscan ting
SSG
: Sparta’s position in 4128ce, anda ! a pro-Spartan Council of Thirty The Etruscan language has never been deciphered, so it is through the
year later the democratic regime : was installed to govern it. frescoes in their tombs that much has been learnt of their culture.

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 A carving showing the pharaoh Nectanebo |, founder of the 30th Dynasty, makin g offerings to gods,
including the crocodile-héaded Sobek.

EGYPT HAD BROKEN AWAY FROM ALTHOUGH THE ATHENIANS

Persian control after the revolt brokered a general peace in
of Amyrtaeus, who founded the Greece in 3718CE, the Thebans did
28th Dynasty in 404 BCE. However, not participate. Thebes built up a
the Persians had not given up on coalition of allies and invaded
Egypt. Nectanebo | established Sparta in 370-369 8CcE. As a result,
the 30th Egyptian Dynasty in Messenia was finally detached
380 BCE. He was able to repel a
force sent by the Persians and
FORMED from Spartan control, but further
Theban success was hampered by
their Greek allies in 373BCE. THE ELITE the temporary deposition of
Persia was diverted from further
attempts to bring Egypt to heel by
| MILITARY UNIT Epaminondas, who was tried for
allegedly sparing the city of Sparta
the Great Rebellion of the THE SACRED | in exchange for a bribe. Once
Satraps in the 360sB8cE. This
rebellion was partially aggravated
BAND OF : alarmed enough to revive the
Temple of Thoth
Situated at Hermopolis in Upper
Epaminondas was back in control,
the Thebans won Persian backing
by the campaigns of Tachos, son of
Nectanebo |, in Persian-ruled
‘THEBES : Theban alliance and try to
: establish a Second Athenian
Egypt, the temple of Thoth dates
from the New Kingdom but was
for their anti-Spartan alliance in
3678CE, and a further invasion of
renovated in the 4th century BCE.
Palestine from 361-360BCE. : Confederacy in opposition to the Peloponnese in 3668CE gained
Nectanebo Ill (r.360-343 bce) : into the Nile Delta region in : Sparta. In 375BceE the Thebans, recruits for the Theban coalition.
succeeded Nectanebo I, and : 343BCE, and Egypt was defeated : Athenians, and Spartans signed a : Dionysius | (402-367 Bc}, who However, Theban successes relied
continued to meddle in the Persian : within two years. Now under : “Common Peace”, but it broke : fought the third in a series of wars too narrowly on the personality of
civilwars. In an ill-judged Persian rule, Egypt was never : down almost immediately. The : against the Carthaginians from 383 one man, and when Epaminondas
intervention in 346BCE, he sent : again ruled by a native dynasty. : Thebans then took the offensive, : to 3758CE. At first, the war went
troops to aid an uprising in Sidon In Greece, the Spartan aided by a new elite force of citizen ' badly for Dionysius, whose fleet Ancient theatre
(Lebanon). In response, occupation of Thebes, which had : soldiers, the Sacred Band, which : was wrecked in a storm. The Odeon was a temple built in the
Artaxerxes III of Persia marched begun in 382BCE, was short-lived. consisted of 150 male couples. The Carthaginian efforts to mount an town of Messene, which was founded
In 379 BCE, the Spartan polemarch : Sacred Band supplemented the : expedition to Sicily were hampered by Epaminondas of Thebes in 3678CE.
' (governor) of Thebes was ! mercenaries who largely fought : by plague in 3798CE and a revolt by
: assassinated, and the Thebans : Greek city-states’ wars by this : subject cities in Libya, so that it
: drove out the Spartan garrison period. Theban attempts to : was only in 3778CE that an army
: with the aid of two Athenian :; conquer the region of Phocis and :; Was landed. Dionysius, who had
: generals who arrived on their own retain dominance in Boeotia ‘ been campaigning against
: initiative to help. In retaliation, : rankled with Sparta, and ' Carthage’s allies in southern Italy,
, | the Spartans mounted an : scuppered Athenian attempts to returned to Sicily and crushed
I expedition under King : broker a peace in 372BCE. At : Mago’'s force - 10,000 are said to
: Cleombrotus (r.380-371 BCE). This : Leuctra in 3718Cce, the Theban have died. Dionysius allowed the
expedition failed to retake Thebes, : army under the general : remnants to slip away, and they
but it so alarmed the Athenians Epaminondas fought a tactically ; regrouped and returned the
that they executed one general and : brilliant battle to smash the following year under Mago’s son
Battle of Leuctra exiled the other, and temporarily : Spartan phalanx. At Sparta’s © Himilco to deliver a stinging defeat
At Leuctra in central Greece, the
abandoned the alliance with : mercy just eight years before, : to the Syracusans. Both sides were
Thebans exploited the tendency of
the Spartans to shift right by : Thebes. The Spartans invaded : Thebes was now the dominant : war-weary and in 375B8CE made
concentrating their attack on the left, the region of Boeotia in 378- _ power in Greece. : peace, leaving Dionysius in
enabling them to defeat an enemy ; 3778CE but made little headway, In Sicily, Syracuse continued to : possession of most of eastern
with larger numbers than theirs. : although the Athenians were flourish under the strong rule of Sicily and parts of southern Italy.
 44 AN ARMY OF DEER LED BY A LION
IS MORE TO BE FEARED THAN AN ARMY
OF LIONS LED BY A DEER. 99
Attnbuted to Philip II, king of Macedonia, 4th century BCE

: was killed in battle in 362BCE, IN 359BCE PERDICCAS III OF

PHILIP OF MACEDONIA (382-336 BCE}
: Theban power was rapidly eclipsed. Macedonia died and his successor,
: In India, the Nanda dynasty Philip Il (r.359-336 BCE} began to
: began its expansion in the transform the position of what Philip Il reformed the
370SBCE, and continued to expand had been regarded by other Macedonian army and forced
: untilit was able to take power from : Greeks as a very minor kingdom. the Greek states to joina
; the Shishunaga in 345Bce. The In 3578CE, he made his first major: League of Corinth under
dynasty’s founder Mahapadma Macedonian control. After his
THE AGE OF
conquest, Amphipolis in Thrace.
; Nanda conquered much of north He became involved in the Third return to Macedonia, he took a
: India, building up a huge army. He
operated an efficient -MAGAPADMA Sacred War (356-346 BCE), which
was fought over perceived
new wife, Cleopatra, but was
stabbed to death at his wedding
: administrative system with NANDA AT violations by Sparta and Phocis of feast, possibly on the orders of
centrally appointed tax collectors
and undertook irrigation works. ‘HIS DEATH the sacred oracle at Delphi, using
| this to cement his position as an
his son, Alexander the Great,
who stood to lose his position
However, the deposition of Dhana important player in the power if Cleopatra bore another heir.
Nanda in 3218CE was followed by ' Wei, followed by another defeat of politics of central Greece and the
the absorption of the Nanda : Wei at the battle of Shimen in Peloponnese. In the 340s, Philip
empire into the Mauryan empire. : 3648CcE led to Chu's decline and the strengthened his position in - Athenians and annihilated the advantage of Rome’s exhausted
The state of Chu was the most _ shift eastwards of Weil's royal Thessaly and became involved in : Theban Sacred Band {see state to launch an attack. During
southerly of China's Warring ' centre to Daliang. A rejuvenated | petty disputes between the : 380-371 BCE). Macedonian power | the first year of the war, at a battle
States, centred on the Middle : Wei was strong enough to force the city-states, as rival factions : in Greece was now unchallenged. : near Vesuvius, the consul Publius
: Yangzi river. Throughout the Sth : rulers of four other Warring States turned either to him or to Athens Rome’s steady expansion in : Decius Mus is said to have
» century BCE it annexed a number of : to attend its court in 356BCE. Wei's | for support. In 340 BCE open war central Italy had caused alarm : dedicated his body to the gods of
: states, becoming the dominant : Supremacy was short-lived, and broke out between Philip and the among her neighbours. This led to the underworld and then
: power by 380BCE. In 366BCE a : defeats inflicted on it by Qi armies Athenian-Theban alliance. Just a bitter six-year struggle with the : undertaken a suicidal charge
: resounding victory by the state of ' at Guiling in 353BcE and Maling in _ two years later, at Chaeronea in © town of Tibur from 3608cE, among : against the Latin ranks which
» Qin against the armies of Hann and : 341BCE reduced it to a Qi vassal. Boeotia, Philip defeated the © other conflicts. In 340BCce, a : turned the tide of battle in the
: general war broke out between : Roman's favour. By 338BCE, the
: Rome and the Latins, who : Romans had defeated the Latin
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus inhabited the modern region of League. The peace terms were
| Mausolus was the Persian satrap Lazio around Rome. The : favourable, with many Latins
| [governor] of aregion of south- Romans had just emerged from : being granted Roman citizenship.
western Turkey. After his death in
a war with the Samnites, a The League was then dissolved,
353.BCE his wife built a tomb for
him, which became one of 4, people who inhabited the » and many of the former Latin
| the Seven Wonders of the central Apennines, and : cities were absorbed into the
Ancient World. the Latins took : Roman state, moving Rome
: further towards complete
: dominance of central Italy.
In Peru, the Nazca culture
' began around 350BCE. These
: people created mysterious
: geoglyphs, huge lines in the
desert creating animal and
abstract shapes, which cannot be
: made out from the ground.
Despite being heavily outnumbered at Issus, Alex,
Bucephalus, made brilliant use of his cavalry to win

AFTER HIS MURDER OF DARIUS, : of Macaranda (Samarkand) and

_ Bessus declared himself the new pacify Sogdiana, although the
king of Persia [as Artaxerxes V), fortress of the “Sogdian Rock”
| but some of the Persian satraps managed to hold out against the
submitted to Alexander instead of Macedonian forces until 327 BCE.
! Bessus. During 330-329 BCE, Alexander then crossed into the
Alexander pursued Bessus into
the easternmost regions of the
Kabul Valley and the following
year, at the river Hydaspes, he
=
Persian Empire, beyond the Hindu : overcame the local ruler Porus. THE AGE OF
Kush and into Bactria. Finally, His plans to push further into
in Sogdiana, north of the River India were stymied by his soldiers ALEXANDER'’S
Oxus, the local nobles, led by the
Sogdian warlord Spitamenes,
who, demoralized and disease-
ridden, mutinied and demanded
FAVOURITE
betrayed Bessus and handed him to go home. Part of the army HORSE,
Ruins of Persepolis
over to Alexander. Once Alexander
had continued his march north,
: returned home by sea under
Nearchus, but a detachment
BUCEPHALUS, f

WHEN IT DIED
of
j
AFTER THE ASSASSINATION OF The Persian ceremonial capital of however, Spitamenes revolted. It under Alexander marched
PHILIP OF MACEDONIA in 336 BCE Persepolis was burnt to the ground took Alexander a year of bitter : through the harsh Gedrosian
(see 355-337 Bc], his 20-year-old by Alexander's troops in 330BCE.
campaigning to relieve the siege : desert, suffering heavy losses.
son Alexander (often referred to His army reached central Persia advance of the Romans
as Alexander the Great] became army led by Darius III himself. In early in 324BCcE, but Alexander, into Campania after
Alexander the Great's conquests
commander of the major Greek 331 BCE, the Macedonians defeated © still planning new expeditions their abolition of the
| Alexander penetrated the farthest
city states. The next year Alexander Darius II] again at Gaugamela [in corners of the Persian empire. To : into Arabia, died of a fever at Latin League
invaded Thrace, but a rumour that modern Iraq]. The next year Darius | cement his rule he founded a series Babylon in May 3238CcE, aged 33. in 338 BCE
he had been killed caused a major was Stabbed to death by Bessus, of new cities, almost all named after In central Italy, the Samnites of alarmed the
revolt centred on the Greek city of one of his generals. Alexander himself, notably Alexandria in Egypt. the central-southern Apennines, Samnites, and
Thebes, supported by Darius III of now seemed to have acquired the : who had lost a war against the the Roman placing
Persia (r.336-330 BCE). Alexander whole of the vast Persian Empire. CONQUEST OF ALEXANDER Romans in 342-340 BCE, fought of a colony in their land in
reacted swiftly; the Thebans were Macedonian Empire 336-323BceE them once more in the Second 328 BCE and tensions over the
defeated and their city razed to the — Route taken by Alexander’s forces : Samnite War (326-3048cE). The control of Neapolis {Naples} led
ground. The other states soon to the outbreak of war in 326BCE.
submitted. In 334Bce, Alexander In 321 8ce, the Samnites defeated
hurried to Anatolia, where a ocyth* lexandria Eschate
a Roman army at the Caudine
Macedonian army was already Forks. The Romans were
established, totalling perhaps Black Se
GE _Byzantium phala humiliated by being forced to bow
43,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry. down and “pass under the yoke”
Although this figure was dwarfed (an arch made from their captured
EAS “3
by the forces of the local Persian Ephesus
Sparta’e spears]. Four years of peace
satraps [governors], Alexander’s Crete Cyprus 3 followed before the Romans
cavalry smashed the lines of the “diterranean Sea
renewed the war and, despite
| Cyrenei@e
satrap Arsites at the River dogged resistance by the
~ Gwadar
Granicus in northwest Turkey. He ' Aristotle
ori Arabian
Samnites, finally emerged
phis Peninsula
pushed on towards the heart of The philosopher Aristotle was Arabian : victorious in 3048ce.
the Persian Empire. In 3338ce, at employed by Philip of Macedonia Sea
Issus, northern Syria, he routed an : as Alexander the Great's tutor.
 44 TOTHE STRONGEST! 99
Alexander the Great, on his deathbed in reply toa
question about who would succeed him

ALEXANDER THE GREAT had not : outlying regions of the Nanda : Confucian tradition. His surviving
provided for an orderly succession Empire, pushing his control as work, the Shi Ji, is written in the
after his death in 323 BCE, and his : far as Gujarat and the Punjab. : form of dialogues with several
most experienced generals were : In 3058ce, he began a campaign : contemporary kings. Meng Zi
_ also dead - except for Antipater : against one of Alexander's : stresses the value of de [virtue]
who had been left as regent in : successors, Seleucus, which for a king and, more practically,
Macedonia. Alexander's wife : ended ina treaty in 3038CE, by ; recommends lower taxes, less
Roxane was pregnant, and he : which the Greeks ceded control : harsh punishments, and ensuring
had a half-brother Arrhidaeus, : of eastern Afghanistan and : the people have enough to eat.
who was, unfortunately, : Baluchistan to Chandragupta. : He believed that if a king acted
mentally unstable. A clique of : Having established the Mauryan benevolently, everyone would
generals who were present at : Empire in 3078ce, Chandragupta : want to be ruled by him, and he
Alexander's deathbed - : decided to abdicate in favour of : would have no need of conquest.
Ptolemy, Cassander, : his son Bindusara (r.297-272 BCE). : Meng Zi’s benevolent view of
Seleucus, and Lysimachus He then retired to become a Jain : human nature had a widespread
- engineered a solution by which monk, ultimately starving himself appeal, and politically his views
: Battle of Ipsus
Roxane’s newborn son Alexander
: Although slightly outnumbered,
: to death. were most influential in the
IV (323-310 BcE) notionally shared : Lysimachus deployed his archers In China, Meng Zi (or Mencius]) : time of the Song dynasty
power with Arrhidaeus, who ! against his enemy's flank, causing : (c.372-289 Bce) arrived at the Wei © (960-1279
ce).
became Philip III. In reality, this | Antigonus’s infantry to flee in panic. : court around 3208CE and rapidly
military clique carved up the : earned himself a reputation as
empire between themselves and : against the four remaining : the “second sage” of the
four other generals. Perdiccas principal players: Cassander in
emerged as the main power in : Macedonia, Ptolemy in Egypt,
the centre; Antipater and : Lysimachus in Thrace, and
Craterus took : Seleucusin Babylon. War between :%
Europe; : the parties raged inconclusively |
=~ Antigonos : until 311B8ce. But when it was
Monopthalmos : renewed again in 308BCE, it
(“the one-eyed”) was given : looked as if Antigonus might
Phrygia; Ptolemy got Egypt; : overcome all the others. Then, in
and Seleucus and Cassander : 301 Bc, Lysimachus crushed the
were promoted to senior : Antigonid army at Ipsus, and
| military commands. : annexed most of Antigonus’s
These generals, who became : former territories, So cementing a
known as the Diadochoi ; tripartite division of Alexander's
' (“successors”], then fought a long » empire between himself, Ptolemy,
i series of wars for dominance in : and Seleucus.
' Alexander's former empire, at In India, in around 320BCE, Aged 20, Alexander inherited much of Greece from his father; by
| first pitting the others against | Chandragupta Maurya [r.c.320- his death just 13 years later, he had extended this to cover a vast
a | Perdiccas, who was assassinated : 2978CE) overthrew the last of the area from the Indus River in the east to Illyria in the west. He
in 320 BCE. Antipater rose to : Nandas (see 370-356 sce) to was a brilliant general but prone to acts of impetuous violence.
Samnite-style helmet
The Romans admired the Samnites power next, but he died of natural : become ruler of Magadha and the His adoption of Persian court ritual alienated many native
as fighters. This gladiator helmet is causes in 318 BCE, leaving : Ganges plain. An energetic ruler, Macedonians, and his not naming an heir proved catastrophic.
based on the Samnite style of armour. Antigonos to make a bid for power : he then gradually absorbed the

paises

45
 66 ANOTHER SUCH
VICTORY AND WE
ARE UNDONE. 99
Pyrrhus, king of the Greek state of Epirus, 279 BCE

The Pharos lighthouse was built under Ptolemy II in around | At the Battle of Myla
280 BCE. It guided ships into Alexandria harbour at night. Rome defeated the Carthaginian navy. —

IN ITALY, A THIRD WAR broke Demetrius Poliorcetes (c.337- IN 281 BCE, THE APPEAL by envoys | IN INDIA, the accession of Ashoka
out between the Romans and © 283 ec), the son of Antigonus | from the southern Italian city of | (c.294-232 cE] to the throne in
Samnites in 2988CE, apparently : (see 322-301 BcE), was now Tarentum for protection against 268 BCE had marked a watershed
provoked by Samnite harassment : rebuilding his strength from bases | the Romans provided Pyrrhus, | for the Mauryan Empire. On his
of their neighbours, the Lucanians. : in the Aegean islands and in the king of the Greek state of | father Bindusara’s death (see
Despite two Roman victories in : Cyprus. He was able to exploit the | Epirus, with a perfect excuse | 322-301 BceE), Ashoka had to fight
297 BCE, the Samnites, this time : need of Seleucus, in Babylon, for for fulfilling his ambitions and | a four-year civil war with his
allied with the Gauls, could still : allies against the now over-mighty intervening there. He arrived with brothers before he was enthroned.
field a huge army against the © Lysimachus. In 2948ce, Demetrius | an army more than 25,000 strong, | Around eight years later, he
Romans at Sentinum in 2958CE. ' invaded Macedon, whose ruler including war elephants. He beat launched a campaign against
: Cassander had died three years the Romans at the River Siris in | Kalinga (modern Orissa], which
before, leaving his two young 280 8CE, but the Roman senate ) was so bloody that around 100,000
sons to engage in a bitter civil | refused to make peace. Pyrrhus | people are said to have died. So
war. Demetrius then attacked vanquished another Roman army "KEY ) struck with remorse was Ashoka
Lysimachus's Asian territories, | at Asculum the next year, but his ® Infantry @ Slingers | at this slaughter, that he ever after
but in 292 BCE he was brought | losses were so severe that it :@ Cavalry @ War elephants ) rejected war and promoted the
back to Greece by a revolt in _ seemed more like a defeat. After ® Archers | Buddhist concept of dharma,
Aetolia. By 289 Bce, Demetrius | invading Sicily, Pyrrhus retreated | meaning mercy or piety. He set up
: Pyrrhus's army
THE NUMBER had suppressed the revolt, but he
: had lost most of his island bases
back to Epirus in 2758CE, nursing
| huge losses in troops and having
i The army that Pyrrhus took over to a series of edicts carved in rock
| throughout the empire - many of
: Italy included a small number of war
OF YEARS : to Ptolemy's Egyptian fleet. He made no territorial gains. : elephants whose presence caused | them on pillars topped with a lion
THE ' retreated to Asia, and died in
: 283.8CE, a captive of Seleucus.
The defeat and death of
Lysimachus in 281 BCE in battle
: the Roman cavalry to panic and flee. | — promoting his adherence to
| dharma. Under his patronage the
PTOLEMAIC Of Alexander's successors, : against Seleucus, and the latter's | Third Buddhist Council met at
Ptolemy inherited the weakest
DYNASTY position. A naval defeat in 306 BcE
assassination, soon led to
instability on the frontier between
Pataliputra around 2508CE, and
| Ashoka sought to export his ideas
RULED EGYPT : by Demetrius Poliorcetes confined | the Seleucid Empire (now ruled | abroad, exchanging diplomatic
: his ambitions temporarily to Egypt. } : by his son Antiochus |} and the | missions with foreign rulers, such
: Yet here he shrewdly chose to Egyptian ruler Ptolemy II | as Antiochus Il of Syria and
The equally vast Roman army - at : exploit the existing mechanisms : Philadelphos. Finally, in 2748cE | Ptolemy II of Egypt. At his death
45,000, the largest they had ever : of power, establishing himself as : the First Syrian War broke out | in 232BCe, the Mauryan empire
fielded - was threatened with : apharaoh in the old style and between them. The Egyptians had reached its greatest extent
defeat until the Roman consul : setting up an administration that : emerged victorious, annexing | and seemed securely established.
Publius Decius Mus (d.2958cE]} - melded the best of Greek and : parts of the Syrian coast and | In China, Zhao Zheng succeeded
dedicated himself and the enemy : Egyptian traditions. By 2958ceE, : southern Anatolia. This position his father to the throne of Qin in
army as Sacrificial victims to the Ptolemy's naval forces had : was in part reversed by Egyptian | 246BCE. From 228BCE, ably advised
gods of the underworld and led a : recovered and conquered much of : losses in the Second Syrian War by chancellor Li Si, Zhao Zheng
suicidal charge that shattered the : the Aegean. In Egypt, Ptolemy's : (260-253 BceE) and then renewed | unleashed a final war of conquest
Samnite line. A string of Roman : position was sufficiently secure : in the Third Syrian War (246-241 against the remaining Warring
successes followed in 293 and ; that, at his death in 283 B8cE, aged : BCE}, which was fought between | States (see 370-356 Bce]. Zhao
292 BCE, and two years later the : 84,he passed the kingdom on to - the Seleucid Antiochus II and , and Yan soon fell to his forces, the
Samnites finally surrendered and : his Son Ptolemy Il Philadelphos | Pyrrhus of Epirus : Ptolemy Ill. These three | Qin armies captured Wei and, in
their lands were annexed. Roman : (r.283-245 Bce], the second king Despite his many campaigns, when : debilitating wars left the Seleucids | 2238CE, overcame Chu. Only Qi
territory now stretched across the ' of a Ptolemaic dynasty that would | Pyrrhus died he ruled little more particularly vulnerable to the now | still held out but, in 2218ce, Zhao
Italian peninsula to the Adriatic Sea. | rule Egypt until 30BcE. i than the kingdom he had inherited. : growing power of Parthia. ) Zheng finally annexed it, leaving

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{7 THE LENGTH OF
) THE FIRST PUNIC
WAR

little headway. However, after they : Aegades Islands. This defeat

had built their first ever fleet, the | caused Hamilcar Barca, the
Romans’ fortunes changed. In : Carthaginian general, to sue for
Early Roman religion combined : 2608ceE, they won animportant =: peace. The peace terms involved
_ the worship of the great gods, : victory over the Carthaginians at; the Carthaginians leaving Sicily.
such as Neptune {shown here], : Mylae. A Roman invasion of North : The two sides’ spheres of
with that of more local deities. : Africa in 2568ce failed to capture | influence remained uncomfortably
_ There were several different : Carthage only through the : overlapping, creating the seeds
types of priest: haruspices : ineptitude of the consul, Regulus. : of two future conflicts.
_ made predictions from the : On land, the Romans took the
| entrails of sacrificed animals; : Carthaginian strongholds in Sicily
augures determined the divine - by one yy eal (46 IF THEY WILL
will from signs, such as the : Drepana, in western Sicily, he
flight of birds; and pontifices : out against them. A massive NOT EAT, LET
controlled the complex Carthaginian naval victory there ‘T'H Bi] DRINK! 59
calendar of religious festivals. set back the Roman cause, but :
' In their homes, Romans had in 241 BCE, anew Roman fleet Publius Claudius Pulcher, Roman
: : consul and general, ordering the
~ shrines to household gods and appealied off Drepana, took it, : drowning of the sacred chickens
_ the spirits of their ancestors. and the next year smashed : when they refused to eat grain
, Scie cp : a Carthaginian fleet at the : before the Battle of Drepana, 249BCE

him the master of allChina. The — ; expelled the nomads, but wars —_:_ the nomadic Parni, led by EUROPE alps
same year he proclaimed himself : with Egypt (280-2728ce and : Arsaces, entered Parthiainthe : . os se
the “First Emperor” as Qin Shi : 260-253 ece} overstretched the | ~mid-240sece. Nunamise a Nags >< Mascots
Huangdi, and the first ruler of the : kingdom’s resources. On the : Rivalry over Sicily, where the ace Pisae
new Qin dynasty. » death of Antiochus Il (r.261-246 : Carthaginians had possessed Peninsula 1.4, etarraco ea -
: Bce), civil war broke out between = colonies since the 8th century BCE, Saguntume re to Rome 238 iN
In Persia, the Greek Seleucid
dynasty, which had inherited the. the king’s widow Berenice and his_- was at the root of the First Punic cade eet conte
region after Alexanderthe Great’s _ former wife Laodice. This ledto | War (264-241 BcE), a conflict Tinga eMalaca Veta. ee
death in 3238CE, faceda series of : the breakaway of Bactria under between Rome and the North ee eae eco
nomad incursions Diodotus and Parthia = African power of Carthage. In 264 ede Ne oe 2s Mylae
after 280 BCE. under Andragoras. BCE, the Romans sent an army to eailicee Aare epomus
Antiochus| [reign Taking advantage : help the Mamertines - a group Hadrumeturme 206BcEx Bias
c.292-261 BCE) of this instability, : of south-Italian mercenaries to Rome 241
/ occupying the Sicilian city of
: Messana - in their conflict with AFRICA
: the city of Syracuse, which was Leptis Magnae
: in turn aided by Carthage. The
: Carthaginian’s resistance was so Charaxe
: stubborn that the Romans made
KEY
; Cer RGin nalaaaha ln RZAORS The First Punic War
Great Stupa at Sanchi 0 Sow Pe The two decades of fighting was
This Buddhist stupa in central India RomanigalnsiDyiZoogb Cr concentrated around Sicily, but
was begun by the Mauryan ruler H Roman gains by 238 BCE also saw Roman invasions of
Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. ? 3 Roman victory North Africa and Sardinia.
 THE NUMBER OF
COMMANDERIES
(REGIONS) SET UP
BY EMPEROR QIN
SHI HUANGDI

Jacopo. Ripanda. mazi gly,all 37 elephants survived the mountair

IN 221BCE, QIN SHI HUANGDI, the In the aftermath of the First Second Punic War
ATLANTIC
first emperor of China, divided his Punic War (see 264-241 Bce}, with There were three principal theatres OCEAN EUROPE

empire into 36 commanderies on Sicily and Sardinia lost, Carthage of conflict: Spain, Italy, and North
Africa. By 203 BCE, the Carthaginians
the advice of his minister Li Ssu. : turned its attention to Spain. In UE
were confined to Africa. ee aiolore Placentia”
The dispossessed aristocrats and 238 8CE, Hamilcar was sent there,
Numantia Le,Be ee Trebia 21850.
Tesla? A J ~
nobles of Qin’s former enemies and he soon conquered almost the ee So 3 Ariminum
Iberian ee
were moved to the capital Xianyang : whole of southern Spain. He died Peninsula a hedae 207
River Metaurus
poblas ake Trasimene 217
to keep them under close control. in battle against the Oretani, a
ae Ces f
To further encourage a sense of Celtic tribe, in 229 BcE, but by then \lipa 206 ee 4
unity, Li Ssu commissioned a he had won both a new empire THE SECOND PUNIC WAR Gades@ ye Baleares
single script and a standardized for Carthage and a strong power 218-202 BCE Tingise Malaca Carthago Med;
Nova 2 Eee
system of weights and measures base for his family, the Barcids. Carthaginian Empire 2818ce Rusaddire —Cartennae. elol
for China. Further conquests were Despite their victory in the First ) Carthaginian territory 2008cE =i @Saldae
4s
made to the north and south in Punic War, the Romans position >) Roman territory 218BcE
Zama 202
219 and 214BCE, and thousands of in northern Italy was still weak. In Roman gains by 2008cE
colonists were sent to the new 225BCE, the Celtic Insubres and Massalian territory 2188cE
territories. Shi Huangdi dealt Boii tribes tried to drive them out. % Carthaginian victory
AFRICA
firmly with opposition. In 213BCE, At the Battle of Telamon, the Celts x Roman victory
~@Leptis Magna
he ordered the “burning of the : were trapped between two Roman 4 Hannibal (219-202)
books’, by which the writings of : armies and routed. Although the Hasdrubal (208-207
Charaxe.
philosophers opposed to the Qin Boii accepted defeat in 224BcE and —> Scipio Africanus (210-206
state were burnt, and in 212BCE : the Insubres sued for peace two and 204-202)
he had many intellectuals who : years later, the Romans rebuffed
opposed him brutally killed. : them and pushed on for total ALARMED AT CARTHAGINIAN : marched with 50,000 infantry, : the consuls. Faced with many
: victory. The king of the Boii was EXPANSION IN SPAIN, in 226 BCE : 9,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants : defections among the allied
killed in single combat against a the Romans sent an embassy to into northern Spain, across the cities, the Romans turned to
Roman consul, and their capital Hasdrubal - son of Hamilcar and : Pyrenees, through southern : delaying tactics to hold Hannibal
Mediolanum (Milan) captured. the new Barcid commander there : Gaul and - to the Romans’ : at bay. But this was a temporary
The Romans established colonies — and secured an agreement that ' astonishment - crossed the : measure, and the Romans
in the Celtic territories in 218BCE, the Carthaginians would not move : Alps. Although he now had only : suffered one of their worst ever
including at Piacenza. north of the Ebro River. In return, : around half the force he had | defeats at Cannae in 2168CE, when
A revolt led by Arsaces (see the Romans pledged not to move : started with, his presence : Hannibal's army massacred up to
265-241 BCE) in Parthava - a | south - although they did forge ! encouraged the north Italian :
former satrapy in the northeast of alliances with cities in the south, Celts to revolt and, at Trebia in 100
: the Seleucid Empire - could not | such as Saguntum. In 221 BCE, : late 218BcE, he routed a Roman 2 5 50,000 casualties

: be quelled by Seleucus II (r.246- Hasdrubal was assassinated; : army. The following year he | Z 804
225 BCE], and a separate Parthian | two years later, Hannibal, his : smashed another largeRoman =: ¥ 6,000
kingdom emerged in the region | brother and successor, attacked : force at Lake Trasimene, killing; = 60 casualties
of modern Iran. The Parthians Saguntum, rapidly leading to the : 15,000 Romans - including one of : z :
gradually annexed more territory Second Punic War (219-201 Bce). =
lu

: to the west, especially under With the prospect of the 5 oO

Suppressing opposition : Battle of Canae 5 20>)
This watercolour-on-silk painting Mithridates | (r.171-138 Bce). By Romans sending one army to
> Some 35,000 Romans survived the
shows Shi Huangdi, China's first the early 1st century BCE, only a Spain and another via Sicily to | pattle of Cannae, but half of those 0
emperor, overseeing the burning of small area of Syria was under invade North Africa, Hannibal : were captured by the Carthaginians, Roman Garbage
books and the execution ofscholars. : Seleucid control. decided to strike first. He : and many were sold into slavery. TROOPS

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After his deat h, the First Qin Emperor wa s buried in-a.vast mausoleum? in which
an army of 8,000 terracotta warriors, each around 2m (6ft 6in) tall, was placed.

WHEN THE FIRST QIN EMPEROR ; position there. The Roman senate : at Utica in North Africa, the fleet was reduced to a mere 10
DIED IN 210BCE, resentment _ sent the young general Publius : Carthaginians recalled Hannibal : ships; they were not allowed to
| against his autocratic rule erupted : Cornelius Scipio (c.236-183 BcE) : to head off a threat to Carthage : make war outside Africa at all,
in a series of peasant revolts. A : to Spain, where he captured the : itself. The Romans offered : and inside it they needed Roman
_ number of new kingdoms broke : Carthaginian capital of Carthage : relatively lenient peace terms, but permission to do so. An annual
away from the centre, while the : Nova. In 2068CcE, he crushed a ; the Carthaginians rejected them, : tribute of 10,000 talents payable
anti-Qin forces found a talented : large Carthaginian force at Illipa. : and Scipio captured their towns : to the Romans completed the
| military leader in Xiang Yu. In In 207 BCE, Hannibal's brother : one by one. Aided by the Numidian : humiliation of what had once
208 BCE, Li Ssu was executed and : Hasdrubal was defeated and : prince, Massinissa, Scipio ! been Rome’s greatest enemy.
a new army, led by Liu Bang, a : killed at the River Metaurus in : defeated Hannibal’s last army at
man of peasant origins, emerged : northern Italy, denying Hannibal : Zama in 2026CE. The peace terms
: The Continence of Scipio
to challenge the Qin. By 2068CcE, : crucial reinforcements. By 2048ceE, : the Carthaginians now had to : Scipio was noted for his mercy. In
the Qin Empire was fragmented : many of Hannibal's south-Italian ; accept were much harsher. All of : this 19th-century painting, he Is
and Xiang Yu and Liu Bang were at : allies had deserted him, and when : their territory was forfeit save a : seen handing back a captured
war with one another. In 202BCE, : Scipio landed with a Roman army : band around Carthage itself; their Carthaginian woman to her fiancé.
Xiang Yu committed suicide after
A brilliant tactician, Hannibal's | being defeated at Gaixia. With no
string of victories against the one left to oppose him, Liu Bang
Romans from 2188CE was had himself declared emperor as
not matched by the strategic Gaozu, the first ruler of the Han
judgement to convert them dynasty (see 200-171 BcE).
into final victory. Following With Hannibal making little
the surrender of Carthage in | headway in southern Italy, the
201 BCE, Hannibal served Romans embarked on a policy of
as the city’s suffete (chief picking off the allies of Carthage.
magistrate] until the Romans Their first target was Philip V of
had him exiled in 195Bce. He Macedonia, whose attacks on
then offered his service to a Illyria in 215 BCE had provoked the
succession of Rome's | First Macedonian War (215-205
enemies before poisoning / BCE) with Rome. In 211BCE, the
himself in Bithynia. Romans allied with the Aetolians,
| who fought the Macedonians on
land while the Romans launched
: 50,000 of them. But Hannibal _ naval attacks. Philip’s invasion
: did not march immediately on of Aetolia in 207 8ceE forced the
: Rome, and his campaign lost Aetolians to sue for peace the next =
: momentum. Although Hannibal year, and though the Romans sent
: captured much of southern Italy, fresh forces in 205 BCE, the war
: including the key city of Capua in ended with a recognition of the
: 2118ce, by 212BcE the Romans status quo between the two sides. :
: had raised 25 fresh legions and In Spain, the Romans had
stood ready to carry the war back retaken Saguntum in 2126CE, but
: to the Carthaginians. _ a disastrous defeat the following
year in which both consuls died
looked set to destroy the Roman
oe < : . r ss
The royal entourage of Gaozu, the first emperor of the Han, depicted in the mountains of China. This wall painting shows Judah
Gaozu was one of the few Chinese rulers to come from a peasant background. Maccabee’s revolt in Jerusalem.

THE FIRST HAN EMPEROR OF : the beginnings of political Mauryan general, assassinated including the Satavahanas, the THE THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR
CHINA, GAOZU, died in 1958CE, consolidation in central Japan, : the last Mauryan ruler (see Kalingas, and the Indo-Greek ended In 168BCeE, when Paullus
when his successor, Hui Ti, was : especially around the lower Nara : 2658Ce). He is said to have kingdoms of Bactria. defeated Perseus at the Battle of
just 15. Hui Ti fell under the sway © basin (near Osaka). persecuted Buddhists, marking Bactria (in modern Afghanistan) Pydna. A purge of anti-Roman
of his mother, the empress Lu, : In India, the Sunga dynasty : the beginning of the religion's had broken away from Seleucid elements swept through the
who took power for herself on his : took power in Magadha in 1858ce, : decline in its Indian homeland. He control around 275BCE, but a Greek cities, and Macedonia was
premature death in 188BCE. : when its founder Pusyamitra : also fought a long series of wars : series of Greek kings continued broken up into four republics to
Under her rule China was : Sunga (r.185-151 Bce}, a former : with Magadha’s neighbours, : to rule there, starting with prevent it recovering its strength.
invaded by the Hsiung-nu from Diodotus around 2508CcE. Another In 1508cE, Spartan attempts
the north and the kingdom of Indo-Greek dynasty emerged in to get the Romans to intervene
Nan-yueh to the south, and it India, and became powerful in a quarrel with the Achaean
was only under Gaozu’s grandson "under Menander I[c.165- League [a group of Greek
130.8cE), an important patron of city-states] coincided with an
Buddhism. Under the Indo-Greek anti-Roman revolt in Macedonia.
geometrical kings, a new school of art By 148BCceE, the Macedonians had
patterns : emerged around Gandhara, which been defeated and the Romans
and shapes : fused Buddhist iconography and turned their attention to the
Greek naturalism. Gradually, Achaeans. The Roman consul
: these easternmost Greeks came L. Mummius quickly routed the
: under pressure from Scythian Archaeans and took Corinth,
: and Yuezhi nomads and in 1258cE which he razed to the ground. The

THE NUMBER Bactria collapsed. The last

Indo-Greek kingdom of the
various leagues of Greek cities
/ were dissolved and Greece lost
OF REGIONS _ Punjab survived until 10cE. | its independence, becoming the

THAT MADE UP , The Roman victory against

Philip V of Macedon (see
Roman province of Achaea.

HAN CHINA 210 BCE] in the Second

Macedonian War (200-197 8cE]}
did not lead to permanent
40-|
Wen Ti (r.180-157 BcE} that acquisitions in Greece,
stability was restored. and the Romans withdrew Captured
By 143BCe, the number of their army in 194BCE. 30
commanderies [regions] After the death of Philip V
under central Han control had in 179 BCE, his son Perseus 20-4 f
risen from 13 to a total of 40. presided over worsening
In Japan, the Middle Yayoi relations with Rome, and
period (c.200-100 BCE) saw an in 171 BCE a Third Macedonian
increase in population — possibly 1000S)
[IN
SOLIDERS
OF
NUMBER
War broke out. Initial Roman (EE teeny Ne
to as high as 600,000 people - and : campaigning achieved little Romans Macedonians
:; except the alienation of their COMBATANTS
Greek allies, but a more
Yayoi vase Battle of Pydna
The Yayoi period in Japanese history disciplined approach under
| The Macedonian army led by
(c.300 BCE to 250 CE) is named for the the consul Aemilius Paullus
Perseus was destroyed at the Battle
site near Tokyo where its pottery (see 1708cE} yielded better | of Pydna. The Romans killed 20,000
was first found. : results. Macedonians and captured 11,000.
 at
i The ruins of Carthage , which was burnt and ritually cursed after its capture in
146 BCE. Anew Roman town was founded near the city around 48BCE.

After the end of the Second Punic

: War, in 202BcE, the Romans had
: : the Elder, who made a series of
: speeches to the Senate calling for 44 | SHUDDER TO THINK
: allowed their ally King Massinissa
! of Numidia to encroach on
: the destruction of Carthage.
: The first two years of the Third
THAT ONE DAY SOMEONE
: Carthaginian territory. The peace
: conditions that ended the war
: Punic war saw ineffective Roman
: attacks on towns around Carthage.
MAY GIVE THE SAME ORDER
: forbade the Carthaginians to wage : In 1478CE, a new commander was
= appointed, Scipio Aemilianus,
FOR ROME. 99
: who transformed Rome's fortunes
‘(4 CARTHAGE F : in the war within a year.
_ Scipio Aemilianus, Roman general and consul, on giving the order
| to burn Carthage, from Plutarch’s Apophthegmata

MUST BE : Carthaginean tophet In 167BCE, the Seleucid ruler

_DESTROYED. 99 : Amemorial stone from the tophet : Antiochus IV outlawed Jewish

: (cemetery) at Carthage, showing religious practices in Judaea, IN CHINA, RAIDS BY NOMADIC : capital, under which a Jewish
Tanit, the goddess of the heavens. ‘leading to the revolt of Judah HSIUNG-NU TRIBES from 1778CE : dynasty ruled until Jerusalem was
Cato the Elder, Roman statesman : Maccabee and his brothers in gravely threatened the Han : captured by the Romans in 638CE.
made to pay an annual fine 164BcE. Judah Maccabee entered i dynasty's northern borders. In In the Iberian Peninsula, the
: of 500 talents. In 151BCce, the : Jerusalem, reconsecrated the 139 BCE the imperial envoy, Zhang » Romans had conquered most of
war without Roman approval. : Carthaginian government sent a : temple, and re-established Qian, set out to Central Asia to : southern Spain and parts of
Unable to act, the Carthaginians ; military force to relieve a town that : Judaism. The Seleucid kingdom _ seek out possible allies against : Portugal (where the Lusitanians
: were reduced to sending : had been besieged by Massinissa, : then continued to decline [see the Hsiung-nu. His epic journey : vigorously resisted them) by
: embassies to Rome to protest at : and the Romans reacted by : also 2808cE), with the overthrow helped scout the way for Chinese : 174BCcE. A revolt by the Lusitanian
Massinissa’s behaviour. However, ' declaring war. This was the Third : of its ruler Demetrius !in 150Bce | expansion as far as Dunhuang, and » leader Viriathus from 147 BCE was
: Rome sided with its ally, and one : Punic War (149-146BcE]. Rome's by Alexander Balas rapidly leading the foundation of a number of new : joined by several Celtiberian
: Carthaginian embassy in 1628CcE : War was encouraged by the : to the loss of the key satrapies Central Asian commanderies by | tribes in 1448CE. This rebellion
even resulted in Carthage being ' anti-Carthaginian senator Cato ! (provinces) of Media and Susiana. 1048ceE. Zhang Qian was held : petered out after Viriathus was
captive by the Hsiung-nu for some : murdered in 1408CE. In 133BCE,
_ years during his journey before he : Numantia, the main centre of the
was able to make an escape. revolt, finally fell to the Romans
Under emperor Wu (141-87 8cE) after a bitter siege. Its population
the Chinese launched several : was sold into slavery and Rome
offensives against the Hsiung-nu, : was left in control of all of Iberia,
particularly in 121 BCE and 1198CE, : except the far north of Spain.
after which the frontier was quiet The Third Punic War came to
for almost 20 years. : an end when Scipio Aemilianus
In the Near East, the shrunken : blocked Carthage’s harbour then
_ and near-helpless Seleucid : launched a successful attack on
realm (see 1708CE} was riven by : the city itself in spring 1468CE.
civil wars and prey to interference : The last Carthaginian defenders
After the overthrow of the last king in 50768Cce, orders. Later elections for the consulate became | | from the Parthians, the : died in an inferno in the city’s
Rome became a republic, ruled by two annually bitterly contested as the office provided great Hasmonaeans, and, increasingly, : main temple. The defeat of
elected consuls. Over time the consuls came potential for enrichment and personal and family the Romans. In 142BCceE, the : Carthage brought its 118-year
to be supported by other magistrates (praetors glory. After Augustus became emperor in 27 BCE | Maccabees succeeded in wresting : struggle against Rome to an end.
and quaestors], and tribunes of the plebs who had the office of consul lost any real power, being Jerusalem from Seleucid control : The Romans burnt the whole city
a special role in protecting the rights of the lower increasingly awarded to imperial favourites. and established a Hasmonaean : and deported its population to
| kingdom, with Jerusalem as its ! prevent any Carthaginian revival.
466 HOWEVER MUCH YOU MAY
TRY TO DELAY, YOU ARE FATED TO
MEET THE SAME DEATH AS | DID. 99
Tiberius Gracchus, Roman official, speaking in a dream to his
brother Gaius; from an account by Cicero

ache ING fire &

This 17th-century silk painting froma history of Chine se emperors

shows the Emperor Wudi greeting a scholar.

SAKA (SCYTHIAN) TRIBESMEN : In southern and central India, | IN PALESTINE, THE HASMONEAN In North Africa, the Romans
: faced a serious challenge when
44: YOU DO
invaded Punjab, northern India,
in about 125BceE. They gradually
: the Satavahanas began their
: rise to power after the breakup of
KINGDOM (see 146-131 BCE} had
| continued its expansion until the : Micipsa, the son of their former WELL TO
occupied more territory, ending : the Mauryan Empire in the 2nd fall of Jerusalem to the Seleucid : ally Massinissa of Numidia (see
: 170-147 sce], died in 118BcE. The
_CONSIDER
a brief period of Indo-Greek unity
(see 200-171 BcE) under the reign
: century BCE (see 200-171 BCE).
: From his capital in the Deccan, the
' Antiochus VII in 131 BCE. However,
during the reign of John Hyrcanus : Romans ordered the kingdom be THE OFFICE
of Antialcidas around 1108ceE. Led : third Satavahana king, Satakarni, (r.134-104 Bce) it recovered much : divided between Micipsa’s nephew
: Jugurtha and his sons. Jugurtha
YOUR OWN,
by King Maues, the Sakas took
the kingdom of Gandhara and its
: extended his sway considerably
: around 506CE, although he and
| of the ground that had been lost.
Alexander Jannaeus (r.103-76 : rejected this, killing one cousin FOR YOU
capital Taxila in about 80BCE. : later Satavahana rulers struggled ) sce] enlarged the kingdom until it : and attacking the other, Adherbal, BOUGHT IT. 99
After Maues died (c.608cE], the © to contain the Saka and Kushan occupied most of modern Israel : who fled to Rome. After a brief
| and the West Bank. After defeats division of Numidia between Julius Caesar's father chastising
Saka kingdom collapsed, but it » threats from the northwest.
the future dictator Sulla for having
was revived under his son Azes | ‘In Rome, social turmoil had by the Nabataean king Aretas III in Jugurtha and Adherbal, Jugurtha
corruptly bought office in 94BCE;
(r.58-c.30.8cE}, who conquered : erupted over the distribution of | 848cE and internal strife following : renewed his attack on his cousin from Lives by Plutarch
much of northwest India. The : public land held by the Senate. | Alexander's death, the - and the Romans became involved.
Sakas held this region until the : Tiberius Gracchus, who was Hasmoneans were ak,

rise of the Kushan Empire during : tribune of the plebs in 1338ce, | increasingly vulnerable Following several disastrous
the 1st century CE. : sought to ensure that plots of this to Roman interference. : years of campaigning from
- land would be handed over to : 1118ce, the Romans sent Quintus
: poorer families. When the Senate : Caecilius Metellus, who captured
: obstructed his plans, he tried to : Jugurtha’s strongholds one by
: extend his tribunate so that he : one. In 1088cE, Gaius Marius
: could pursue his aim. A mob : replaced Metellus. Finally,
: organized by senators opposed } trapped in the far west ofhis
: to the plans beat him to death in : territory, Jugurtha was handed to
. the Forum. Tiberius’s brother : the Romans by his father-in-law
: Gaius became tribune in 123BcE : Bocchus of Mauretania.
: and tried to carry on his brother's In Gaul, two Germanic tribes,
: work. He also reduced the : the Cimbri and Teutones, had
Senate’s role in dispensing justice, | : been defeating the Romans since
: and pushed through a law to allow : 1078CcE, notably at Arausio in
: the sale of subsidized grain to the : 1058cE, where Roman losses
: poor. In 122BCE, the Senate : reached 80,000. Marius took
: declared Gaius an enemy of the | | command of the defence against
state, due to his plans to extend : the Germans on his return from
: Roman citizenship more widely in : North Africa, and in 102BceE
: Italy. He killed himself, and By the late 2nd century BCE, the Roman army was experiencing | | vanquished the Teutones at Aquae
: thousands of his political difficulty recruiting from the traditional propertied classes. Gaius » Sextiae in Gaul. He next crushed
: supporters were executed. Marius changed this by opening the army to those who fell below = the Cimbri at the Battle of
the normal property qualification. The eagle became the universal : Vercellae in 101 BCE. He was
Amravati relief carving
legionary standard for the first time, and the legions themselves _ = rewarded with an unprecedented
This carving depicts the life of the were reformed as a heavy infantry force. From this point onward : sixth consulship in 1008CE.
Buddha. It comes from Amravati in Roman light infantry and cavalry were organized into “auxiliary” In China, Emperor Wudi
Andra Pradesh, southeast India, one units, which were recruited from non-citizens. __ (r.141-878ce] strengthened the
of the capitals of the Satavahanas. : Han Empire's administrative
 Maiden Castle hill-fort in Britain underwent several phases of rebuilding after
it was begun around 6008CE, reaching its final form about 500 years later.

| AFTERHIS VICTORY AT VERCELLAE, : Senate had voted to put Marius in

(see 110-91 BCE) Marius became charge of the campaign. Enraged,
Rome’s dominant politician, but : Sulla entered Rome with his troops
| the brutal behaviour of his ally : and siezed power. He moved
Saturninus, tribune of the plebs, : against Mithridates in 89 BCE, and
provoked the Senate. Political : had driven him out of Greece by
violence flared, and in 100BcE : 848CE. Sulla returned to Rome,
Marius had to march an army into : defeated his remaining opponents
Rome. Saturninus was killed in the (including the aged Marius}, and
ensuing riot. As Marius’s power : was appointed dictator in 82BCE.
| waned, discontent rose among Sulla took savage revenge on the
Italians without Roman citizenship. Marians, packed the Senate with
| In 91BCE, this erupted into the : his supporters, and curtailed the
_ Social War. A protégé of Marius, : powers of the tribunes. Anti-Sullan
Lucius Sulla (c.138-788CE}, took a : forces regrouped around Quintus
| key role in suppressing the revolt, : Sertorius, who had fled to Spain.
: Captured in stone
which was largely over by 88BCE, : After Sulla died in 788CE, the
: The Danzante carvings at Monte
: Alban, Mexico, were once thought
albeit with some concessions : Senate sent Pompey to deal with
: to be of dancers, but they are now _ offered by Rome to the rebels. : Sertorius. His military efforts were
: believed to represent the mutilated Sulla was elected consul in 88 : ineffective; only the assassination
: bodies of enemies captured in war. | BCE. That same year, while waiting of Sertorius allowed Pompey to
to sail with his army to Greece to : return victorious to Italy in 71 BCE.
: system by beginning civil service counter the threat posed by the In 73 BCE, a slave revolt led by
: examinations. Official positions _ king of Pontus, Mithridates VI the gladiator Spartacus, broke
: for academics had been | (134-63 Bce), Sulla heard that the : out near Naples and grew into the
: established in 1368CcE, most serious revolt Rome had ever
consolidating the ruling house’s : faced. Eventually, the rebel slaves
stranglehold on the intellectual ! were trapped in southern Italy and
: life of China. In 106B8ceE, Wudi : defeated by the Roman General
: appointed 13 regional
: inspectors to monitor the
behaviour of government officials,
raised taxes, and forbade private
70,000 SPARTACAN
: Marcus Licinius Crassus in 718CE.
By the 1st century BCE, the Celtic
peoples of southern Britain had
' started to expand their existing
REBELS - |
coin-minting. His armies pushed hill-forts into oppida (“towns”)
deep into Central Asia. By 1088CE, : that were defended by extensive
: the Han Empire had reached its 6,000 | : fortifications. The greatest oppida
: largest extent. : were formidable obstacles to
In Mexico, the population of : attackers and some were royal
Monte Alban had reached about spartican rebels : capitals, complete with palaces.
: 17,000 by around 1008cE. Monte crucified
: Alban’s control began to reach | The rebellion by Spartacus Sacred offering
; beyond the immediate vicinity of | Crassus crucified slaves along the This 1st-century BCE British Celtic
: the Valley of Oaxaca, and many Appian Way, which led to Rome, as shield was discovered in the River
: large stone platforms and public a warning to any others who might Thames, where it had probably been
monuments were built in the city. | plana similar insurrection. : thrown as an offering to a river god.
 | ANG |
VAL OMY pat

| EAS

Mound City, Ohio, USA, contains a cluster of more than A reconstruction of the Roman ramparts at Alesia,
20 Hopewell earthwork burial mounds. where Caesar forced Vercingetorix to surrender.

GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR BECAME area of southern Gaul. He took

AFTERPOMPEY’SRETURNTOITALY :
CONSUL OF ROME for the first time advantage of the migration of the
(see 90-718BCE], he was elected
in 59 BcE. Having served a term as Germanic Helvetii across Gaul
consul for the year, despite still
governor of Spain, he was popular : towards Italy to cross over the
being below the legal minimum
: Alps and defeat Ariovistus, the
‘THE NUMBER
age. When war broke out with among the equestrians (wealthy
non-senators}, but resistance to Helvetian king. Caesar returned to
Mithridates of Pontus again, the
him from the Senate (and the Rome, but his deputy, Labienus,
Romans, under general Lucullus,
OF MILITARY stayed in Gaul and the following
‘TRIUMPHS
forced Mithridates to retreat to obstructiveness of his co-consul
Bibulus) led him to join with year he pressed on to conquer the
Armenia, which was ruled by his

“AWARDED
son-in-law Tigranes. However, Pompey and Crassus, Belgae of northwestern Gaul. By
and the three 558CE, Caesar had subdued most

TO POMPEY
Lucullus’s troops mutinied in
68BCE, and Pompey was sent to dominated Rome : of Gaul and had acquired a vast
replace him. Tigranes surrendered until 53 BCE new province for Rome, without
and Mithridates retired north of the as the “First ever receiving any approval
Black Sea. Having achieved his : in Central Asia were replaced by Triumvirate”. from the Senate.
aim, Pompey entered Syria, where . the establishment of small, In 58 BCE, In 568CE, an anti-Roman revolt
he deposed the last Seleucid king, : permanent colonies. _ Caesar was broke out among the Veneti of
and then captured Jerusalem. : In Mexico, the city of Cuiculco in | appointed northern Gaul, apparently
In China, the Han Dynasty : the south of the Valley of Mexico governor of supported by the Celtic tribes of
retreated from modernizing : was destroyed by a volcano some Narbonensis, Britain. Caesar responded by
policies under Zhaodi (r.87-74 BCE} ' time in the 1st century BCE. Its the Roman- crossing over to Britain in 55BCE
and Xuandi (r.74-49 Bce). The Huo : disappearance opened the way for occupied with two legions. A storm
family, which had dominated the : Teotihuacan, to assert its control
government for decades was over the whole valley and become
removed from power, and its Mexico's dominant power for
leading members executed. more than 500 years.
Government expenditure was By the end of the 1st century
cut, and aggressive expeditions BCE, the Adena peoples of Ohio,
in eastern North America, were
beginning to develop into the
Hopewell bird Hopewell culture. These people
Clay pipes, often in lived by hunting and gathering,
the shape of birds,
but they also built large,
are one of the most
characteristic products elaborate burial mounds
for their chieftains. Caesar at
of the Hopewell culture.
the Louvre
Wearing the laurel
wreath of a victorious
general, this statue is
part of Caesar's cult of
personality.

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 44 ...[CAESAR] DREAMT THAT HE WAS FLYING
| ABOVE THE CLOUDS, AND NOW THAT HE WAS
CLASPING THE HAND OF JUPITER. 99
f Suetonius, recounting Julius Caesar's dream the night before his
" murder in the Senate House in 44BCE; from Lives of the Caesars

: prevented the arrival of KEY : just before a session of the

reinforcements, causing him to —» Caesar’s movements : Senate. If they had hoped to seize
retreat, but he returned the next EUROPE @ Siege : power, the conspirators were
year with five legions (around Caesar's victories : disappointed: Mark Antony, one
30,000 men). The Britons did not : of Caesar's leading supporters,
resist at first, but later, led by : came to the fore in Rome, while
Cassivelaunus, chief of the : Caesar's great-nephew and
PARTHIAN
Catuvellauni, they vigorously EMPIRE :; adoptive son Octavian received
: opposed the Romans all the : widespread support in a bid to
Roman Civil Wars
: way to the River Thames. When ' take up the mantle of his father.
MAURETAN\D Caesar won Italy easily, but he had
: Cassivelaunus's stronghold at to fight hard to overcome Pompey
In India, Kalinga (modern
: Wheathampstead fell, he sued for in his Greek stronghold, and then : Orissa), which had been a client
: peace, and Caesar returned to AFRICA XANGA @ nee
| kingdom of the Mauryas (see
PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM Pompey’s sons and remaining
' Rome with hostages and the OF EGYPT supporters in Africa and Spain. : 200-171 8CE), rose to prominence
: promise oftribute. ; under Kharavela in the mid-1st
: Atthe end of 548ce, shortly after | CAESARENDEDTHEGALLICREVOLT : 49 BCE, he forced the Pompeians : March 45B8CE he defeated Gnaeus centuryBCe. Kharavela expanded
: Caesar's second expedition to by the end of 51BCcE, but by this : there to surrender. In December, : Pompey at Munda, effectively Kalinga far to the north and east,
Britain, another revolt in Gaul, this point the Triumvirate had ended: : Caesar set off for Greece in ending the civil war. > conquering the Sunga capital of
© time led by the Senones, wiped out | Pompey’s supporters had turned : pursuit of Pompey. A military Caesar was now all-powerful. : Pataliputra in Magadha. A strong
: much of the Roman force there. against Caesar, and Crassus had : engagement at Dyrrachium in : He was made dictator in 48BCcE, : patron of the Indian religion of
: After putting down the revolt, been killed in battle in 53BceE. The ; July went against Caesar, but he : and in 44BCE he was given the : Jainism, Kharavela established
: Caesar’s attentions were diverted | Senate ordered Caesar to disband - fought back before Pompey’s : office for life. Concerns over : trading contacts as far afield
to Rome, where political violence his army or be declared an enemy : support could grow, and won a : Caesar's power - in particular, : as southeast Asia.
had resulted in the murder of his of the state. Instead, he crossed resounding victory at Pharsalus. fears that he planned to make
: former ally Clodius, and where | the Rubicon River into Italy with : Pompey took refuge in Egypt, himself king - led a group of about
: Murder of Caesar
: Pompey had been elected sole his troops in 49BCE. This was : where he was murdered on the : 60 conspirators to form around : Conspirators struck Caesar down
: consul in 52BCE, rupturing the illegal, constituting a declaration : orders of Ptolemy XIII, who senators Cassius and Marcus : with daggers. As he fell, Caesar saw
: Triumvirate. Emboldened by the . of war against the Senate. : hoped (in vain) to ingratiate : Brutus. They murdered Caesar : Marcus Brutus, a former protégé,
: turmoil in Rome, the Carnutes As Caesar marched towards : himself with Caesar. : on the Ides of March (15 March) ! and cried out “you too, child?”
: revolted in Gaul. They were Rome, town after town submitted After a short time in Egypt,
: joined by the Averni, led by | to him. Fearing Caesar, Pompey : Caesar returned to Rome,
: Vercingetorix, who won several left Rome and fled to Greece. where he raised money by
: skirmishes against Labienus. Caesar turned first to Spain, ; confiscating property from the
Vercingetorix also defeated Caesar where seven legions had : supporters of Pompey. In late
himself at Gergovia, but was then _ declared for Pompey. In August 47 ce, Caesar set sail for Africa,
: trapped at Alesia in September : where he defeated a new

(46 THE DIE

: 52BCE. The Romans constructed Pompeian army at Thapsus
: an encircling rampart around the (in modern Tunisia). Pompey’s
: Gauls’ position and managed to sons Gnaeus and Sextus escaped
" beat off a Gaulish relief force. With
: no hope left, Vercingetorix
: surrendered and was taken back
IS CAST. 99 to Spain to continue the
resistance from there, and
Caesar annexed the kingdom of
to Rome, where he was strangled : King Juba of Mauretania, who
Julius Caesar to his troops on
: in 46BCE after appearing in crossing the Rubicon in 49 BCE; had supported them. Caesar then
: Caesar's triumphal parade. | from Plutarch's Parallel Lives : proceeded to Spain, where in :
 Augustus built a new Forum at Rome,
This 18th-Cantey painting shows Mark Antony Fleeing ft from the battle scene at Actium
in 31BCE. Many of his supporters defected to Octavian's side as a result. ' with an imposing new temple to Mars.

: agreed, with Mark Antony ruling HAVING DEFEATED HIS ENEMIES,

IN ROME, THE PERIOD AFTER THE
ASSASSINATION of Julius Caesar : the east and Octavian governing Octavian did not take on the title
saw rising tensions between Mark : the west; Lepidus had to make do of dictator, as Julius Caesar had.
Antony and Octavian, whom many : with Africa. The Triumvirate was He instead ruled informally as the
: renewed in 388CeE for a further princeps - the first man of the
THE NUMBER
viewed as Caesar's rightful heir.
The two almost came to blows five years, but it was clear that state. Having acquired control of
early in 438CE, when Octavian
OF YEARS : conflict between Octavian and
: Mark Antony could not long
Antony’s legions, he now had an
army of about 500,000 men. He
: THE SECOND
marched to raise the siege of
Mutina (Modena, Italy), where Mark : be postponed. disbanded more than half of these,

-‘TRIUMVIRATE
Antony was besieging Decimus However, Mark Antony was WARSHIPS
OF
NUMBER retaining 28 legions [about 150,000
Brutus, one of Caesar's assassins. : occupied with a war against soldiers], settling the remainder
Mark Antony was forced to retreat
to Gaul. When the Senate voted
RULED ROME : the Parthians, who allied with
: remnants of Cassius’s army and
Octavian Anthony and
Cleopatra
in colonies in Italy and abroad. In
27 BCE, Octavian gave up all his
to transfer Octavian’s legions to : attacked Syria in 398Ce_. In powers, ostensibly restoring the
: Battle of Actium
Decimus Brutus, Octavian realized : them at Philippi, in northern : 36BcE, Mark Antony invaded Republic. The Senate responded
: Octavian’s fleet outnumbered that of
he was being sidelined and formed : Greece, after which Cassius : Parthia itself - ostensibly to : Mark Antony and Cleopatra, with by granting him personal control
a three-way alliance with Mark : committed suicide. Three weeks : recover the legionary eagles : smaller more manoeuvrable ships, of Egypt, Gaul, Germany, Spain,
Antony and Marcus Lepidus, the : later, they destroyed the remnants : captured by the Parthians at the : and fresher, better trained crews. and Syria. He was also given the
governor of Transalpine Gaul. This : of Marcus Brutus's army. Mark : Battle of Carrhae (see 538CcE) title “Augustus” and, cementing
became the Second Triumvirate. : Antony stayed in the east until : -and advanced to the capital sufficient resources to besiege it. his position further, he was consul
The Triumvirate conducted a war : 4OBcE, when he returned to Italy to : Phraata, but he did not have In 33BCceE, the Triumvirate | each year from 27 to 23 BCE. Over
against Cassius and Marcus try to undermine the : expired and Octavian had the time, the Senate voted Augustus
Brutus, two more of Caesar's growing power of ' Senate declare Mark Antony a further powers, including that of
Suicide of Cleopatra
assassins, who had seized much Octavian. Their two : public enemy. The latter had lost imperium maius in 23 BCE, which
This 19th-century painting depicts
of the territory in the east. armies refused to fight, _the death of Cleopatra, who killed : popularity through his relationship gave him supreme authority in the
In 42BceE, Mark Antony and a de facto division : herself to avoid being captured by ; with Cleopatra, the Egyptian provinces he had not previously
and Octavian defeated of the Roman world was : Octavian and taken to Rome. : queen, and Octavian quickly governed, and the permanent
: rallied public opinion to himself. powers of a tribune of the plebs
A fleet was rapidly assembled, in 23BCE. Although the Senate was,
: and this destroyed Mark Antony's in theory, the supreme authority
: Naval force at Actium, off western in Rome, in practice no-one could
: Greece, in September 31 BCE. match Augustus's power, and he is
Mark Antony's land army then | seen as the first Roman emperor.
: defected to Octavian, and Antony North Africa had been a centre
: and Cleopatra fled to Greece, | of strong resistance to both Julius
: where Octavian caught up with Caesar and Augustus, who settled
; them in the summer of 308CE. | many army veterans there. In
The Roman warlord and the 25Bce, Augustus gave Mauretania
Egyptian queen both committed (western North Africa) to Juba Il
suicide, and Egypt was annexed to of Numidia. Juba, whose wife
: the Roman empire. Octavian was | was the daughter of Mark Antony
: now the unchallenged master of and Cleopatra, proved a reliable
/: the whole Roman world. Roman ally. Augustus still sent a
_ legion to garrison North Africa,
where it stayed for over 300 years.

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 44 THOSE WHO SLEW MY FATHER
I DROVE INTO EXILE... AND...
DEFEATED THEM IN BATTLE. 99
Augustus, from the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, the testament
of Augustus, in Ankara, Turkey

ee - %

| La Maison Carré, in Nimes, southern France, is one of the finest surviving

, Roman temples. It was built around 16BCE by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.

: In western Asia, the ruler of

: Galilee, Herod I, was allowed to 44 HE COULD JUSTLY BY 9BCE, DRUSUS HAD DEFEATED
THE MAIN GERMAN TRIBES and
: retain his position by Octavian,
: even though he had supported BOAST THAT HE HAD FOUND had reached the River Elbe. After
his death, Augustus appointed
: Mark Antony. He was even given
: extra territories, including parts
[Tl BUILT OF BRICK AND Tiberius to replace him. Tiberius
won a series of victories in 8BCE,
: of Syria and Gaza. Herod had been
: appointed by Mark Antony in 42BCcE,
LEFT IT IN MARBLE. 99 but then mysteriously resigned
his offices and went into exilein
: and by 37BCE he had conquered Suetonius, on Augustus’s embellishment of the Rhodes. This left Gaius and Lucius
: the remains of the Hasmonean city of Rome; from Lives of the Caesars Caesar (both underage) as heirs
: kingdom (see 146-131 Bc). apparent to the Roman Empire.
: Herod remained a reliable ally In China, the reign of Yuandi
: of Rome until his death in 48ce. | AUGUSTUS’S MILITARY AND : when he died. Around this time, _ (49-33 BcE] saw the economic
POLITICAL SUCCESSES had relied : the Romans annexed the provinces retrenchment begun under Xuandi_:
: Emperor Augustus
largely on the abilities of Marcus : of Raetia (in modern Switzerland) (see 70-61 BCE] continue. Some
: Augustus, seen here dressed as a
| Vipsanius Agrippa, who rose from : and Noricum (between the Alps semi-independent kingdoms that
: priest, acquired the title of pontifex a minor family to become consul in : and the Danube], moving the the early Han had suppressed
: maximus (chief priest] on the death 37, 28, and 27BCE. After Agrippa : empire's frontiers almost to a line began to reappear. Yuandi and his : Khazneh at Petra
i of Lepidus in 12BCE. | had married Augustus's daughter ‘ along the Rhine and the Danube. successors Chengdi (r.33-7 BCE} : The Khazneh is one of Petra’s finest
Julia, he received numerous Supporters of Tiberius, now the and Aidi (r.7-1 cE) also created : monuments. Carved out of asheer
promotions, including tribune of : most high-profile general, tried numerous marquisates, many of : cliff-face, it was probablya royal tomb
the plebs in 188cE. Augustus's own
: - perhaps of Aretas IV (c.9BCE-40 cE].
: to have him displace Lucius and which were granted to the sons of
appointed heir had died in 258ce, : Gaius Caesar as Augustus’s heir. the new kings, weakening the
so he adopted Agrippa’s children, Augustus himself did little to state's central control. Chengdi | the succession of his half-nephew
| renaming them Gaius and Lucius : resolve the question of succession. lacked a male heir, resulting in : Aidi in 7B8CE. This caused dissent
Caesar. Agrippa seemed likely to : among nobles whose candidates
succeed Augustus, but in 12BcE he : for the throne had been overlooked.
| died unexpectedly, throwing open : The Nabataean kingdom of
the question of succession. The end of the Republic and : northern Arabia grew rich on its
By threatening to invade Parthia the reign of Augustus saw a : control of the spice trade from
in 20BceE, Augustus had engineered golden age in Latin literature. : southern Arabia, reaching its
the return of legionary standards The orator Cicero and the : height in the mid-1st century BCE
captured by the Parthians at historian Sallust marked the : under MalichosI (c.59-c.30BCE).
| Carrhae (see 538CE). In 168CcE, the height of late Republican : It then faced a growing threat on
Roman governor of Macedonia literature. After Augustus’s : its northern borders from Herod I.
began pushing towards the River rise to power, the poets Virgil : Adisputed succession in 9/8BCE
' Danube, and from 12 BcE Tiberius, (right; 70-19 Bce), author of : between Aretas IV and his chief
Augustus's stepson, the son of his the Eclogues and the epic : minister Syllaeus led the Romans
| | second wife Livia, moved north poem The Aeneid, and Horace : to take an interest in the area. An
_ from Illyria to create the Roman (65-88ceE], author of the : expedition led by Gaius, grandson
province of Pannonia (modern Odes and Carmen Saeculare, : of Augustus, may even have
Austria and Hungary). Tiberius’s both flourished under the : briefly annexed Nabataea in
brother Drusus pushed Roman patronage of Maecenas, a : 3-1BCE, but the Romans pulled
control across the Rhine towards close confidant of Augustus. : back, allowing Nabataea another
| the Elbe between 12 and 9BCE, : century of independence.

se”
5 oe
NPR cPoe ee
x 3OF< ons QEORE sO

Pca et Maes,

o7
44 QUINCTILIUS VARUS, GIVE
ME BACK MY LEGIONS. 99
Emperor Augustus, on hearing of the Roman defeat in the Teutoberg Forest, 9CE

: (China's administrative regions], : Consolidating ruler | GENGSHI’S REIGN AS CHINESE

WANG MANG WAS IN CHARGE OF
BOTH THE CHINESE ARMY and the ' and reimposed several state : Rather than extending EMPEROR WAS SHORT. He
government under Emperor Ping ' monopolies. Serious floods on the : Roman territory through foreign alienated the Red Eyebrows and
: conquests, Tiberius concentrated on angered many of China’s nobility
Di (r.18cE-6cE). He strengthened : Yellow River in 4-11 led to famine
: strengthening the existing empire. and bureaucrats by moving the
his influence by marrying his and revolts in rural areas. In 23,
daughter to the young emperor. : the peasant rebels called the “Red capital from Luoyang back to
On Ping Di's death, many of the _ Eyebrows’ joined forces with Han : When Emperor Augustus (see Chang'an. Much of China had
: loyalists and overwhelmed Wang : 20-28ce] died in 14, Tiberius was; already slipped from Gengshi’s
: Mang’s armies. When the capital : his obvious heir (Lucius and Gaius grasp by 25, when Chang'an was
: Chang/’an fell, Gengshi became : Caesar having died). Tiberius sacked by the Red Eyebrows. The
: the first emperor of the restored : already possessed most of emperor was deposed and
: Han dynasty. One of his first acts » Augustus’s powers and had the replaced by Guang Wudi (25-57),
: was to make Luoyang his capital. : loyalty of the Praetorian Guard | who is regarded as the first

THE NUMBER In Europe, Tiberius (see 20-2

: BCE} returned to Germany in 4 to
: - the elite army unit based in
: Rome, which Augustus had
Eastern Han emperor. The new
ruler had first to face a civil war;
OF DIFFERENT »| subdue the tribes there. The : established. Although there were by 27, he had defeated the Red
: moves in the senate to restore Eyebrows, but it took him until 36
TYPES OF COIN Marcomanni resisted, but a
planned attack on them in 6 was : the Republic, Tiberius rapidly to overcome the last of the
ISSUED BY postponed because of a revolt in : squashed them. His reign (to 37] warlords who opposed him. In 37,
: was quiet at home. Germanicus, he abolished all except three of
WANG MANG : Pannonia, which took three years
: to quell. Anew Roman commander, : Tiberius’s nephew, campaigned Guard, took day-to-day power, but the kingdoms that had sprung up
: Quinctilius Varus, was sent to : extensively in Germany up to 16, his rule was tyrannical and in 31
nobility rejected Wang Mang's : Germany, but his corrupt rule : but his efforts led to no permanent : Tiberius suddenly reasserted
: reacquisition of territory beyond himself and had Sejanus executed. | MONGOLIA Sea
choice of successor and rose up : angered the German tribes. In 9, of

: Varus was ambushed in the : the Rhine and he died of poisoning gobi Japan
in revolt. Wang Mang easily put
KOREA JAPAN
them down, and in 9 he took the : Teutoberg Forest, and his three : in 19. After Drusus, Tiberius’s son,
Ponte di Tiberio, Rimini, Italy
title of first Xin emperor. He : legions were annihilated. Augustus : died in 23, theemperortiredof : Completed in the reign of Tiberius,
ia
reissued the currency, forbade - then ordered a withdrawal to the : public life and retired to the this bridge carried the Via Aemilia East
China
the selling of private slaves, : Rhine, where the Roman frontier : island of Capri, off Naples. (which ran from Riminia to Piacenza] Sea
reorganized the commanderies : remained for the next 400 years. : Sejanus, head of the Praetorian across the River Marecchia.
Taiwan

South
China
Sea

| KEY
§ Qin China in 2068ce
Territory added by Former
Han Dynasty 2068cE-9cE
— Great Wall under the Han

| Chinese Han Empire

When Guang Wudi began the
| Eastern Han Dynasty in 25, Chinese
control extended deep into Central
| Asia. Much ofthis territory had been
won under the Western Han Dynasty.

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“his ornamental brick from China's Eastern Han period shows
a procession that includes horse-drawn carriages. _

_ JESUS CHRIST (c.48CE-33.cE] IN INDIA, GROUPS OF YUEZHI

NOMADS occupying land in Bactria
: Colchester, the capital of the
: principal British resistance leader,
united under Kujula Kadphises » Caractacus. Claudius himself
Jesus, a carpenter from (30-80), who founded the Kushan made a brief appearance at the
Nazareth, began his ministry in Empire and conquered parts of : fall of Colchester, before returning
his early 30s. He taught in the Gandhara. Although few details : to Rome to bask in the glory of
Jewish tradition, calling for of Kujula’s reign are known, he ' having acquired a new province.
the reform of the Temple and minted coins in imitation of both : In 47, the Romans paused briefly
for the love of one’s neighbour Greek and Roman models, : in their conquest of Britain, having :
to take precedence over the demonstrating that Bactria and : reached a line roughly between i
strict observance of religious northwestern India remained very : the River Humber in the east and
law. Jesus gathered a group of much a cultural crossroads. : the River Severn in the west. They
twelve disciples around him, In northwestern Europe, a group : began establishing legionary
but was targeted by Jewish of disgruntled officers of Rome's fortresses in their new province,
conservatives afraid of his Praetorian Guard assassinated including at Exeter and Lincoln.
growing influence. In 33, the Caligula in January 41, tired of : Aulus Plautius’s replacement,
Roman authorities in Judaea his cruel and irrational behaviour : Ostorius Scapula invaded Wales, ‘(10Bce-54ce)
executed Jesus by crucifixion, (see 24-40). In 43, the new : where Caractacus was continuing
but the disciples, convinced | emperor, Claudius (r.41-54), sent : the resistance. In 50, he defeated Caligula’s uncle, Claudius,
that Jesus had risen from the an invasion force of four legions : an army of Silurian and Ordovician was an unlikely candidate for
dead, continued his teaching. led by Aulus Plautius, governor tribesmen, and Caractacus fled Roman emperor. However, he
of Pannonia, to conquer Britain. : to the imagined safety of the turned out to be intelligent
The Romans landed unopposed : Brigantes tribe in northern and forceful, putting down
under his predecessors, and : legions in 39, Caligula marched at Richborough, pushed on to : England. However, the Brigantian two revolts in 42, after which
reinstated Luoyang as the capital. : them to the coast opposite Britain London, and then captured : queen, Cartimandua, handed he executed more than 300
He faced renewed tension with : to launch an invasion; when they : Caractacus over to the Romans, senators. He was unfortunate
the Hsiung-nu on China's got there, he merely had them = = and Roman Britain remained in his choice of wives: he had
northern frontier, but failed to take : collect seashells along the beach. |= relatively trouble free during the his wife Messalina executed
advantage of their split into two Independent Jewish kingdoms . = following decade. after she had an affair, and
rival chiefdoms in 49. : in Palestine collapsed as Roman The 40s saw a struggle in the her successor Agrippina
The Roman Empire once again : power grew, creating a powerful ' } early Christian community (Caligula’s sister] is reputed
faced an unclear succession at : ferment of religious change. : between those who wanted to to have poisoned him.
the death of Tiberius in 37. He had : John the Baptist preached in remain within the Jewish tradition
named two heirs, but Gemellus : the 20s, followed in around 30 4: and those, led by Paul, who
: was soon pushed aside because : by anew preacher, Jesus. After : favoured the inclusion of gentiles : the Jews within the Roman
: Gaius, nicknamed Caligula ("little : Jesus's death in 33, his disciples © (non-Jews) in the Christian church. | empire, Paul ensured that
: boots”), was popular with the : began to spread his message : Paul began a series of missionary : Christianity spread sufficiently
: senate and the army. Caligula’s : more widely. By around 50, : Journeys in 46 which led him : to help it weather the storms of
behaviour as emperor became © communities of Christians, : through Anatolia and Greece to : persecution that began under the
increasingly erratic —- he had : as Jesus's followers were known, : Rome, where he was martyred : Emperor Nero in 64. By the late
Gemellus executed, and had many would be established throughout : around 62. A charismatic preacher, ; 4th century, Christianity would be
Christian catacomb, Rome
of Tiberius’s supporters killed. : Western Asia, with particularly At first, Roman Christians did not
Paul also wrote a powerful series : the majority religion within the
He also had his sister’s husband — ' large groups in Antioch and have their own cemeteries. Later, : of epistles (letters) to various : Roman Empire.
his heir apparent - condemned to : the first appearance of they buried their dead in underground : fledgling Christian groups. In
i death. After visiting the Rhineland : Christiansin Rome. complexes called catacombs. : appealing to a wider group than

De
 THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE KILLED
BY BOUDICCA’S ARMY DURING
THE ICENI REVOLT

The ruins at Masada, the last outpost of the Jewish revolt saainst the Romans,
which. began in 66.

7) wn = “3
yy w& 5 ~ sh ow rs) oO =; o

border region of Armenia, where

the Parthian king had installed of the Four Emperors”. First
his own candidate, Tiridates, as

w@

@ w@

(Co igranocerta and put in placea

Su pro-Roman king, Tigranes VI. His
th sion of a Parthian

Aulus Vitellius, 1

Salvius Ot

=5 }
a ana took the

eventually did in 66 taly, and the Vitellian

- Otho
Nero’s position as emperor won.
We Mo commited
committed
became increasingly precarious
( a further conspiracy when
conspiracy in 64, which prompted T, Flavius Vespasianus
Nero to order further
executions, including those
many senators. In early 68, a
revolt broke out, led by
Gaius Julius Vindex,
governor of Gallia
Lugdunensis
Shortly after the
revolt of Vindex, the
legion based in Spain
3 Jewish revolt in 66 proclaimed the
In Britain, the Ro governor, Sulpicius
f ] ous Iceni Galba, as emperor. Vindex’s
revolt was put down by Verginius Survivors
Rufus, the governor of Germany,
Roman invasion
but Nero panicked and
committed suicide, believing
When the Romans finally breached
da, all except seven
Rufus would be the next to try to mmitted suicide rather
claim his throne. Man
: %
tatinto
Ne
Roman hands
te
 Ce Pat

A fresco from Pompei - many of Pom pei’s elaborate frescoes survived for
nearly 2,000 years buried under the ash.

: Jewish revolts between BY THE MID-70S, CIVILIS’S REVOLT : destroyed by a volcanic eruption. far into Scotland, until a final
: 66 and 74 Ptolemais @ had fizzled out and the rest of : Showers of ash came raining ' defeat of the Caledonii at Mons
: Although the Jewish Sea of Vespasian’s reign was largely : down from Vesuvius, and those : Graupius (possibly near
: rebels of 66 initially (ry
% Galilee
peaceful. With a reputation for : who did not escape in time were : Aberdeen) made it likely the whole
Yy
! managed to gain control : overwhelmed by the pyroclastic : of Scotland would be annexed.
< Caesarea frugality, he restored the empire's
: ofa large part of %

: Palestine, by 69 they had °

[3
finances, imposing levies ona : flow (a fast-moving mass of hot : But emperor Domitian (81-96)
: lost control of all but the g
2)
number of provinces, including : gases, ash, and debris] from the : was facing trouble on the Danube
wy
: area around Jerusalem. v si10dv039 Egypt. By the time he died in 79, : volcano. Perhaps a tenth of the : and a legion was withdrawn from
x stability had been restored to : population of 20,000 died, : Britain around 86, leaving an
: KEY such an extent that the succession : including the naturalist Pliny the : insufficient force to garrison
Area of major revolt 66 | of his eldest son, Titus (r.79-81), Elder, who was commanding a : northern Scotland, which was
— Area of revolt in 69 was unopposed. : naval unit nearby and perished in : evacuated.
@ Siege Two months after the accession a failed rescue attempt. Domitian had managed to fend
X Jewish victory of Titus as Roman emperor, on 25 In Britain, the Roman- : off the threat from the
August 79 the city of Pompeii, controlled area continued to : Sarmatians, Marcomanni,
and
(Vespasian) (9-79) - the near modern Naples, was expand, with governor Petillius : Quadi along the Danube by 84,
: general in charge of Cerialis (71-74] occupying the : but war then erupted with the
: suppressing the Jewish northern English kingdom of : Dacians (of modern Romania]
; revolt —- set himself up as yet : Jewish laws caused great Brigantia. Julius Frontinus : who crossed the Danube and
another rival emperor. The whole : discontent. In 60, the rebuilding : (74-77) completed the subjugation : killed the governor of Roman
: of the East and the Balkans : of the Temple that Herod had : of Wales, defeating the Silures, : Moesia. By 86, Domitian had
defected immediately to : ordered built decades before was but it was left to Julius Agricola : defeated the Dacians, under their
' Vespasian. At a second battle : finished, and 20,000 unemployed (77-83/4) to send Roman armies ' new king, Decebalus. Dacia was
! near Cremona in October, » workmen added to the rising : not occupied by Rome, leaving
Vitellius’s forces were crushed. : tension. The Roman procurator : Decebalus in place to cause the
+ By December Vespasian’s army of Judaea aggravated these : Romans further trouble.
» had taken Rome and Vitellius : feelings with his heavy-handed
' was executed shortly afterwards. rule, and in 66 an uprising broke
Rome had an unchallenged out. Although the commanders of KEY
© ruler once again. : the uprising were competent, it @ Atrebates, absorbed 70s
Vespasian moved quickly to lacked political leadership and Iceni, conquered 60-61
re-establish the loyalty of the the Jewish strongholds were Brigantes, conquered 69-74
army, dismissing Vitellius’s gradually reduced, first by Roman expansion 43-47
: praetorian guard and recruiting : Vespasian and then by his son Roman expansion 47-50
' another. He also had to face a : Titus (39-81). In 70, Jerusalem Irish Sea Roman expansion 69-74
i serious revolt along the Rhine, came under siege, and in late Anglesey — a Roman expansion 79-84
@ Deva
' where Julius Civilis, a noble of August the city fell and the
: the Batavian people, joined forces Temple was destroyed. Perhaps bee gVirconium a”
: with dissident legionaries and as many as 200,000 people died, _ = G
eo
: almost established an many sacred Jewish treasures a Burcium
Romans in Britain
! independent Gallic empire. were taken to Rome, and
Figure from Pompeii “eo lsca By 74, Roman legions
Judaea had been under direct thousands of Jews were The bodies of those who died in the had reached the north
Cantiaci
Roman rule since the death of enslaved. Resistance continued | Pompeii eruption were coated in of England. They then
iomagus
: King Agrippa | in 44. Foreign rule at Masada until 74, when it fell _ volcanic ash, which then solidified, Isca Dumnoniorum e * ° . pushed north into
leaving their outlines behind.
Maiden Castle | engistbury Gallia Scotland until 83.
: and Roman insensitivity towards : after a two-year siege.
44 [AN EMPEROR] UNDER
WHOM EVERYBODY WAS ee
er
=
pat

PERMITTED 10 DO
EVERYTHING. 99
Fronto, Roman orator, on Emperor Nerva, from Cassius Dio’s
History of Rome

Trajan’s Column, in Rome, gives a visual account of Trajan’s campaigns

against Decebalus in the Dacian Wars.

DOMITIAN (51-96) BECAME ROMAN : EMPEROR TRAJAN (98-117) WAS : mountains and building a bridge
EMPEROR after the unexpected FROM A ROMAN FAMILY who had : across the Danube at Drobeta to
death of his brother, Titus (39-81). settled in Spain - he was the first allow easier access across the
Domitian had never commanded emperor to come from a Roman : river. Three years later, in 105, the
armies and was unprepared for province rather than Italy. Having : Senate declared that Decebalus
the exercise of supreme returned to Rome from Germany : had violated the treaty, and Trajan
power. He had some success in 100 to claim his throne, he : embarked on his Second Dacian
in his early campaigns, but started a new Dacian War against : War. This time the legions
he over-extended himself Decebalus in 101. From a base at : reached, and took, Sarmizegetusa
against the Dacians, and in Viminacium (in modern Serbia], : in 106. Decebalus fled and then
putting down a legionary he pushed into central Dacia, and ' committed suicide to avoid 165,500 kg
GOLD
revolt led by Saturninus, fought a major engagement at : capture. The Romans acquired an
the governor of Germania Tapae, in which both sides : enormous amount of treasure in
Superior. This distraction suffered serious losses. When : Dacia, which allowed Trajan to
allowed Decebalus, King of | Trajan’s legions neared the Dacian : embark on a building spree,
: The Dacian Fortune
the Dacians (r.87-106), to renew : Emperor Domitian royal capital at Sarmizegetusa © including the construction of a
: The large amount oftreasure Trajan
his war against Rome, and : Domitian’s reign began well, but Regia, Decebalus sued for peace, » new Forum in Rome. Dacia was : acquired in Dacia allowed him to
Domitian was forced to pay off the : his descent into tyranny proved too | agreeing to give up his army's : annexed as Rome's first province : build impressive monuments to
Dacians with an annual subsidy. ' much for his opponents, who had weapons and siege equipment, : across the Danube. It remained in : commemorate his Dacian victory.
The conspiracy of Saturninus : him assassinated. and to demolish his remaining : imperial hands for over 160 years.
led Domitian to become forts. The Roman army did not Some time around 106 the : campaign against Parthia itself
paranoid and he had many In Central Asia, the northern withdraw totally, establishing a : Roman governor of Syria annexed : that gave him greater success in
senators executed for treason. Hsiung-nu confederation (see legionary base near the : the Nabataean kingdom, which : the east than any previous Roman
In September 96, he was : 146-131 8c) collapsed in 89, : became the Roman province of : emperor. By late 114 the
murdered in a palace conspiracy : allowing the Han to make large : Arabia. It was not Trajan’s last : Armenians had submitted to him,
Sacred city
and the Senate chose the aged : gains in the region, led by general : acquisition in the east - in 113 he : and he pushed into Mesopotamia,
This ruined temple is in the Dacian
M. Cocceius Nerva (30-98]} to : Ban Chao (32-102). Ban Chao capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia [in : set off on a campaign against : capturing the Parthian capital of
replace him. The Senate then became protector-general of the * modern-day Romania]. It contained : Parthia. He began by attacking : Ctesiphon. By the end of 115,
voted to destroy all statues of Western Regions in 92, and the kingdom's most sacred shrines. © Armenia in 113-114, but it was his : Trajan had reached the Persian
Domitian and to recall those he : re-established control over the
had exiled. However, in 97 Nerva : key oases along the Silk Route.
faced a mutiny of the praetorian : By the time he retired in 102
guard, who demanded the : the Han controlled most of the
punishment of Domitian’s : Tarim Basin. Chinese state
murderers. Nerva was forced : organization became very
to give In, weakening his : complicated under the Han. Three
authority. His position was : supreme officials supervised
further diminished by his lack : large, complex departments. Each
of an heir. To rectify this he : of these was subdivided into nine
adopted M. Ulpius Traianus » ministries. Governors oversaw
(Trajan), the governor of Upper * each region, with regions divided
Germany, a man with a strong ! into over 1,000 counties, each
military backing. Nerva died : Supervised by a magistrate.
soon afterwards and Trajan Eunuchs became increasingly
became emperor. : Influential at the Han court.

esha
 The remains of Hadrian's Wall in northern England. The central portion of the
' wall occupies a high position that vastly enhances its defensive value.

: Gulf near modern Basra, Iraq, TRAJAN’S SUCCESSOR HADRIAN : are found from the Oxus river in slaughter, after which the revolt
where he is said to have remarked | (r.117-135) rejected his : Afghanistan to as far south as petered out. Hadrian proceeded
: that, had he been younger, he predecessor's policy of expansion : Varanasi and Sanchi. He was a with his plan to outlaw Judaism
: might have pressed on to India. and concentrated on better : strong patron of Buddhism and : in Palestine, and many of the
: The newly conquered territories defence of the imperial ' presided over the fourth Jews who had survived the
: were organized as the provinces frontiers. In 122, Hadrian visited THE NUMBER : Buddhist Council, as well as : rebellion fled abroad.
: of Mesopotamia and Assyria, but : building a great stupa
OF VILLAGES
Britain, where there had been
they were already in revolt when | frontier troubles. He ordered the - at his capital
: Trajan returned home in 117. The
: Parthians rejected Trajan’s puppet
building of a huge barrier from
the Solway Firth in the west to
RAZED : Purushapura
: (Peshawar).
: king Parthamaspates, and by the | the River Tyne in the east. It took DURING THE Hadrian's ban on
: time Trajan died in August 117
: almost all of his gains in the east
governor Aulus Platorius Nepos
two years to complete Hadrian’s
BAR-KOCHBA : circumcision, his
- plan to turn
: had been lost. On his death-bed Wall (part in stone, and part in REVOLT : Jerusalem into the
Trajan adopted Publius Aelius turf], which ran 76 Roman miles : Roman town of Aelia
: Hadrianus (Hadrian), the governor (113 kilometres], and was : Ml (r.105-147] who ruled the : Capitolina, and his
_ of Syria, effectively appointing equipped with a series of forts : eastern portion, and Osroes : intent to ban Jewish
: Hadrian as his successor. and milecastles for its garrison. : (r.117-129] then Mithridates : religious practices in
:; In 109, Trajan appointed the Hadrian's Wall acted as the : IV (r.129-140) in the west. : Jerusalem caused a
: historian Pliny the Younger northern frontier line of Roman : There was no further conflict : furious revoltin
: (61-c.112) as his personal Britain for the next 40 years. : between Parthia and Rome for : Jerusalem in 132, as
: representative to govern Bithynia- The Parthian kingdom was left : the time being. : religious Jews rose up
: Pontus on the Black Sea coast of | in some confusion by the In India, the Kushan empire : against religious
: Anatolia. This was a controversial campaigns of Trajan. His puppet expanded enormously under : reforms. Led by Shimon
? move, as Bithynia-Pontus was king, Parthamaspates, was : Kanishka (127-140),
who : Bar Kochba, the rebels
: theoretically a senatorial province. | expelled in 117, but the Parthian : conquered Magadha and : had early successes
The provinces of the empire had kingdom then seems to have : campaigned against the Chinese : against Rome. They set
: been divided between the emperor | been divided between Vologeses : in Central Asia; his inscriptions up the beginnings of an
: and the senate at the accession of ndependent government
: Augustus in 278Ce, with the HADRIAN (76-138) and minted their own coins.
: emperor receiving only the | = In response, Hadrian
: provinces that held legionary Hadrian came from a Spanish summoned Julius Severus,
; garrisons. This division of the background and was the : the governor of Britain, to
provinces persisted into the time adopted son of his predecessor, conduct a war against the
: of Trajan. Pliny stayed in Bithynia- Trajan. He was mocked by rebels. Severus commanded
: Pontus for at least two years, some for his grecophile an army formed of
trying to sort out the finances of =| | tendencies, and was the first detachments from 12
» the main cities, which had fallen emperor to sport a beard - a | | legions. The rebels had no
: into confusion. His letters to Trajan | Greek fashion. Hadrian was the : large towns under their
: are an invaluable insight into the first emperor to travel widely : control, and so adopted
: imperial government of the time. throughout the Roman empire, : guerrilla warfare while still
: Treasured goblet
giving him first-hand attempting to defend the smaller
: This beautiful vase was found in
knowledge of the provinces, : forts they held. In 135, the rebel’s : Kapisa (Bagram] near Kabul, which
from Britain to North Africa. : last main stronghold at Bethar : was the Kushan summer capital in
> was captured amid great : the Ist century.
 THOUSAND
THE TOTAL
POPULATION OF
TEOTIHUACAN
AT ITS PEAK

The Pyramid of the Sun at

Teotihuacan in modern Mexico.

THE CITY OF TEOTIHUACAN famed for his moderation MARCUS AURELIUS SUCCEEDED
IN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO and rarely left Rome. | TO THE ROMAN THRONE jointly
experienced massive Disturbances in Dacia (in with Lucius Verus in 161. Marcus
growth during the 1st and present-day Romania) was the more capable of the two,
2nd centuries, with its around 140 and an uprising but it was Lucius who was sent,
population reaching over in North Africa in 145 did in 162, to rescue the situation in
80,000 before 200. The city not unduly disturb the the east after the governor of
was planned on a grid, empire's calm. Antoninus Cappadocia was defeated and
with two huge extended the frontier in killed by the Persians following a
pyramids - of the both Scotland and Upper disastrous invasion of Armenia.
Moon and the Sun - at Germany, ordering the By 163-164 Lucius had brought
either end of the main construction of a new Armenia back under Roman
street. The Teotihuacan turf barrier around control, and renamed its capital
Il phase of the city 160km (100 miles) to the Kaine Polis (“New City”). A new
(0-350) saw the building north of Hadrian's Wall pro-Roman king was installed
of the enormous (see 188-135 BCE) in there before the legions moved
Temple of Quetzalcoatl Britain. This Antonine on, pushing deeper into Persian
and the acquisition of an Fi? = Wall was 63km (35 miles]
empire, with Teotihuacan in length. The Hadrian's
dominating vast areas of Wall garrison was moved 44 IF ITISNOT
Mexico and overseeing
client kingdoms as far south
north to a new set of forts, but
: their stay was short - Marcus
RIGHT, DO NOT
as Guatemala. : Aurelius, Antoninus Pius’s DO IT: IF ITIS
Hadrian had adopted Antoninus
Pius {86-161} as his son and
' successor, ordered a pull-back
: to Hadrian’s Wall around 161,
NOT TRUE, DO
successor, a stop-gap until : where the Roman frontier NOT SAY IT. 99
Antoninus's relative, Marcus : of Britain remained until the
Aurelius (121-80), was old enough : Sth century. Emperor Marcus Aurelius, from
to rule, but Antoninus survived Meditations, 161-180
As Christianity grew, so did the
Hadrian by 23 years, and became » problem of defining a single
Roman emperor in 138. He was doctrine. Among the alternative territory, taking Edessa in
: doctrines that sprang up in the Mesopotamia, and reaching the
: 2nd century was Marcionism, Parthian capital of Ctesiphon in
2 turquoise f
c* mosaic pieces ld
: which taught that the God of 165. The Roman general Avidius
: Christians was distinct from the Cassius (c.130-175) burnt the
a &
GA, Pe : Jewish God of the Old Testament Parthian palace and then turned
«d- Fg : and that Jesus Christ did not have back westward. A swathe of
We Ax. : a human nature. Justin Martyr Parthian territory down the
S Sy
: No : (c.103-165) argued that Euphrates River was annexed as
THE LENGTH OF. Mexican mask
This sumptuous
oN
y - x
cy
: Christianity was the fulfilment of far east as Dura Europos (in
: Jewish prophecy and that
THE ANTONINE bears the smooth, flat mask from Teotihuacan AA AD necklace made
from coral beads Christians were the new chosen
southeastern Syria]. However,
victory celebrations were
WALL IN : features that are : people. Justin also wrote to short-lived, for the troops
: characteristic of work ‘ : Marcus Aurelius, seeking to brought the plague back to
SCOTLAND : from the city. » explain Christian doctrine. Rome and by 167 it had spread
 A painted.ctuced of the Moche 'S most important te Al ce who iis-often
depicted with the fangs of asnake.

: widely throughout the THE MOCHE CULTURE EMERGED

: Mediterranean. ON THE COAST OF NORTHERN
Barely had the Parthian War PERU between 100 and 200. From
: ended than the Marcomannic their bases in the Peruvian The Romans had faced Germanic tribes ever since they had
: War began. In early 167, a group valleys of Moche, Chicama, and reached the Rhine at the time of Julius Caesar. German groups
' of Germanic warriors from the Viru, these people spread to across the Danube, such as the Quadi and Marcomanni, proved
: Langobardi and Obii tribes dominate almost the whole troublesome in the 2nd century, but by the late 3rd century new
: crossed the Danube to attack the northern coastline. A warlike and more dangerous confederations of Germanic tribes arose,
Roman province of Pannonia. people, they sacrificed those such as the Franks, Alamanns, and Goths, who overran much of
: They were pushed back whom they captured to their the Roman Empire by the mid-5th century.
fairly easily, but in spring i deities, including Al Apaec
: 168 Marcus Aurelius (“the decapitator”]. They were
' resolved to visit the region skilled workers in gold and their : Aurelius had died while on : governor of Cappadocia, whom he
: to assess the situation. pottery has an extraordinarily : campaign prompted a revolt by - had fought alongside during
: Two more Germanic tribes, realistic quality. : Avidius Cassius, the governor of : the Parthian War.
» the Marcomanni and The Roman Empire was in : Syria. Avidius was declared As Martius’s army approached,
: Quadi were threatening to crisis in 170 - the emperor in Egypt, and received : the loyalty of the usurper's troops
: force their way across the Marcomanni and Quadi had : support in Arabia, as well as in his : wavered, and in July Avidius
: frontier unless they were occupied parts of northern Italy, = own province of Syria. Critically, : Cassius was murdered by a
: admitted to settle in the and an invasion by the lazyges - however, he failed to disaffected centurion, putting an
: empire, but Marcus's and Costobocci had overun large » secure the support of end to his short-lived but
presence deterred them. parts of the Balkans. The Romans ° Martius Verus, the dangerous rebellion. There
; However,
the expedition trapped the Marcomanni as they were suggestions that Marcus's
was cut short by the death returned across the Danube and wife Faustina encouraged
: of Lucius Verus from killed many of them. The Quadi Avidius, as she feared for her
: Marcus Aurelius husband's health and worried
: plague in early 169. Marcus sued for peace later in 171, but
: This statue shows Marcus Aurelius
: returned to Italy, but was back in the Marcomimani remained her own son Commodus was
: adopting a pose of victory, something
: Pannonia later in the yearto recalcitrant, forcing anew unfit to rule.
: he claimed but never quite achieved
» launch a massive offensive : in his Marcomannic Wars. offensive in 172. The forces of Free from the distraction of
: across the Danube. It was a Marcus Aurelius could never Avidius's revolt, Marcus
: disaster, with the Romans - of the central government, and the quite strike the killer blow, and Aurelius returned to the
: suffering around 20,000 dead and : emperor relinquished active by 175 the war had Danube in 177. In the winter
: control of government to the reached a of 179-80, the Roman army
the Marcomanni and Quadi
pouring into Italy, where they laid : eunuchs. In 168, an attempt by stalemate. occupied positions deep
In May that across the Danube, and it
© siege to Aquileia. Far from : Dou Miao, regent for the 12-year-
: providing an easy victory for © old emperor Lingdi [r.168-89), year, rumours looked as if Marcus might
: to have the eunuchs massacred that Marcus be able to create two new
: Marcus, the war dragged on for
» failed - the plot was betrayed Roman provinces —
: another 10 years.
and Dou Miao was forced to Marcomannia and
: In China, the eunuch faction at
Moche stirrup jar Samartia. However,
: court had become increasingly : commit suicide. Several hundred
This jar has a typical Marcus was old and tired
: powerful and had even engineered of Dou Miao’s supporters were
Moche ‘stirrup” attached
: executed and, with its enemies - he died in March 180.
: the murder of the emperor Shaodi to the back of it. The
' now dead, the eunuch faction His son Commodus brought
© in 125. Under Emperor Huandi realism of the paddling
: was able to exercise power figure is characteristic of the war to a rapid conclusion,
: (146-68) a series of natural
: almost unopposed. the culture's ceramics. allowing him to return to Rome.
: disasters weakened the authority

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In this engraving by Giovanni Stradano, Emperor Commodus shoots an arrow The Severan arch in Leptis Magna (in modern Libya) commemorates a visit
to subdue a leopard. Fighting in the arena as a gladiator was his great passion. by the North African emperor to his home town.

Commodus (r.180-92), Marcus

44 BE HARMONIOUS WITH
IN CHINA, INCREASING DISSENT
caused by the corruption of the : Aurelius’s son, was the first
eunuchs at the court of Han
Emperor Lindi (r.168-89] anda
: Roman emperor to succeed his
father for 90 years but he proved to EACH OTHER, ENRICH
succession of natural disasters
led to the outbreak in 184 of a
: bea disastrous choice. In 182,
' after an assassination attempt on
THE SOLDIERS, IGNORE
major insurrection, named the
Yellow Turban revolt for the
: him, apparently organized by his
: sister Lucilla, Commodus became
ALL OTHERS... 99
colour of its supporters’ headgear. : increasingly despotic. Many
Septimius Severus, dying words as quoted in Book 77 of Roman historian
Up to 400,000 rebels swept ! senators who were implicated in Dio Cassius’s Roman History, 211
westward towards the capital. the plot were executed and control
Another uprising fuelled by the © of the government fell into the
Five Pecks of Rice sect then : hands of Tigidius Perennis, the IN 193, AFTER THE MURDER OF : his reign was short, as almost
succeeded in taking over Sichuan : praetorian prefect (the COMMODUS, Helvius Pertinax : immediately the frontier armies
in the southwest. Although the : commander of the imperial {126-93}, the prefect of the city, : rebelled: that on the Danube
Yellow Turbans had been largely bodyguard). There were minor was declared emperor but he was : proclaimed Septimius Severus The daughter of a Syrian high
crushed by early 185, the control : wars in Britain and in Dacia (much murdered after three months. This _: (c.145-211] emperor, while the priest, Julia Domna married
of the Han emperor was ever : of modern Romania), but in 185 was followed by rival claimants to : Syrian legions raised their Septimius Severus in 187. A
weakening. After Lingdi died in Perennis was suspected of a plot the throne engaging in an auction » commander Pescennius Niger prophecy had predicted that
189, he was replaced by his ; to make his own son emperor and outside the praetorian camp to : (c.135-94) to the imperial throne. she would wed an emperor
younger half-brother Xiandi : was executed by his troops. decide who would be emperor. Severus reached Rome first and, and so it turned out. Forceful |
(r.189-220) but he never exercised : Commodus increasingly devoted Didius Julianus {133-93} won, but after granting the title of Caesar and intelligent, she failed to
real power. Instead, control of the : himself to fighting in the arena as (junior emperor) to Clodius mediate betweenhersons
empire fell to Han general Cao : a gladiator, while the imperial Money offered to each Albinus, governor of Britain, he Caracalla and Geta after |
Cao, who contended for 30 years : chamberlain Cleander dominated soldier by Didius Julianus turned east where, in spring 194, their father’s death and to
with a series of rival warlords, : government and sold public offices his armies defeated Niger at the prevent Geta’s murder. When
notably Liu Bei in the southwest ; to the highest bidder. The man in Battle of Issus in Syria. Severus Caracalla was killed she
and Sun Quan in the south. : charge of the grain supply, stayed in the east and in 195 deliberately starved herself
' Papirius Dionysius, engineered a : attacked the Parthian Empire. But to death in protest, a move
© shortage that led to Cleander’s he was forced to return west to that rallied support for the
: downfall. This did not result in a : deal with Albinus who had remaining Severan family. 1
: more stable government as his : revolted, and who was killed near
: replacement only lasted a short » Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France)
» time before being murdered. : in 197. Severus then returned to but they soon broke the peace and
* Commodus increasingly identified : Parthia, this time occupying the : anew campaign was launched in
: himself with Hercules (the Greek : capital Ctesiphon in 197. He : 210. Severus was by now very ill,
: hero} and renamed Rome after : pushed the line of Roman control : and his son Caracalla took over.
THE AGE : himself - colonia Commodiana.
: At the end of 192, the praetorian
: towards the Tigris and created the " In February 211 Severus died in
: new province of Mesopotamia. : Eboracum (modern York, England)
AT WHICH " prefect Laetus was convinced that Money offered to each soldier Trouble in Britain brought the : and handed succession jointly to
: Commodus was planning to have " ageing emperor to the province in : sons Caracalla and Geta. After the
COMMODUS : him killed and on New Year’s Day
by Flavius Sulpicianus
Buying loyalty | 208. A large-scale Roman : Scottish war both rushed back to
BECAME SOLE : 193 took the initiative and had the
; emperor poisoned and, when that
The larger bribes offered to the : advance forced the Caledonians - Rome, but their joint rule was
troops by Didius Julianus meant that
EMPEROR : did not work, strangled. he won the auction to be emperor.
and Maetae north of the provincial
: frontier to come to terms in 209,
' short-lived: Caracalla had Geta
: murdered in December 211.
 ee ae
A carving of the Buddha from Sarnath in North India, where a school of
_ Buddhist art flourished under the Kushans.

IN INDIA, THE AREA CONTROLLED : which citizenship was granted to : Arch of Caracalla
| BY THE KUSHAN DYNASTY began almost all free males in the Originally the arch
: was topped bya
| to shrink after the death of King : empire. After a successful
: figure ofthe
Kanishka in 140, and particularly : campaign on the Rhine (in 213],
! emperor riding ina
severe territorial losses were : Caracalla ventured further afield, : chariot. It stands in
suffered under Huvishka : arriving in Egypt in 215. For some -THE NUMBER - Volubilis, the main
(r.160-90). Kushan rule finally : unknown reason, he became : town of Roman
| collapsed under Vasudeva ' enraged and ordered the _OF BATHERS : Mauretania Tingitana
© [in modern Morocco].
(r.190-225)] when Persian invaders
swept through northwestern
massacre of the citizens of
: Alexandria. The next year he THAT COULD
India. Although Kushan kings
continued to rule a much-reduced
: launched an invasion of Parthia.
: His praetorian prefect Opellius
USE THE BATHS : divided into two
realm for a further century, their : Macrinus came to suspect that
: Caracalla wanted him dead, so he
_OF CARACALLA : when Vologeses
: VI's brother set
influence was purely local and
their heyday was atan end. : persuaded a disaffected soldier to : himself up as a
In Rome, Caracalla’s : murder the emperor. After towards the Severan family, and a : rival king,
: Caracalla’s murder, the army : revolt broke out in Syria, which : Artabanus V; and a further Persia was temporarily weakened
government was unpopular.
Among his measures was the declared Macrinus emperor. : aimed to put Elagabalus (203-22), : Roman invasion in 216 ravaged : by a civil war, the Sasanians
Antonine Constitution of 212, by : There was much residual loyalty grandson of Julia Domna’s sister : much of the province of Media. : proved to be much tougher
: Julia Maesa, on the throne. : Taking advantage of this disorder, ' adversaries to the Romans than
: Macrinus lost support and in June : the ruler of the southwestern : the Parthians ever had been.
: 218 he fled to Cappadocia where province of Pars, Ardashir, In China in 220, Cao Cao's son
| he was killed. In 221, Elagabalus ° expanded his territory and finally : Cao Pi forced Xiandi to abdicate.
adopted as his heir his cousin : defeated Artabanus V c.224. : Within two years Cao Pi, Liu Bei,
Alexanius. When the two fell : Ardashir | was then declared king : and Sun Quan would each declare
out in 222, the army backed : (224-42) as the first ruler of the : himself emperor. The Han dynasty
Alexianus and Elagabalus : Sasanian dynasty. Although : and China’s unity were at an end.
was murdered. Alexianus Black Sea B
became Emperor ry g Me a6y. >,
Byzantium oO
Alexander Severus {Constantinople} ~ = Balk
ss ARMENIA WD alkhe &«
aged 13. EMPIRE 2 Merve BACTRIA Oe
; ROMAN
3 Ke a axilae
In Persia, Parthian rule Bavnch e Nishapur w e Kabul
had been weakened, Cyprus, Barbalissus Ecbatana KHURASAN
both by plague and by Mediterranean Dura Europose Jala oo
Sea YRIA ASURISTAN .@ -wenavend SASANIAN
Damascus@ Seleuciaee@ctesiphon_
the effects of successive ° Babylon ®@wecuaN® ug EMPIRE
Roman invasions. In 207, Alexandria Jerusalem _. © eDhua sree,
Alhe Qadisiya @= PUMA @ Baccenolic
Persepolis
the kingdom had been Amids
/ 2 KERMAN
Arabian a MAKRAN
Peninsula 2 ©Cult
Bronze diploma BAHRAIN Arabian Sea
MAZUN
Diplomas were issued to
auxiliary soldiers in the : The Sasanian Empire in Persia
Roman army, granting : After rapidly acquiring the former KEY
them citizenship. This : Parthian Empire, the Sasanians
Sasanian Empire at greatest extent
practice ceased after the : fought a series of wars with the
: Romans over control of Mesopotamia. East Roman Empire in 3rd century
Antonine Constitution.
 THE NUMBER OF
ROMAN EMPERORS
THAT RULED
BETWEEN
235 AND 284

Roman emperor Gordian III A mural of St Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage at the height of the Decian
succeeded his father and grandfather. persecution. He was martyred in 257 during a campaign under Valerian.

IN CHINA, THE FINAL COLLAPSE OF : Africa proclaimed the province's PERSIA ATTAINED A POSITION OF ; in disarray and Shapur’s armies
GOBI DESERT.
THE HAN DYNASTY IN 220 was : elderly governor as Emperor RENEWED STRENGTH under : advanced as far as Iconium
followed by 350 years of instability.: Gordian I, but he was quickly and Shapur| (r.241-72]. In 244, he won : (modern Konya, Turkey).
WE]! Yellow
The Three Kingdoms period : brutally put down. The Senate Chang 8) eluoyang, Sea a decisive battle against Gordian III The western part of the Roman
(220-80) saw China divided into the | declared Maximinus deposed and Os e at Misiche near Ctesiphon. Shortly : Empire also faced increasing
H Jiankang
Wei kingdom of the north; [initially : proposed Pupienus and Balbinus Ch after, Gordian Ill was killed and : pressure. The Romans suffered
under Wei Wendi (r-220-26); the : as candidates. Popular sentiment wu
replaced by his army commander : invasions of Dacia (much of
Shu Han kingdom in the west : favoured Gordian I's grandson Taiwan Philip [or Philip “the Arab”). = modern Romania) by the Carpi
whose first ruler was Shu Han Philip made peace with Shapur people from c.214. The Carpi,
Xuande (r.221-23]; and the South
China but had to pay a large ransom to : together with a new group, the
southern Wu kingdom under Wu Hainan Sea
escape Sasanian territory. His : Goths, took part in a raid across
Wudi (r.222-52). Wei Wendi was a successors broke the terms of the : the Danube in 239-40. In 248,
capable ruler, but his successors
: KEY
agreement, so in 256 Shapur| Emperor Philip withdrew an
struggled to contain attacks by ‘ s Wei, 220-225 Wu, 222-280
invaded Syria and captured the annual tribute he had been
Shu Han, 221-263
northern tribesmen. towns of Dura Europos and : paying the Carpi and the Goths,
In 235, the Roman Antioch. Valerian, who by then prompting them to pour into
: China under the Three Kingdoms
emperor Alexander was emperor (r.253-60], soon Moesia (modern Bulgaria). Philip
: Although the Wei kingdom faced the
Severus and his : greatest challenges among the three retook Antioch. But, in 260, he fell ' sent Quintus Decius to deal with
mother Julia Mamaea : kingdoms, it would eventually into a trap and was imprisoned : the invasion; he was so successful
were murdered by : conquer the Wu and the Shu Han. by Shapur. The Romans were left : that his troops declared him
mutinous troops, : emperor. Early in 249, Decius
putting an end to the Gordian III (r.238-44), so all : marched to Rome and defeated
Severan dynasty. The Relief of Shapur |
three briefly shared the
In this relief, Shapur |triumphs over
: and killed Philip. Hearing of the
uprising’s ringleader, throne. Balbinus and Roman civil war, the Goths
the Roman emperors Gordian III and
Maximinus Thrax Pupienus were invaded again, causing Decius to
Valerian. After Valerian’s capture,
(r.235-38), an officer from killed soon after, Shapur is said to have used him as a : return to the Balkans in 250.
a humble background, was leaving Gordian III to footstool for mounting his horse. : Under their warleader Cniva, the
proclaimed emperor, but he rule alone. His
spent most of his reign raising six-year reign briefly
funds to reward his troops for restored some semblance of
their support. This time marks stability to the empire, but he
the start of a period of “military was killed while leading an
anarchy” in which Rome had invasion of Persia in 243-44.
dozens of emperors, most of them Compounding the Roman
short-lived rulers who were Empire's difficulties was the
raised up by the frontier armies appearance of barbarian
and just as quickly deposed and confederacies among
killed. A rebellion in 238 in North the Germanic peoples
of the Rhine and
Danube frontiers.
Art from the Three Kingdoms
High artistic achievements, such as Principal among these
this fine statue, were a feature of the were the Alemanni. In
late Han dynasty. Its collapse in 220 213, Caracalla campaigned
did not result in an equivalent against them; by 260 they
decline in China's artistic output.
 The main colonnade at Palmyra, which grew rich on tariffs paid by merchants
who plied the desert route that passed through the Syrian city.

VALERiAN’S CAPTURE BY THE : Germany. Postumus declared : Balkans to deal with Gaul. Only
PERSIANS in 260 proved : himself emperor, but unlike : under Aurelian (r.270-74) was the
disastrous for the western part of : previous usurpers did not march : Roman Empire strong enough,
the Roman Empire as well as the : on Rome, instead setting up a : and by then the Gallic Empire was
east. Valerian’s son Gallienus : separate Gallic Empire; this : weakened, with its last ruler,
(r.260-68}, struggling to contain : initially controlled Britain, Spain, : Tetricus (r.270-74), facing splits in
an invasion of Italy by the : parts of western Germany, and : the army. In 274, Tetricus was
Germanic luthungi had no : Gaul. He established a form of : captured near Chalons, and the
resources to reinforce the Rhine : government that mirrored that of : Gallic Empire was reabsorbed.
frontier, which was being the official empire, complete with In the east, a serious challenge
breached by Alemmanic and : its own Senate. In 269, Postumus - to Roman rule emerged after 260.
Frankish raiders. The Governor > was murdered by his own troops © The city of Palmyra [in Syria]
Shapur’s early leadership of Germania Inferior, Marcus : and replaced by his praetorian : proved Rome’s only reliable ally
experience came ina role Postumus, revolted and killed : prefect Victorinus. Gallienus - ' against the Sasanian advances of
assisting his father, Ardashir, Gallienus’s son Saloninus, who : faced with Gothic invasions and » Persia. Its ruler Septimius
in mopping up support for had been left in charge of Gaul and : the revolt of Zenobia of Palmyra : Odaenathus (c.220-67] received a
the Parthian Arsacid dynasty. : in the east - was never strong : number of Roman titles, including
Sepulchral relief from Palmyra
Shapur’s defeats of Gordian : enough to put an end to the Gallic » Corrector Totius Orientis (“Marshal : The Palmyrenes buried their dead
The Gallic Empire : of the entire East”), and invaded
IIlin 244 and of Valerian in : Empire. In 268 he was murdered : with exquisite and realistic personal
Postumus began the Gallic Empire
260 established a temporary ' by the army and replaced by : the Sasanian Empire in 262 and ' portrayals; the dead were interred in
in control of Gaul, Germany, Britain,
Persian dominance in Syria and Spain. By its collapse in 274, the : Claudius II Gothicus (r.268-70), : 266. Odaenathus died in 267; and : tower tombs outside the city.
: and Mesopotamia. He used last ruler, Tetricus, had lost Spain. : who was too busy fighting in the : his wife Zenobia (r.267-73] created
: an empire of her own. By 269, her In China, Yuandi (r.260-64)
: the many Roman prisoners
: armies had taken Syria and Egypt, : restored Wei’s fortunes by
: captured in 256 at Antioch to
: and in 271 she declared her son : conquering the Shu Han. But
: build the new town of Veh
: Vaballathus emperor. Aurelian : soon after he was overthrown by
: Antiok Shapur (“Shapur’s KEY
: marched east and soon rolled back : one of his own generals, Sima
: town, better than Antioch’). © Gallic Empire under
: the Palmyrene gains, besieging : Yuan, who founded the Western
Postumus, 260-68
: Palmyra in spring 272. Zenobia : Jin dynasty and took the title
— Gallic Empire under
Tetricus, 270-74 was captured while trying to : Wudi (r.265-89). His armies
: Goths ravaged the province of
Roman Empire, 260 = escape, and Palmyra was sacked : crushed and annexed the Wu
| Moesia, laying siege to the main
in 273 when it tried to throw off : kingdom in 280, thus briefly
: town of Nicopolis (modern
: Roman rule again. : reuniting China.
: Nikopol, Bulgaria). The campaign
went badly for the Romans, ending
: in defeat and Decius’s death at the
| Battle of Abrittus in 251. 64 YOU DEMAND MY SURRENDER
_ In Japan, the Yamato kingdom AS THOUGH YOU WERE NOT AWARE
: emerged on the plain of Nara [in
: central Japan) around 250. Its THAT CLEOPATRA PREFERRED TO
: rulers were interred in large burial DIE A QUEEN RATHER THAN
: mounds, and its armies conquered
: most of central Japan. Much of REMAIN ALIVE. 99
: what is known comes from
i Chinese sources, who name the Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, to Aurelian Augustus
from Historia Augusta c.375—400
: Queen of Yamato in 238 as Himiko.
44 PROBUS WAS ALMOSTA
SECOND HANNIBAL BECAUSE OF
HIS KNOWLEDGE OF WARFARE... 99
Aurelius Victor, Roman historian and official, in
De Caesaribus, c.360

The Pyramid of the Moon at Teotihuacan (near modern Mexico City] was built some time after 200 at one end of
the city’s Avenue of the Dead; the Pyramid of the Sun sits at the other end,

IN CHINA, THE FIRST EMPEROR OF short-lived emperors - Tacitus IN 284, THE ROMAN ARMY IN ASIA
THE WESTERN JIN DYNASTY, \Wud and Florianus — before Probus MINOR PROCLAIMED DIOCLES, the
(r-265-89), was a strong ruler who took power in 276. Within two former commander of the
secured trade routes to the West years, Probus had defeated the imperial bodyguard, Emperor
and built a bridge over the Yellow Goths on the Danube and pushed Diocletian (1284-305). In 285, he
River to improve communications. back the Franks from the Rhine. defeated Carinus [the then
However, the wars of the Three A planned campaign against emperor of the Western Empire]
Kingdoms period (see 231-244) Persia was frustrated in 281 by and started a radical
had impoverished the state and as the revolt of two usurpers in the reorganization of the empire,
the tax burden rose, many West: Bonosus and Proculus. reforming the army, and
peasants fled to landowners for Despite his military successes, in subdividing provinces. The
protection, resulting in the rise of 282 Probus was murdered by his challenges on the frontier were
private armies. own troops, who were resentful too great to be faced alone; in 285,
In the Roman Empire, Emperor at being forced to work on civil he appointed Maximian (250-310)
Aurelian - who was murdered in engineering projects near to rule alongside him, first as
275 — was followed by two Sirmium [in modern Serbia. Caesar (junior emperor] then as
Augustus [senior emperor). Other
Jin sitting bear sculpture problems with Britain's break
The first half of the Jin dynasty from the empire under Carausius
under Wudi gave China a in 286, convinced Diocletian that
period of comparative
more changes were necessary. In
peace and stability,
which allowed the
293, he and Maximian appointed
arts to flourish. two Caesars: Constantius
Chlorus (r.293-306) to assist Persian frieze
Diocletian in the Western Empire The Paikuli frieze celeb: to the Romans. He launched a
and Galerius (r.293-311] to be victories of Narseh in A
major invasion in 296, defeating
Maximian’s junior in the East. This justifies his deposition of
the Caesar Galerius in 297, The
predecessor Vahram III
tetrarchy (four emperor system] next year, however, Galerius
enjoyed early successes in Britain smashed Narseh’s army in
(296) and in Egypt (298). In 294, After the death of Shapur | in Armenia and captured the Persian
Diocletian reformed the coinage, 272 Persia faced a period of ruler’s family. Galerius marched
reissuing new bronze and silver political instability. In 293 as far as Ctesiphon, which he
coins, and in 301 he issued an Narseh [r.293-302) ascended to captured in 298. Narseh was
Edict on Maximum Prices to try the Persian throne. He resolved to forced to make peace [Treaty of
to curb rising inflation, Unlike his recover land in Armenia and Nisibis]. Persia remained at peace
other measures, this one failed. Mesopotamia that had been lost with the Romans for 40 years.
In the Valley of Mexico, the city of
Teotihuacan reached the peak of
its power around 300, Its main
street - the Avenue of the Dead -
ran between the Pyramid of the
THE AREA OF | Moon and the Ciudadela [which

TEOTIHUACAN CITY may have been the palace of the

AT ITS PEAK
ruler] and was lined with the
residences of the lords of the city.
 a
{a

This early 16th-century fresco of the Battl e of Milvian Bridge is in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. Before the battle,
the emperor Constantine is said to have seen a Christian monogram in a dream predicting his victory.

In 311, Galerius died and over the Eastern provinces. The

SINCE PERSECUTIONS IN THE 250S
Maximin became Augustus in alliance between Constantine and
AND 2605, THE CHRISTIAN
the East. He ordered renewed Licinius broke down in 316; they
COMMUNITY had experienced

75,000 measures against Christians. patched up a peace in 317, and for

some 40 years of tranquillity in
Constantine, meanwhile, invaded six years the Rornan Empire
the Roman Empire. All this
MAXENTIUS Italy and in October 312 defeated relapsed into an uneasy calm.
changed in 303 when Diocletian
and killed Maxentius at the Battle In China, Wudi’s successor Huidi
issued an edict ordering the
destruction of churches and the of Milvian Bridge. Before the (r.290-306) was mentally disabled
battle, Constantine is said to have and so a succession of regents
handing over and burning of
dreamt of the Chi-Rho symbol contended for imperial control.
Christian books. A sterner edict
followed, calling for the arrest of and ordered his troops to mark it Huidi’s brother Huaidi (r.307-12)
on their shields. invited the northern Xiongnu
Christian clergy, and one in 304
Licinius and Constantine met at tribesmen to help him against
ordered that all Christians offer
a sacrifice to the pagan gods. Mediolanurn {modern Milan) in the competing Chinese factions,
313, where they agreed to share but they took him prisoner. The
Devout Christians could not Battle numbers at Milvian Bridge power and issued the Edict of last Western Jin emperor Mindi
accede to these demands, and Maxentius’s forces outnumbered
_ many of them were martyred. Milan, which granted toleration to (r.313-16] saw the Xiongnu sack Chi-Rho symbol
those of Constantine, but his army
all forms of worship, in effect the capital of Chang'an (modern The monogram of Chi-Rho, the first
In 304, Diocletian fell seriously became trapped between
Constantine's men and the river. legalizing Christianity. Licinius Xi'an}; the Jin moved south, where two letters of Christ's name in
ill, and in 305 he announced that
then turned East and defeated : Yuandi (r.317-23) became the Greek, became an important early
he and Maxirnian would abdicate.
Maximin Daia, securing control first Eastern Jin emperor in 317. symbol of Christianity.
Constantius Chlorus and (Galerius’s army colleague}. The
Galerius would take over as new tetrarchy soon unravelled.
Augusti, while the new Caesars Constantius died in Eboracum
enh
were to be Maximinus (Galerius's (modern York, England) in July ;
Londinium @
Colonia
eAgrippina
EUROPE eas rian
Sea
nephew) and Flavius Severus 306 and the troops there
Augustae
proclaimed his son Constantine Treverorum
the new Augustus. By October, A t Pp . Black Sea
Aagesemenae) ° a xauiletae 2 Oe Sinopee Amisus
Maxentius (1306-12), the son of ATLANTIC
OCEAN ie eMediolanum C Chalcedon Amasia e ® ees
Maximian, was crowned emperor
Burdigalde eValentia Ravenna sc atonae onetantngpe Micomedia {7 Capradociae
in Rome. Severus was killed trying Nemausus @ Pisa eeamepentia Philippi Nyssa yo
Bete. |Mecsilia Stobie | Nicaea - pecesse
to retake Rome frorn Maxentius, © Massilia @Rome Thessalontes (2S @leyzicus ~ Tarsuse © = ae
ise Sardese eHierapolis @ Antioc @ Dura-Europos
and Maximian restored himself to -
Barcino @ Neapolis Nicopolise thense Ephesus e Myra 5 “3eleucia Pali
leull _ @Palmyra 2
the position of Augustus. In 308, Athens@ 'Miletus® ®cslamise _—eripolis
Carales@ Receins opregium Corfath Cos Paphos ye @Damascus
the Conference of Carnuntum Rhodes Tyre Berytus
Sidon
Conduba Re ehage dlls @ Syracusa
was called to settle the disputes, Hispalig e ys pp la @Garthage cea e Jerusalem
presided over by Diocletian, who Me ci5 elipasa °3 Melita Mediterranean -~— ee? ePetra
Sicca Veneria Mavandriaial
eTingis
came out of retirement. Ptolemais @@ Cyrene
Constantine accepted a demotion e@Leptis Magna
to Caesar in the West, with Gatase
AFRICA
Licinius as Augustus (r.308-24),
while Maximin Daia became
Palace of Diocletian Galerius’s Caesar in the East Early spread of Christianity
Diocletian built the great palace at
(310-13). This new arrangement Christianity spread in the 2nd and 3rd centuries until there
Split, Croatia, for his retirement KEY
was no more succesful than were strong Christian communities in Anatolia, southern
after his abdication in 305. Here, Areas strongly Christian by 325
the old one. Gaul, Italy, Egypt, and the province ofAfrica (Tunisia).
he tended his cabbages.
 44 IN OTHER MEN... TASTE FOR SLAUGHTER
SOMETIMES LOSES ITS FORCE... IN |
CONSTANTIUS IT BECAME MORE VIOLENT. J!
Ammianus Marcellinus (d.c.330) writing on the character of the Emperor
Constantius II in The Later Roman Empire

S 4

It was largely Eastern Church leaders who gathered at the Council of Nicae
(depicted here) in 325; only eight Western bishops made the journey there.

CHANDRAGUPTA | ASCENDED TO Having taken up the cause of » governed the Eastern Empire. : Augustodunum in southern Gaul
THE THRONE of a small kingdom : Christianity in 313, the Roman : Their reigns began with a » (modern Autun, France} and
in the western Ganges Plain in » Emperor Constantine (r.280-337) massacre at Constantinople in : Constans was killed. Distracted
320. Through an advantageous : found that Christians themselves : which almost all of their father’s : by a war against Persia,
marriage to Princess Kumaradevi : were far from united in doctrine : other male relatives were killed in : Constantius Il tolerated the
of the powerful Liccachevi dynasty = or organization. Constantine : order to remove any possible : upstart initially, but in 351 he
and by conquest, he expanded his - called a church council at Nicaea : rivals. Constantine Il, who was the : moved against him. Since
realm to include most of the
central Ganges, from Magadha
: in western Asia Minor in 325 to THE NUMBER » eldest, tried to assert his seniority, | Constantius II had no heir, he
» establish {and impose) orthodoxy : but died during an invasion of
(in southern Bihar) to Prayaga (in : in the face of a division over OF TYPES OF : Italy in 340. Constans then took
»
»
promoted
of the few
his cousin Gallus - one
survivors of the
Uttar Pradesh). His descendants,
the Guptas, ruled northern India
» Arianism (the theology of Arius,
: who held that Jesus Christ was
PURE-GOLD : control of the entire Western | massacre of 337 - to the rank of
: Empire, where he was faced with : Caesar in 351 and left him in
for almost 150 years. : subordinate to God the Father]. As COINS ISSUED : aseries of hard-fought campaigns - charge in the East, while he
: well as Constantine, about 300
"= church leaders attended, and
| BY SAMUDRA- : against Frankish invaders in
: Gaul, and problems in Britain,
: campaigned against Magnentius
: in the West. Magnentius’s army
; Arius’s views were condemned. GUPTA : which led him to visit the far-flung : was defeated at Mursa [in
" province [the last undisputed : present-day Croatia]: Italy and
IN 335, SAMUDRAGUPTA [r.335-75) Roman Emperor to do so) in 343. : North Africa were rapidly
SUCCEEDED HIS FATHER Disputes between the two : recovered, and in 353 Magnentius
Chandragupta | as ruler of the : surviving brothers, particularly : committed suicide in Gaul.
Gupta domains in northern India. : one over the status of Athanasius, - For the next seven years
An inscription he set up in - Bishop of Alexandria (whom : Constantius Il ruled the empire
Prayaga survives, recounting a Constantius II had exiled, but : alone, mainly preoccupied with
series of campaigns he fought in : Constans wanted restored), : Frankish incursions into Gaul, the
Uttar Pradesh and Mathura, : soured all relations between : revolt of the usurper Silvanus in
THE NUMBER OF both of which were annexed to the
Gupta kingdom. He also made
; them. In 350, a senior military
- officer, Magnentius, revolted at
: 355, anda series of church
- councils that sought to resolve
DISTRICTS IN + conquests down the east coast of : doctrinal disputes (Constantius II
_CONSTANTINOPLE India, as far as Madras, and : favoured Arianism over the
subdued West Bengal as well as : traditional orthodoxy).
parts of Rajasthan and the In the end, Gallus proved too
After defeating Licinius (r.308-24) Punjab. Various other regions : ambitious and in 354 he was
: in 324, Constantine founded a acknowledged his suzerainty, : deposed and executed.
: new capital
for the Eastern making him the most powerful Constantius || turned instead to
© Roman Empire at the ancient city Indian ruler since the Mauryas. Gallus’s brother Julian, a studious
' of Byzantium, strategically sited Constantine died in 337, having youth with a penchant for pagan
: between Europe and Asia. He ' accepted Christian baptism only : philosophy. In 355, after Silvanus’s
demolished pagan temples and _ on his deathbed. He had made no » revolt, Julian was despatched to
: built new churches, such as Hagia definite provision for succession, : Gaul as Caesar, where he proved
: Sophia, providing public buildings leaving his sons to divide the | surprisingly effective at combating
: to rival those of Rome. The city of empire between them:
The Column of Constantine
: Gold Gupta coin _ Frankish raiders.
The sole surviving monument from : Constantinople (modern Istanbul) Constantine Il (r.337-40) held
: was publicly dedicated on 2 April : Many Gupta coins contain images
the forum that Constantine built for Spain, Gaul, and Britain;
: of horses, a possible reference to
his new city is this column, which : 330. It was the seat of the Eastern Constans (r.337-50) ruled Italy, : the ritual horse sacrifice performed
sits in central Istanbul today. : Emperors for over 1,000 years. and Constantius Il (r.337-61) : by some Gupta rulers.
 eg

_ The acropolis at Tikal, one of the greatest surviving series of

§ ruins in the Mayan world.

IN ETHIOPIA, THE KINGDOM OF Shapur II hunts a stag began to push across the Rhine,
AKSUM became one of the Sasanian rulers commissioned lavish and in the early 350s they overran
earliest states to embrace silver items depicting themselves part of the Rhine frontier,
Christianity outside the Roman hunting wild beast as a display occupying some old Roman
of their royal power. fortresses. Caesar Julian
Empire. The Syrian Christian
_ missionary Frumentius engaged in a series of campaigns
converted the king, palace complexes set ina : against the Franks (356-59) and
Ezana (r.320-60} to central “acropolis”. The drove them from most of the
Monophysitism [a Mayans developed a territory they had taken.
doctrine emphasizing hieroglyphic form of In the East, conflict broke
a single nature of writing which survives out again between the Romans
' Christ, the divine). on many of the stelae and the Persians, under Shapur
| A letter from (carved stone slabs] Il (309-79), who took advantage
Constantius II to they set up to of the political turmoil in the
Ezana in 357 has commemorate Roman Empire in the 350s. In
survived, urging important events; in 359, Shapur || advanced further
| Ezana to shift his Tikal the first such west and took the great Roman
allegiance to dated monument is fortress of Amida (modern
Arianism and to from 292. The first : Diyarbakir, Turkey]. Other towns
_ replace Frumentius named king of Tikal is : were captured and their
with an Arian bishop - Siyaj Chan K’awiil | ' populations deported to Persia,
evidence that the (c.305), and by the reign of threatening the Roman position
Roman emperors took Chak Tok Ich’aak | (r.360- in the East.
seriously the religious 78), Tikal was by far the
loyalties of their neighbours. largest and most powerful of
Ezana conducted military the Classic Maya cities.
campaigns beyond his borders; The Roman Empire faced
an inscription speaks of invasions on both its western and
its eastern borders in the 340s
and 350s. In the West, the Franks

gull
a
KEY }
expeditions against neighbouring some time in 200-300, with ‘) Northern Maya © 7 ee ®
“Gaze, then the Agame, and the populations declining and Central Maya A eS e
Siguene”, and it seems his building activity ceasing. But the Southern Maya Palenque ne ce 3
Ka! | x)
armies may have occupied Meroé region soon recovered, with the Mayan site é SS iS
Peten [ 3
city (in northern Sudan). Enriched : emergence of a new phase in Trade route %,
by such conquests and the control Maya civilization, the Classic
of trade from sub-Saharan Africa: period (300-900), in which a
¥ and Arabia, Aksum would series of powerful kingdoms
Maya kingdoms “SOUTHERN MAYA

THE AREA
dominate the region until the emerged. Their great ui ban
Classic Maya culture Ss + ii ey
7th century. centres, such as those at Tikal (in : originatedin lowland cities, <<
ie

OF THE CITY
eee ‘ 7
The pre-Classic Maya Guatemala] and Palenque [in such as Uaxactun and Tikal,
(a)
,
Oo.
Ce, ri

OF TIKAL c.400 —
kingdoms of Guatemala and Mexico], are characterized by but spread to the highlands
Mexico underwent a collapse huge pyramidal temples and : and the Yucatdn peninsula.

dd ue plea ueieaal Sn culeilies lial

Here Emperor Julian is seen in religious debate. He attempted to sow discord among The church of Hagia Eirene in
Christians by decreeing the return of those who had been exiled for religious reasons. Istanbul was built by Constantine |.

IN CHINA, THE EASTERN JIN

DYNASTY (317-420) brought
: Constantius to meet
: immediately. He
but he ceded key border
provinces to Persia, which
44 THE
comparative stability to the south : died in November lost him popularity, and BARBARIANS,
of the country. Although many of
the emperors were short-lived,
| 361 as he was
: finally marching
he died (probably
murdered) within
[ARE] LIKE BEASTS
the bureaucracy in the southern : west to deal with the months. An officer of the _..BROKEN
capital of Nanjing functioned
efficiently and the period saw
: revolt. Now sole imperial bodyguard,
LOOSE... OVER
THE NUMBER
i emperor, Julian Valentinian (r.364-75], was
a cultural flowering. Artists such : immediately
set about then raised to the throne, and THE VAST
as Gu Kaizhi (c.345-406) painted
masterpieces such as the _OF KINGDOMS : restoring the role of
: paganism in the Roman
he selected his brother Valens
(r.364-78) to be his co-ruler.
EXTENT...
Admonitions of the Instructress to
IN CHINA : Empire, trying to Valentinian spent much of his _OF COUNTRY.99
the Palace Ladies, as well as
producing works on the theory of FROM 304 : establish a kind of pagan
: orthodoxy and an official
reign along the Rhine dealing
with Frankish and Alemannic Ammianus Marcellinus, on the
painting. Northern China, on the
other hand, was highly unstable,
TO 439 : pagan hierarchy of priests
: to counter Christianity’s E
invaders. He died in 375 after
suffering some type of fit,
Gothic invasion of the Balkans c.390

divided between the Sixteen strengths. He reopened ‘Weesemee §=—brought on by his anger at IN 376, LARGE GROUPS OF GOTHS
Kingdoms, most of them ruled by (under Xiaouwudi) would be _ pagan barbarian Quadi ARRIVED AT THE DANUBE
nomadic groups. The Eastern Jin : forced to repel a major invasion : temples, envoys thought to FRONTIER, pressing to be admitted
emperors alternated between a : In the north of the country. : and have insulted him. to the Roman Empire. The Huns, a
defensive stance towards the In the Roman Empire, Julian | restored the The Western new nomadic group from Central
Sixteen Kingdoms and aggressive : was proclaimed Augustus by his | right to sacrifice. Roman Asia, were at their rear, and the
campaigns, notably under Mudi : troops in 360, so he was a direct In 363, Julian set Empire Goths feared being squeezed
(r.345-61} who retook Sichuan and | challenge to Constantius. The : out ona campaign was then between them and the imperial
Luoyang. All these gains were : threat from the Persians, who : against Persia, subdivided between frontier. Emperor Valens did not
lost, however, under Emperor Aidi : were advancing through Asia : planning to punish Valentinian’s two sons wait for reinforcements before
(r.362-65). In 383, the Eastern Jin : Minor, was too great for : its leader, Shapur Il, Gratian (r.375-83) and marching out to meet the Gothic
xii : for his attacks on the Valentinian II (r.375-92). army. On 9 August 378, near
: empire in 359-60. He In the Eastern Empire, Adrianople, the Romans met the
: reached Ctesiphon, Valens was forced to Goths, under Fritigern. Misled by
_ The nephew of Constantine |, but was then forced spend most of the early the temporary absence of the
Julian was educated as a : to retreat up the 370s in Syria to contain Gothic cavalry, Valens attacked but
Christian but c.351 became a : Tigris River. Being the Persian threat, but his army was surrounded by the
pagan under the influence of © short of supplies, the growing trouble with returning barbarian horsemen.
Maximus of Ephesus. When » Roman army barbarians along the Valens was killed and the Eastern
Julian unexpectedly became : suffered constant Danube later forced him army destroyed, leaving the
emperor in 363, he tried to ! harassment from to turn to the Balkans. Balkans open to the Goths.
restore paganism in the : the Persians and, in Gratian reacted by turning to
empire, including banning : one such skirmish, Theodosius, a Spanish military
Christians from teaching » Julian was killed. Sarmatian dagger
officer, who he appointed as his
literature. He became known : The pagan reaction This dagger belonged to
the Sarmatians, a tribe
imperial colleague. For the next
| by Christian writers as “the was over.
of Iranian origin who three years Theodosius patiently
' Apostate” for his perceived On Julian's death the
specialized in horseback negotiated, bought off some
betrayal of Christianity. army chose Jovian fighting, and were defeated groups, and struck militarily
' : (7363-64) as emperor, by Valentinian |. where he could. In 382, the two
 4UU

46 THE THICKER
THE HAY, THE EASIER
IT IS MOWED. 99
Alaric the Goth, speaking of his enemies c.400

z
St Jerome (c.347-420) completed the Vulgate, the first definitive
translation of the Bible into Latin, c.405.

: sides agreed a truce, whereby the iN CENTRAL AMERICA, THE MAYAN IN 392, VALENTINIAN Il, WHO HAD western one. Although there was
: Goths were allowed to settle in CITY OF TIKAL had reached the CONTINUED TO RULE OVERITALY, : no clear intention to do so, this
the empire in return for providing peak of its influence in the late 4th was found hanged. His military : split marked a permanent
troops for the Roman army. century. In 378, a foreign lord commander Arbogast - suspected ; division; after 395 no one emperor
: The Gupta Empire continued to called Siyaj Kak arrived in the city, : by some of Valentinian’s murder : ruled the whole empire again.
: expand under Chandragupta || possibly from Teotihuacan. His - promptly made Flavius The Goths had taken part on
: (7375-415) in northern India. He arrival, which may represent a Eugenius, a middle-ranking : Theodosius's side at the Battle of
: fought against the Sakas, military conquest, led to the death official, emperor. Theodosius : the River Frigidus and felt they
: annexing much of northwestern of Tikal’s ruler Chak Tok Ich’aak refused to recognize Eugenius, : had not been sufficiently rewarded
: India. He also made an astute and the destruction of most of and in 393 he invaded Italy. To : for their losses. In 395, they rose
/ marriage alliance that extended Tikal’s public monuments. Siyaj gain support in the Senate - : up, led by Alaric (r.395-410).
: his realm to the southwest. Kak installed a new dynasty on the where paganism was still strong : Despite an attempt by Stilicho
throne of Tikal, possibly drawn - the Christian Eugenius revoked © (c.365-408), the half-Vandal
from the ruling house of all of Theodosius’s anti-pagan : commander of the Western
Teotihuacan, with Yax Nuun Ayiin laws. But, in August 394, he was » Roman army, to suppress them,
(“Curl Snout”; r.379-404) as the defeated by the Theodosian army : the Goths escaped and marauded
: St Ambrose
first ruler. Monuments depict him : A Roman nobleman by birth, at the River Frigidus near : throughout Greece in 396. Stilicho
in northern Mexican, rather than Aquileia. Theodosius did not enjoy : moved against Alaric again in 397,
: Ambrose was Bishop of Milan from
Mayan, dress. Under his rule, : 374 to 397. He exercised a powerful his rule as sole emperor long, : but once more failed to defeat
Tikal’s direct influence extended : influence over Theodosius I. dying in January 395. The empire : him. A brief halt to the Gothic
some 50km (30 miles) away. was then divided between his two : rampage came after Alaric’s
In the Western Roman Empire, : freed Theodosius to react when sons: the older, Arcadius, taking : appointment by the Eastern
Gratian had spent much of his : Maximus invaded Italy in 387. In the eastern part and his younger Roman government to magister
time since the Battle of : August 388, he marched swiftly brother, Honorius, taking the : militum (a senior general).
Adrianople (378} in northern Italy, : into northern Italy, capturing
North
where he continued to act : Maximus near Aquileia, and Sea

against pagans in Rome, > having him executed.

As well as campaigning against ATLANTIC
ordering the removal of the Altar OCEAN
of Victory from the Senate House the Goths and Maximus,
in 382. In 383, he led an army ! Theodosius was preoccupied with
north to face an invasion of Gaul _ the imposition of Orthodox
by the Alemanni, but was then : Christianity. He moved against
faced with a revolt in Britain, : the Arians, deposing the Bishop of
where the legions declared their : Constantinople in 380 and calling
commander Magnus Maximus : acouncil in 381 in the capital, EMpigan
SAs,
emperor. Many of Gratian’s which reaffirmed the anti-Arian ey oe
Creta Cyprus
commanders defected and in : decisions of the Council of Nicaea Syrian
August 383 he was captured and : (see 325}. He connived in the @g Desert

executed by Maximus, who had : destruction of many pagan

crossed over to Gaul. Theodosius, : temples, including the great
fearful of trouble with Persia or a : temple of Serapis in Alexandria,
: Iron pillar of Delhi Gothic revolt in the Balkans if he : and in 391 he forbade all pagan
: This iron pillar at Qutb complex on Divided in two
: sacrifices throughout the empire. KEY
moved west, recognized The split of the Roman Empire into Eastern and
: the outskirts of Delhi is said to have (@ Eastern Roman Empire
: been erected on the orders of Maximus as his colleague. A Western divisions in 395 was permanent. By 476,
its Western part would be overrun by barbarians. »= Western Roman Empire
: Chandragupta II. peace with Persia in 386, however,

a} o * <&
ON
ee a 3% oh
2” 2S
Ww &
 ‘A ‘A ‘A

44 SO THE VANDALS, HAVING

WRESTED LIBYA FROM THE
ROMANS IN THIS WAY, MADE
IT THEIR OWN... 99
Procopius, Byzantine scholar, from
History of the Wars, III iv 1, c.500—550

Aranda 200 stone fteads decoratedi Tiwanaku’ SsSemi- subterranean temple. They may es
the group that founded the city- their flat head-dresses denote high status.

ALTHOUGH THE WESTERN ROMAN THE BARBARIANS WHO HAD On the other side of the
EMPIRE SEEMED RELATIVELY INITIALLY CROSSED THE RHINE IN ; Mediterranean in 429, Boniface,
SECURE IN 400, within a decade it 401 had gone on to sack a number : the Roman Governor of North
had suffered a series of disasters. of cities before moving southwest : Africa, revolted against his
Gothic raids in 401 and again in into Aquitania and then crossing © long-term adversary Aétius, and
405 ravaged northern Italy. Then the Pyrenees into Spain, where : called on the Siling Vandals for
on the last day of 406, hordes of they occupied large swathes of : help. The Vandal king, Gaiseric
Vandals, joined by two other Roman territory. In 416-18, the : (r.428-77], crossed over the
barbarian groups, the Alans and Roman army commander : Straits of Gibraltar with - it was
Sueves, crossed the frozen Rhine Constantius persuaded the © said - 80,000 of his people and, far
near Mainz, sacked Treveri Visigoths under Wallia (r.415-18) : from helping Boniface, swiftly
(modern Trier, Germany] and to invade Spain. There he : occupied most of North Africa. In
Remi (modern Reims, France}, smashed the Alans and the Siling : 435, he made a treaty with the
and forced their way southwest Vandals, but allowed some of ; Romans, recognizing his
until they reached the Pyrenees. them to settle in southern Spain : occupation of Mauretania
Meanwhile, the armies of and left the Asing Vandals and : (modern Algeria and Morocco).
Visigoths ride on Rome
Britain had raised up a series ' commander Stilicho persuaded ! Alaric’s sack of Rome in 410 was Sueves in possession of : Gaiseric broke this and in 439 his
of usurpers as emperor from 406. : the Senate to agree to pay Alaric : particularly shocking, as it was the northwestern Spain. Wallia was : warriors captured Carthage, the
The last of these, Constantine III : a huge bribe in exchange for : first time the city had fallen since the rewarded with official possession : Roman capital there, and set up
(r.407-11), took most of the : leaving the city, but there seems : Gauls took it in 390 Bce. of much of southwestern Spain. : an independent Vandal kingdom.
remaining Roman troops in Britain : to have been a coup d'état and
and crossed to Gaul in spring 407, _ Stilicho was overthrown and : of Lake Titicaca (on the border
aiming to seize the throne from the : killed. In 409, Alaric had Attalus, : between modern Peru and
then head of the Western Roman : the prefect of Rome, declared : Bolivia), reached its greatest EUROPE
Empire, Honorius. Although he : emperor in an attempt to seize : size in the Sth century, covering
was defeated and captured at Arles : the initiative, but all negotiations : an area some 8sq km (3sq miles} ios
in 412, native leaders in Britain had : failed. So, on 24 August 410 the : in extent. Its central area KINGDOM OF. THE EMPIRE OF
BURGUNDIAN: THE HUNS
already expelled the last Roman : Visigoths entered Rome and : contained a lavish series of
officials there in 410 - probably in : subjected it to a three-day sack. ; ceremonial buildings and
revenge for their abandonment by : The event shook the entire Roman : temples. These included the
Constantine's legion. Britain was : world, but Alaric was unable to : Semi-subterranean Temple,
now independent from Rome. : secure domination over Italy, as : decorated with stone heads of
In 408, Alaric (r.c.395-410), : he died later the same year. : humans and supernatural beings, |
leader of the Visigoths, invaded In South America, the city of ' and structures such as the Mediterranean Sea SASANIAN
Italy once more. The Roman : Tiwanaku, 25km (15 miles) south ' massive and beautifully decorated : EMPIRE

: Gateway of the Sun. These were AFRICA

: erected by a major pre-
Ransom demands : Columbian culture that The barbarian
Alaric initially asked » dominated the Altiplano (flat invasions KEY
for a huge ransom in : high plateau) of Peru and Bolivia, Barbarian groups
~ Roman Empire Burgundians
return for leaving took more and more
: and whose influence extended Sasanian Empire * Franks
Rome in 410. Even Roman territory in the
Silver : into northern Bolivia.
EES ES ETSI
when he moderated first half of the 5th => Inte > Jutes, Angles, Saxons
his demands, the century, leaving the > Goths > Irish
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 Senate refused, and Western emperors — Alans —> Picts
POUNDS so the city was sacked. virtually powerless. ~> Vandals, Alans, Sueves
 Ax

‘colourful Buddhist mural from the Yungang caves, which were begun

| THE EASTERN JIN DYNASTY IN

CHINA HAD ENDED IN 420, with
: {418-51} occupied sections of the
: Mediterranean shore of Gaul,
‘44 THE WORLD IS PASSING
| Gongi's abdication. His successor,
Song Wudi (r.420-22), a former
: before they were pushed back
: southwest in 430. About this time a
AWAY... LOSING ITS
_ fisherman, had risen to become a
/ general and founded the LiuSong
: new group of barbarians, the
-| Huns, began to menace the
GRIP, THE WORLD Is
dynasty. He strengthened the
| southern kingdom’s northern
* empire. This nomadic group from
: Central Asia, whose pressure from
SHORT OF BREATH. 99
borders against the barbarian : the rear on the Goths had been St Augustine of Hippo, theologian and philosopher, from Sermons 81, 8
tribes, but under his son Wendi : indirectly responsible for the crisis
| (424-53), the northerners : of 378 in the Balkans, had since
captured Luoyang in 424, before, : moved further west. In 424, the : defeated and thereafter confined to : the very end, when he had Aétius,
some 25 years later besieging the : Roman general Aétius recruited a : a region to the northwest of Italy. : the Western Empire's last effective :
| Liu Song capital of Nanking. ' force of Huns to help him bolster These were all just temporary : general, murdered.
Although Song Wudi had the cause of John, a usurper > successes, however, as the area The barbarians who settled on
strengthened the central : raised up at Rome after the death : controlled by the Western Roman : the former Roman territories
| bureaucracy, the growing power : of Honorius in 423. Aétius : emperors was diminishing began gradually to establish
' and wealth of the Buddhist and : continued to use the Huns into the : steadily. The loss of almost all - kingdoms of their own, notably FLAVIUS AETIUS
Daoist monasteries weakened : late 420s to secure his power base : North Africa to the Vandals in : the Franks in northern Gaul and (c395-454)
| the economic basis of the state. : and his appointment as patrician 429-39 (and of Sicily in 440), © the Visigoths in southwest Gaul
Wendi's successors were weak : (the most senior post in the late : of northern Gaul to the Franks : and Spain. In Britain, the situation Born of nobility in Moesia
| and by 479 the Liu Song Roman Empire) in 429. In 435, : by 450, of southwest Gaul to the : was rather different, since the (modern Bulgaria), Aétius
| were overthrown by the he was able to call on : Visigoths after 418, and of all ! province had rebelled against spent time from 408 in the
short-lived Qi dynasty them to aid an attack : save a few isolated outposts in : Rome rather than being subject to royal court of the Huns. He
) (479-502). on the Burgundians : Spain by the 430s meant the : barbarian conquest. In a bygone used these contacts to gain
| Meanwhile, in who had raided ‘remaining strongholds in Italy © era, the Roman army might have influence and rose to further
northern China across the lower : and southeastern Gaul could not : been expected to reassert Its prominence in the late 420s.
| the Sixteen Rhine; these : provide enough tax revenue to control there, but, with the empire The deaths of patricians Felix
| Kingdoms had were soundly : support armies to reconquer the : increasingly dependenton (in 430) and Boniface (in 433)
been united : lost provinces. The long reign of : barbarian
troops fighting under left him with unrivalled
' under the Toba Wei {a group of : Valentinian III (r.425-55) in the : their own commanders, there was dominance. He shored up the
_ Turkic nomads}, who founded Western Roman Empire virtually no army left to retake it. empire’s position, and in 451
the Northern Wei dynasty did not provide any : The Britons were left to their he scored a notable victory
(386-534). The Northern Wei stability as he : own devices. It seems that some against Attila the Hun. In 454
| ruled over northern China, ascended to the : Roman institutions survived for a he was murdered by
until its split into two in the throne as a child : while; in 429 Bishop Germanus Valentinian III himself.
and never : of Auxerre visited the island and
| early 6th century following a
asserted found men bearing Roman titles.
revolt against the imposition of
Chinese dress and language on himself until : But barbarian raiders - attracted letter to Aétius, appealing for
the Wei nomads.
: by the weakness of the British ; aid. No reply was sent to these
In Europe, the Western Roman
: defences and the lack of a central “groans of the Britons”, and
Northern Wei horse within a few years the Angle,
: political authority to counter them
Empire continued to lose ground, The art of the Northern Wei
| — came inincreasing numbers. Saxon, and Jutish raiders began
as barbarians occupied more and often evoked their nomadic
origins, as in this beautiful : Around 446, the leading men of : to occupy parts of the former
more of its territory. In the 420s the
terracotta horse. : Britain addressed a desperate Roman province.
_ Visigoths under Theoderic
 In this undated painting Attila the Hun is shown with his army — he is said to have Th
been turned aside from sacking Rome only by the pleas of Pope Leo |. partner for the eastern Roman Empire than his Arian neighbours.

44 [HUNS] TOOK CAPTIVE | IN 456, THE VISIGOTHS, : repeated elsewhere in the Roman
encouraged by the western : Empire, and the area of imperial

THE CHURCHES AND Roman emperor Avitus, had

invaded the Iberian Peninsula.
control shrank to little more than
© Italy. Anthemius (r.467-472) tried
SLEW THE MONKS The Visigothic king Theoderic
Il (r.453-66) defeated the
: to recover some ground, but an
: expeditionary force against
AND MAIDENS. 99 Suevic ruler Rechiarius, who
was threatening the Roman
: Vandal-controlled North Africa in
: 468 ended in disaster. In Gaul,
Callinicus, disciple of Hypatius, from Life of Saint Hypatius, c.450
province of Tarraconensis, : Euric conquered almost all
and the remaining Sueves : remaining Roman territory in the
retreated. Theoderic took : south by 475. In 472, Anthemius
IN JAPAN, THE 5TH CENTURY SAW : overseas contacts became more most of Spain for himself, but : was overthrown by Gundobad, a
THE RAPID DEVELOPMENT and : extensive, with ten diplomatic left the Romans parts of the : Burgundian. Gundobad placed
expansion of the Yamato state. : missions visiting China between east coast. This policy was : Olybrius (1.472) and Glycerius
Complex irrigation systems began : 421 and 478, and increasing reversed by his successor : (r.473-74] on the throne in quick
to appear, and rulers built ever : Yamato interference in civil wars Euric (r.466-84], who overran the : sucession, but, despairing of the
larger burial mounds, such as the : between the Korean states of : Clay bear figurine | remaining Roman territories in : empire's frailty, he then left for
: Clay haniwa figurines have been
486m (1,600ft) long Nintoku : Paekche, Silla, and Koguryo.
: a feature of rich Japanese burials
the late 470s. By the time of Alaric _ Burgundy. The last embers of the
mound. Ojin founded a new line of The Sasanian Persian Empire : since the earliest times. The large Il (-484-507) the Visigothic : empire were contested in 475-76,
kings, who exercised firmer : came under pressure from : burial mounds of Yamato rulers | kingdom encompassed almost all : between Julius Nepos and
control over Japan’s main islands :; eastern nomadic groups in the : contain huge quantities of them. of Spain, as well as Aquitaine and : Romulus Augustulus, the son of
from a royal centre in the : later Sth century. The Hephthalite Provence in southern Gaul. : Orestes, commander of the
Kawachi-Izumi area. Yamato : Huns moved into Bactria early in : Undaunted, Attila invaded Italy in The situation in Spain was : Roman army. Feeling that the
the century, and were a particular 452, but turned back short of %

haeiad : Rome. Attila died after his s A KINGDOM OF THE

: threat to the Sasanians, but a
fuservufent Tues: : famine during the reign of Peroz : wedding feast in 453, and his sons
KINGDOM OF
THE FRANKS
sx we
i
BURGUNDIANS
Slavs KINGDOM OF
5 THE OSTROGOTHS
: (457-84) caused them to move : began a civil war that led to the KINGDOM OF
; west again. In 469 Peroz suffered : Hunnish empire falling apart. THE SUEVES mannii /Lombards KINGDOM OF THE GEPIDS
: a terrible defeat at the hands of Following the death of the
: the Hephthalites. He was : Roman general Aétius in 454, Caucasus

captured, and only released after real power in the western

: leaving his son as a hostage. In : Roman Empire was exercised by
: 484, Peroz sought revenge ina : a series of barbarian kingmakers, SASANIAN
EMPIRE
new campaign against the : such as Ricimer, the leader of the Atlas Mountain? Pers — ne oF
: Hephthalites, but was defeated : Roman army in Italy. In 457,
Me %
KINGDOM Uerranean Sea
nt : and killed. : Ricimer placed Majorian on the OF THE
VANDALS
Having demanded, and been : imperial throne. When Majorian
refused, the hand in marriage of became too independent-minded,
heitre
oovache eme sh
AFRICA
Honoria, the sister of Roman : Ricimer replaced him with
he povoren-
var van ie ro Vi
Emperor Valentinian III in 450, the - Libius Severus (r.461-65], who
: Hunnish king Attila (see 401-450) he later had poisoned. Deprived Barbarian kingdoms in Europe c.500
Pope Leo! KEY
By 500, most of the former western Roman
The illustration on this manuscript : marched into Gaul. He was : of effective leadership, the ~» Byzantine reconquests
Empire was divided between several principal
shows Pope Leo |, an Italian : defeated near Chalons by an army | Roman Empire lost more of its barbarian successor states: the Vandals in — Frankish expansion
aristocrat, persuading Attila the Hun of Romans under Aétius and : Gallic territories to the Visigoths North Africa, the Visigoths in Spain and Ostrogothic expanision
not to attack Rome. : Goths under Theodoric. : and Franks. southern Gaul, and the Ostrogoths in Italy. —» Sasanian expansion
: interests of the Germanic : Italy, led by Odoacer. He resolved :; Odoacer ruled as king of Italy, but : the loyalty of the old Roman
: barbarians in the army were being ; this by commissioning the king of : the legitimacy of his rule was : aristocracy. In 497, the eastern
: ignored, Orestes's deputy, ' the Ostrogoths, Theodoric, to : always questionable. In 489, an emperor Anastasius | recognized
: Odoacer, revolted and deposed © topple Odoacer in 489. By 500, the : Invasion by Theodoric’s : Theodoric’s right to govern Italy,
: Romulus in September 476. He © eastern Roman Empire under : Ostrogoths led to a four-year » providing him with a secure base
: did not appoint a new emperor, : Anastasius (r.492-518) was in ' stand-off, with Odoacer to consolidate his rule and extend
: claiming that he ruled Italy on : little danger of the implosion that : blockading himself inside the old » it into Gaul.
: behalf of the eastern emperor ; had erased its western : imperial capital of Ravenna. After In northwestern Gaul the Franks
Zeno (r.474-91). This marked the : counterpart just 25 years earlier. : the murder of Odoacer in 493, had emerged as a threat
| end of the Roman Empire in the The western Roman Empire : Theodoric established a regirne : in the late 4th century, and by the
: west after 500 years. was replaced by a series of : in which the continuation of : 460s they were carving outa
: However, in the east the Roman : Germanic successor Roman administrative : kingdom under Childeric. His
: Empire survived. The long reign of : states. practices won successor Clovis (r.481-511)
: Theodosius II (408-50) had © transformed that kingdom,
: strengthened its position, and defeating Syagrius, ruler of a Son of Thiudmir, a king of the
i after 400 the eastern empire had : Roman enclave around Soissons, Ostrogoths, Theodoric spent
: not had to face such direct threats ‘ and expanding along the Rhine at 11 years as a Roman hostage,
from Huns, Goths, Vandals, the expense of the Alamans in to guarantee the good
: Alamanns, Burgundians, the 490s. In 507, he defeated behaviour of his father. He
: and Franks as the west. the Visigoths at the Battle returned home to become
: Marcian (r.450-57) had of Vouillé and drove them king of the Ostrogoths in 471,
: consolidated the out of most of and for the next 17 years
» eastern empire's southwestern Gaul. In alternately allied with and
finances, leaving a the late 490s or early attacked Roman territories in
: surplus of 100,000 500s, Clovis the Balkans. In 493,
: pounds of gold at converted to Theodoric became the first
: his death. Leo | Catholic Ostrogothic king of Italy. His
: (r.457-74) fended Christianity, rule was generally pro-
: off residual setting him apart Roman, and he was buried in
: Gothic threats to from other this Roman-style mausoleum.
: the Balkans, and barbarian rulers
' even made an who were mostly
: attempt to Arians (members : Saxons, and Jutes] settled in
: recover North of an alternative : Britain. The arrival of the Saxons
: Africa in 468. Christian church). : has been dated to 449, when they
: Zeno (474-91) In Britain, the : were invited by the British king
: faced the challenge expulsion of Roman : Vortigern. Seven years later, they
: of the new officials had been : revolted and set up a kingdom in
Germanic rulers of followed by a period in : Kent. Aelle founded a kingdom in
which petty kingdoms : Sussex around 477 and Cerdic, in
vied for power. These : Wessex [around modern
: Saxon brooch kingdoms were vulnerable : Hampshire], by 495. A British
: Anglo-Saxon art in the to coastal raiders, and, late in : victory at Mons Badonicus around
: 5th century valued abstract
: geometric patterns, as seen the 5th century, groups of : 500 stemmed the Saxon tide, but
: on this brooch. : Germanic barbarians (Angles, : the respite was short-lived.

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These éth-century ivory panels show Emperor Anastasius. He amassed a vast financial This 6th-century mosaic, from the|
surplus, which his successors spent on expanding the Eastern Roman Empire. Emperor Justinian with his retinue fficials, guards, and clergy.

IN THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE : army officer, Vitalian, in Thrace in THE REIGN OF THE BYZANTINE : church of Hagia Sophia in 534.
(generally called the Byzantine ; 513. Anastasius left no clear heir, EMPEROR JUSTINIAN (r.527-65) : The greatest challenge to his rule
Empire from about this date], : and on his death Justin (518-27), began with important reforms. In > came in 532, when rioting among
Anastasius (r.491-518) faced ' head of the palace guard, seized 528, he commissioned a new law :the Blue and Green chariot-racing
difficulties in the Balkans, as new » the throne. Justin was of humble code to replace the confusion he :factions got out of hand and
groups, including the Bulgars, : origins and relied heavily on his had inherited. The new code, the : turned into the Nika Revolt. The
pressed southwards across the : nephew Justinian. He restored Codex Justinianus, came into : uprising almost caused Justinian
Danube between 493 and 502. : Chalcedonian Christianity and force in 529 (revised in 534). An to flee Constantinople, and its
More serious were problems on enamel : developed good relations with the enthusiastic builder, Justinian : suppression killed 30,000 rebels.
the eastern frontier, where the : Ostrogoths of Italy and the ordered the building of the great : With his throne secure, Justinian
Persians insisted on Byzantine » Vandals of North Africa. Abroad, : looked abroad. In 533 he sent an
financial subsidies to pay for the : his reign was generally peaceful, : army under Belisarius to
defence of strategic passes in the : apart from a minor campaign : Vandal-controlled North Africa,
Caucasus against barbarian against Persia in early 527. : where Gelimer had deposed King
incursions. In 502, the Persian In Gaul, Clovis, king of the : Hilderic, a Byzantine ally. On 13
ruler Kavadh began a war over Franks, had defeated Syagrius, : September, Belisarius defeated
the issue; the slow Byzantine : ruler of a Roman enclave near : Gelimer’s army at Ad Decimum,
reaction allowed him to capture : Soissons, in 486, followed by the just outside Carthage, and Vandal
Amida as well as several towns in : Alamanns and the Thuringians in ! resistance collapsed. Carthage
Armenia. Byzantine forces retook 491. The Visigothic kingdom in : was occupied and Gelimer was
Amida in 505, and Kavadh - : southwestern Gaul was his next : sent as a captive to Constantinople.
preoccupied with a Hepthalite ' target, and it collapsed after a - The rapid conquest of the Vandal
invasion in the east - agreed a : major Frankish victory at Vouillé : kingdom encouraged Justinian to
: Frankish fibula brooch
truce, which lasted until 527.
! Fibula brooches were practical as : in 507. Clovis's marriage to Clotilde, 3 intervene in Italy. An excuse was
Anastasius was almost 60 when : wellas decorative, being used to : daughter of the Burgundian king : provided by the murder in April
he became emperor in 491, and : fasten clothes. This brooch is Chilperic, led him to convert to : 535 of his friend Amalasuintha,
his place on the throne was only : decorated with the heads of birds. : Catholic Christianity in the 490s, Theodora, who Justinian : the Ostrogothic queen. Belisarius
secured by his marriage in 492 to © and he maintained cordial married in 525, had once been : launched a strike against Italy in
Ariadne, widow of his predecessor terms Anastasius’s reign was less » relations with the Byzantine a prostitute and the mistress : 535, landing on Sicily with 7,000
Zeno. Almost immediately Zeno’s ' tranquil, as he was a follower of : emperor Anastasius, who gave of Hecebolus, the governor of : troops. Sicily was secured by the
brother Longinus revolted, and it : Monophysite Christianity, which ; him the title of consul c.508. Near Libya Pentapolis. After the : end of 535, and Belisarius moved
took six years for Anastasius to : held that Christ had only a single : the end of his reign, Clovis added death of his adoptive mother, : into southern Italy early in 536. He
subdue Longinus’s home area of : divine nature and did not combine ' several previously independent Empress Lucipina {who had : took Naples after a three-week
Isauria (in western Asia Minor). » human and divine in his person. : Frankish domains to his kingdom, opposed their relationship], ; siege, causing the Ostrogothic
Anastasius gained popularity by : At first, Anastasius supported © notably that of the Ripuarian Justinian had the law changed "king, Vitigis, to retreat northwards.
abolishing the chrysargyron tax : Zeno’s Henotikon - an “act of Franks. On his death in 511, in 524 to allow him to marry : On 9 December 536, in a symbolic
for traders and craftsmen. : union” issued in 482 that tried to : Clovis's kingdom was divided Theodora. Theodora became : restoration of the empire’s lost
Prosperity continued and over his : broker a compromise between ; among his four sons - Theuderic, a forceful empress, stiffening : provinces, the Byzantine army
reign his treasury amassed a : supporters of the orthodox creed : Childebert, Chlodomir,
and Justinian’s resolve during the - occupied Rome. Rome was soon
surplus of 320,000 pounds of gold. : (established at the Council of : Chlothar. This tradition of Nika revolt and acting as the : besieged by Goths. Belisarius
He also implemented monetary : Chalcedon in 452) and the : subdivision would weaken the protector of Monophysite : finally took the Ostrogothic capital
reforms in 498 and 512 aimed at : Monophysites. However, later his : Merovingian dynasty, as the Christians — she was one : of Ravenna in 540. Suspicions that
stabilizing the currency, which had : attitude became more pro- : descendants of Clovis were known. herself - during times of : he planned to become emperor
suffered successive debasements : Monophysite, which led to serious - The Merovingians ruled Francia persecution. : led to his recall, encouraging more
in the 5th century. In religious rioting in 512, and the revolt of an : (France) until the 8th century. : Ostrogothic resistance.
 44 THE PLAGUE FELL UPON THE
s WHOLE WORLD... NOT A SINGLE
; MAN IN THE WHOLE ROMAN
- EMPIRE COULD ESCAPE... 99
Procopius, Byzantine scholar, from Secret History, c.550

THE LATTER PART OF JUSTINIAN’S :

@ Argentorate
Franks = REIGN lacked the achievements of
Burdigalae suonge f
i Slavs
its first half. A serious outbreak of
Tolosae Arelate
Oo Rivets x
4 Black te Graeea
plague - probably bubonic plague
537-40 @ Naissus
eTolosa ATER hae a Adrianople - began in Egypt in 540 and caused
37-40 © »eConstaninople widespread mortalities, robbing
Carthago Sardinia VK ~ Ze 2
: Navaex
( ss, &N Thi essalonica 8 the empire of desperately needed
: Tingie & @ Athenae & manpower. Tax revenues fell,
3 ree SICH @ Antioch
further weakening the
“533 Tranean Sea Cyprus administration, and
e@:Gyrene prices rose, leading to
AFRICA e Alexandria
the passing of laws in
544 to reduce inflation.
KEY Further outbreaks of
: Justinian’s reconquests
plague occurred in the
: Vandal Italy fell to Justinian’s armies in 533, but it STUNG Ena SAY
: was devastated by the 20-year war needed to take JES MEI SUERTE NESE éth and 7th centuries,
: it. An attempted Byzantine reconquest of Spain > Byzantine campaigns sapping the vitality of
: foundered, capturing onlya few coastal areas. X Battle the Byzantine Empire.
In Italy, the Ostrogoths
: Persiaenteredanewperiodof =: paying salaries. Khusrau captured made rapid advances
: greatness under Khusrau | © Antioch in 540, forcing Justinian to after the departure of
: (531-79), who came to the throne: pay 5,000 pounds of gold to regain Belisarius. Their new
at a time when the Mazdakites - it. He attacked again, in 544, but a king, Totila, secured the
a populist religious movement : siege of Edessa failed and so he area north of the River
: —had caused serious social : made a truce. A further Byzantine- Po, and in 542 took
' tensions. Khusraureformedthe = Persian war (546-51) resulted in a control of much of
tax system and establishedanew . 50-year peace. central Italy. Belisarius
army, encouraging poorer nobles: was recalled to retrieve
: and their followers to serve by the sitiation in 544, but
Justinian starved him of
resources and Rome

44 TO ME, AND TO MANY fell in 546. Although the

Byzantines retook Rome

OTHERS, THESE TWO in 547, it fell once more

to Totita in 550. Justinian

‘SEEMED NOT TO BE sent two huge armies under

Artabanes and Narses to finish

HUMAN BEINGS, BUT off the Goths. Artabanes entered Ostrogothic brooch
This gold and enamel

VERITABLE DEMONS...
Ravenna in June 552, and in July
brooch demonstrates
Narses defeated Totila at the
the high level of

‘VAMPIRES. 99
Battle of Busta Gallorum in the
workmanship in the
Apennines. Totila later died of his Ostrogothic kingdom
wounds. There was still some of Italy. Its eagle
Ostrogoth resistance, but the | imagery may indicate
Procopius, Byzantine scholar, on Justinian and Empress Theodora,
from Secret History, c.550 war in Italy was effectively over. Roman influence.
 446 WHEN JUSTIN HAD HEARD THESE EVENTS... HE HAD
NO HEALTHY OR SANE THOUGHTS... HE FELL INTO A
MENTAL DISORDER AND MADNESS AND AFTERWARDS
HAD NO UNDERSTANDING OF EVENTS. 99
Evagrius Scholasticus, scholar and aide to Gregory of Antioch, on Justin II's
reaction on the fall of Dara to the Persians, from Ecclesiastical History c.595

The 13th-century lona Abbey (pictured) was built on the site of the original
monastery founded by St Columba when he arrived on lona in 563.

MEROVINGIAN FRANCIA (FRANCE)

HAD BEEN DIVIDED into separate
Ireland had been converted to
: Christianity by Patrick (d.461] in
JAPAN’S SOGA FAMILY CAME TO
PROMINENCE IN 540, when Soga
THE NUMBER OF YEARS
kingdoms on the death of Clovis in : the mid-5th century and a strong no Iname was made chief THE “ENDLESS PEACE”
511 (see 501-526). Despite this, : monastic tradition took hold minister. Emperor Bidatsu’s
Frankish power continued to grow. » there. From the 6th century, Irish death in 585 led to a succession OF 532 BETWEEN THE
By 558, Chlothar I (511-61), who
ruled the area of Francia around
: monks began conducting
: missions abroad. In 563, Columba
dispute, from which Iname’s
grandson Yomei emerged
BYZANTINE EMPIRE AND
Soissons, had absorbed the : (c.520-97) set up the abbey of successful. The next emperor, PERSIA LASTED
Rheims kingdom and the region lona on an island off Scotland's Sushun [r.586-93}, had
around Paris after their rulers : western coast. lona became a | aSoga mother, reinforcing the : fortress of Dara. On hearing this, : Byzantine counterattacks in 575
died. This left Chlothar as the sole : centre of Irish-influenced family’s dominance. When Sushun : Justin went insane. His wife took : were a disaster. Under Agilulf
Merovingian ruler of Francia for : monasticism, which extended into was assassinated in 593, he was : power, and had to agree a : (590-616) the Lombard kingdom
three years, until his death in 561. : northern England, Scotland, and succeeded by Bidatsu’s widow : humiliating peace with Persia. : consolidated; the Byzantines were
Francia was once again divided, : Francia with the foundation of the Suiko (1593-628), who was another : In 567, the Lombards, who had : limited to small territories around
with Charibert | receiving Paris, monastic centre at Luxeuil in 590. | Soga. Suiko’s reign saw the start of :| settled in the former Roman : Rome, Naples, and Ravenna.
Guntram getting Orléans, Sigibert The Gupta Empire fell apart the Asuka Enlightenment, and : province of Pannonia [Hungary], Under Khan Bayan [r.c.562-82),
Rheims, and Chilperic Soissons. It - after the reign of Vishnugupta | was atime of great confidence in : destroyed the Gepids and then, : the Avars - nomadic horsemen
was not until 613 that the : (r.540-50); and northern India split foreign affairs, state support for © under Alboin (reign c.560-72), from the northern Caucasus
Frankish kingdom was reunited : into a number of regional | Buddhism, and flourishing arts. moved southwest into Italy, where ; — exploited the vacuum left by the
under Chlothar II (r-613-29). : kingdoms. A minor branch of the In 572, the Byzantine emperor : the Byzantine authorities were too : departure of the Lombards to
Guptas ruled Magadha, but they Justin Ill (7565-78) went to war : weak to resist them. In 568-69 they | carve outa vast territory centred
Ajanta cave art
were swept aside by the Maukharis with Persia after he refused to pay : occupied the plain of the Po River | around modern Austria. Their
The Ajanta caves, a Buddhist holy : of Kanauj. The region fell to the a tribute due under the terms of : and set up dukes in major cities. : conquest of a number of Byzantine
site in Maharashtra, India, : Vardhana king Harsha, who | Justinian’s 50-year peace deal (see : By 572, when Pavia fell to them, : towns prompted Emperor Maurice
experienced a second major phase : established an empire in the 527-540). In 573, Persia struck : they had founded duchies as far : (582-602) into a successful
of use during the 6th century. : early 7th century. | back, invading Syria and taking the : south as Benevento. Attempted : Campaign to dislodge them.
Pe. 1-618, this fresco is from China’s Dunhuang caves, in a strategic
S is. The caves contain some of the finest examples of Buddhist art.

IN 581, YIANG JIAN, A GENERAL OF

@ NOT ANGLES, In the Balkans, the Slavs - a
: non-Germanic people referred to
: dependent on Kent - also
- converted, but the infant English

BUT ANGELS. 99
| THE ZHOU RULERS of northern
as “Sclaveni” in contemporary : Church would suffer a series of
| China, rebelled and took the
: sources - seem to have arrived : setbacks before the last Anglo-
throne for himself as the emperor
| Wendi (r.581-604). In 589, he : north of the Danube in the early to : Saxon kingdoms became Christian
: mid-éth century. When the Avars : in the late 7th century.
invaded southern China. His
Pope Gregory I, on seeing Anglo-Saxon slaves : moved into the region in c.559 the
forces rapidly overcame those of at a market in Rome : Slavs were pushed further south.
| the last Chen emperor, Hou Zhu.
Wendi was now the country’s sole
: By the end of the 6th century,
ruler and the first emperor of the : that allowed vessels to travel guard and then of the war against : Slavic groups had settled as far
_ 2,000km (1,240 miles] from : the Persians from 578. Tiberius's : south as northern Greece, the
Sui dynasty; after three centuries
of division, China was finally : Hangzhuo in the southeast to the : overspending and ineffective : Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic,
: northeastern provinces around : campaigns against the Persians, : and Macedonia, as well as in
united. Wendi disarmed private
: Beijing, via Luoyang in eastern : Lombards, and Avars had emptied : those areas of Bulgaria, Bohemia,
armies and established
+ agricultural colonies along : central China. Austere, strict, and : the imperial treasury, leaving Moravia, Serbia, and Croatia

China’s frontiers to strengthen occasionally violent, Wendi seemed : Maurice facing an immediate - where the great Slav
/ central control in remote areas. He : to have set the Sui dynasty on firm | financial crisis. His subsequent » kingdoms of the Middle
: foundations; in the end, it lasted : economizing led to mutinies by : Ages would later arise.
| implemented a major land
: only 14 years after his death, the eastern army in 588 and by In 596, Pope
| reform that increased the
| number of households liable to ' when it was replaced by the Tang. _ that of the Balkans in 593. Maurice : Gregory! senta
| the land tax from 4 million in 589, : In 582, Emperor Maurice : made his father Paul head of the mission to Britain
» succeeded Tiberius Il [578-82] : Senate and his brother-in-law to revive
/ to almost 9 million in 606. Wendi
| also extended the country’s canal : as the Byzantine emperor. He had : Philippicus head of the palace : Christianity,
system to form a Grand Canal” : been commander of the palace : guard; such nepotism further : following the
: increased his unpopularity. : invasions by pagan
In 584, Maurice renewed the » Anglo-Saxons
in the
: war with Persia, appointing : 5th and early
From 572 to 574 Gregory | was : Philippicus to oversee it. The new : 6th centuries.The
prefect of Rome, and only : commander attacked Arzanene, : missionaries set out
became a monk on his father’s : but his campaign was disrupted : under Augustine, a
death. A man of great ability : by the defection of the Ghassanid : former prior ofa
and energy, he was involved in : Arabs - former allies alienated by : monastery in Rome,
resistance to the Lombards : the arrest of their king, al-Mundhir. : and arrived in Kent
in Italy in the early part of his : The mutiny of the eastern troops ! the following year.
papacy, but he maintained good : in 588 caused Byzantine efforts to | Their reception was
relations with the Merovingians : stall further, and in 589 they lost : reasonably warm as
in Francia and the Visigothic » the city of Martyropolis in : Bertha, the wife of
rulers of Spain. Relations with : present-day Turkey] to the : the Kentish king
the Byzantine emperor Maurice : Persians. The Byzantines were : Aethelberht, was
broke down over the use of the : saved by the outbreak of a civil : already Christian.
title “ecumenical patriarch” by ' war in Persia; the involvement of a ' After Aethelberht was baptized Sui dynasty figurine
: Byzantine army in the restoration a Christian, Augustine was able to This figure depicting a trader ona
the Bishop of Constantinople,
which Gregory viewed as a : of one Persian claimant, : establish a church in Canterbury. camel emphasizes China's continuing
challenge to his authority. =} Chosroesll, led to the recovery : King Saebert of Essex and King : concern with commerce along the
: of Martyropolis and Dara in 592. : Sigebert of East Anglia - both : Silk Road through Central Asia.
Peat
hel
 In the Redieval period, trade ii eae unified the Old World
Or
in a single network, with new ideas and inventions emerging —
;
ee
even as the political landscape was transformed. Meanwhile, »
| .
“in the New World, great civilizations reached theirpeak.
 Fe ee
—= tae
Acoin depicting the Eastern Roman A Tang dynasty Mendicant friar, with | This 1721 engraving by Austrian architect Johann Fischer von Erlach The ruins of the 7th century Byzantine
emperor Heraclius. an unusual travelling companion. ' shows Al-Haram Mosque and Ka’aba in Mecca. fortresses at Sbeitla, Tunisia.

UPHEAVAL IN THE | MUHAMMAD FIRST RECEIVED A : Arabian Peninsula. Muhammad's BY THE TIME OF MUHAMMAD'S
EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE DIVINE REVELATION IN 610 and rule was then unchallenged. DEATH IN 632, the young Muslim
began when the emperor began to preach in Mecca from Heraclius began to claw back community - united by Islam,
Maurice (r.582-602]) 613; but the start of the : territory ceded to the Persians, which transcended traditional
dispatched his armies to Islamic era is traditionally : starting at the Battle of Issus in rivalries — was ready for expansion.
the northern Balkans to marked by the Hegira or : 622 and later, in 627, at the Battle Although Muhammad had left no
regain imperial control of hijra, the flight to : of Nineveh. In 628 the Sasanian guidance as to his successor
the Danube frontier from Medina. Hostility from - and Byzantine Empires made (caliph), four men tied to the
the Avars [see 568-88). In the Meccan authorities : peace, exhausted by decades of prophet by marriage emerged as
602, the army rebelled under forced Muhammad to flee to : war and unaware of the storm
officer Phocas and Maurice was Medina with his family and : brewing to the south.
killed. Phocas became emperor followers in 622. In Medina, In China the emperor's son, 44 THOSE WHO
but Chosroes Il of Sasanian
Persia took advantage of the
Muhammad established a
political and religious power
: Taizong, consolidated Tang
: power by suppressing rebellions
ARE PATIENT IN
eastern empire's weakness, while base. He fought a series of > across the empire. In 626, ADVERSITY AND
the Avars invaded from the north.
In 610 the son of the military
attacks by Meccan forces, with : Taizong forced his father to step
| FORGIVE WRONGS
ARE THE DOERS
their ultimate surrender in 630 : down and inaugurated a golden
governor of Roman Africa, when he took possession of the age of trade, prosperity, and
OF EXCELLENCE. gy
Tang dynasty horse sculpture
Heraclius, executed Phocas and Horses were symbols ofmilitary | Ka’aba, the holiest shrine in the : cultural exchange.
declared himself emperor. prowess, especially warhorses from
In 606, in northern India, Harsha the western fringes of the empire.
Prophet Muhammad
(c.590-647] acceded to the
thrones of Thanesar and Kannauyj, SASANIAN CONQUESTS RESTORED
establishing the last native | THE PERSIAN EMPIRE at the the Rashidun, or “rightly guided”,
Indian empire of ancient times. expense of the Byzantines with caliphs. The first caliph, Abu Bakr
the falls of Jerusalem in (r. 632-34), suppressed an Arabian
614 and Egypt in 619. By 618,
44 THE EMPEROR. Constantinople was besieged by
rebellion, re-established Islamic
dominion over Arabia, and began
HARSHA, NOBLE the Avars, and their Slavic the conquest of Syria. His
IN BIRTH AND OF } subjects. In 620, Heraclius bought
off the Avars in order to focus on
successor Umar [r.634-44)]
became caliph in 634 and oversaw
WELL-CHOSEN repelling the Persians. the conquest of Syria and the
NAME, THE |
In 613 Clothar II (584-629]
reunited the Frankish kingdom,
defeat of the Byzantines at

SURPASSER OF | bringing an end to civil war. His

Ajnadayn. By 637, Umar controlled
Jerusalem and Damascus, and, in
ALL THE Edict of Paris, issued in 614,
introduced reforms to the
the same year, Arab forces

VICTORIES WON | Merovingian church and state.

conquered Persia (modern Iran

BY ALL THE KINGS

and Iraq], occupying the Sasanian
In 616-17, rebellions against the Born in Mecca, Muhammad ibn Abdallah worked as a merchant capital at Ctesiphon. Umar
OF ANCIENT despotic rule of Yangdi (r.604-17)
caused the collapse of the Sui
and shepherd before growing discontented and retiring to life of
contemplation. In 610, he received the first of a series of divine
established several important

TIMES... 99 | dynasty in China. A year later

military governor Li Yuan founded
revelations - these became the Qu’ran. He preached a
practices: the creation of garrison
towns in conquered territory to
monotheistic faith based on complete submission to God (Islam). separate the invading Arabic forces
Banabhatta, Indian poet, from The | the Tang dynasty, which ruled Before his death he unified Arabian tribes within his new religion. from the locals; the recruitment of
Deeds of Harsha, c.640 until 906.
soldiers through slavery and tribal
 46 THEY BEQUEATHED THE
LEAMING GOLD, TREASURE
From the Old English epic poem, Beowulf

One of 20 burial mounds of this type at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, England, which conceal the
graves and funerary treasures of the royal line of East Anglia.

: region. In 642, for instance, the - is believed to have once

- Christian king Oswald of contained the body of an Anglo
Northumbria, hitherto one of the Saxon king. One of the last
Se %, : most powerful kingdoms, was burials of this type in England, the
Ordos
Desert — eon : slain by the pagan king Penda of artefacts comprise a fusion of
: Spee East China
i Sea : Mercia. The great Anglo-Saxon ? Christian and non-Christian
~~ @Hangzhou : ship burial at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk elements, suggesting transition
: ~ filled with marvelously worked as Christianity gained in
Plateau of |
ae Tiber : artefacts, weapons and treasures : popularity and strength.
: Taiwan

Philippine ‘THE LENGTH dragon's head

OF THE SUTTON.
Islands
Barygaza

HOO SHIP
Arabian
Sea
- INDO- | "Sea
CHINA
Kanchipuram

: unchecked even by the

"KEY : assassination in 644 of Umar by
: —» Xuanzang’s route INDIAN
~~ Borneo a Persian slave. His successor,
%m2)
OCEAN
acs° : Uthman, promulgated the first
» The travels of Xuanzang : written version of the Qu’ran,
: The young monk left the Tang which had previously been
: capital, Chang an, in around 630. : transmitted orally.
ISLAMIC EXPANSION CONTINUED
: He crossed Central Asia and
as the Arabs defeated the Persian After launching successful
: reached India in 645.
counterattack at the Battle of expeditions against the Tibetans
: affiliation - those recruited for Nihavand in 642, dealing the final and Mongolians, but failing to
: fighting were made dependents of blow to the Sasanian Empire; conquer Korea, the Tang
tribal members; and a taxation the last emperor, Yazdgird III, died emperor Taizong (r.626-49] died
: system that favoured Muslims and in 651, and with him died : in 649, and his weak-willed son
Zoroastrianism, the religion of : began to cede increasing
: encouraged conversion but
the empire. Conversion of the : influence to the Empress Wu
: allowed Christians and Jews to
population to Islam proceeded » (624-705). In Japan, the Fujiwara:
: follow their religions.
slowly but steadily over the : clan enacted the Taikareformsin :
: Buddhism became increasingly
following centuries. The Arabs : 646, bringing all land into imperial i
: influential in Tang China; the
met with similar success in Egypt : ownership and centralizing power
» Buddhist monk Xuanzang
where the Byzantines offered only : following the Chinese model.
: journeyed far and wide in search
token resistance. The fall of In England, Christian converts
© of wisdom. His travels became
Alexandria came in 642, the : battled pagan kings for control
: legendary and foresaw the
same year that the Muslims : over territory and the religious
: increasing mobility of people and
founded the military settlement of : and cultural direction of the
: ideas along the Silk Road, made
possible by the power of the Tang Fustat, which later became Cairo.
: and later the caliphate. Also The following year the marauding : Sutton Hoo helmet
"travelling the Silk Road, Nestorian Islamic armies conquered : This reconstruction is made from
' Christians reached China from Tripolitania in North Africa as : jron with highly-decorated panels of
: tinned bronze.
© Persia in 635. their advance continued,

<9 < S=
oo = wa Soo Os
ure oe yo oe a we
a pred aot oe
ORS wer os
eS
02 fpr g
oo
Ce oe aw ‘2nO
 pet
A
The weathered landscape of central Anatolia, a Byzantine territory that suffered | Amodern-day depiction of the Battle of Karbala; al-Husayn’s death is
repeated raids from Arab forces in the 7th century. _ commemorated in the annual Shiite ritual of the ashura.

THE SPLIT BETWEEN SUNNI AND | THE MAYA CITY-STATE OF TIKAL : courts, causeways, observatories,
SHIITE MUSLIMS was the outcome | |BEGAN ITS RESURGENCE after a : and palaces.
- Transoxiana —
of fierce disagreement over how _ century-long period of political The Arab forces besieging the
= -KHAZAR stan
succession to the caliphate ought EMPIRE and cultural domination by - city of Constantinople (see 670]
to be decided; either by selection British:
_ EUROPE i| neighbouring city-states known : were unable to breach its massive
Isles
(as in the case of the first three Fie as the Tikal hiatus, which had : walls and were eventualiy beaten
caliphs) or by hereditary descent. been marked by an absence of : Off with the use of a new
Caliph Uthman (r. 644-56) had inscriptions in the city’s : Byzantine secret weapon-
promoted members of his own | petroglyphic record. An inscription “Greek fire” (see 711-20). Its
o%
clan, the Umayyads. He was | dated to 672 records a military : deployment may also have helped
assassinated in 656 by Egyptian erraneanSAGES
Se S2
ATL
ANTI¢ Medit |
| campaign against the rival : destroy the Arab fleet at the Battle
soldiers, nursing grievances over
o

maght® aoe m
H city-state of Dos Pilas, andinthe : of Syllaeum in 677, forcing the
q
their lower status. Ali lbn Abi
Talib became the fourth caliph.
Atlas Mountain® 4 || following decades Tikal restored : caliphate to agree a 30-year
AFRICA | its position among the Maya of the : truce. The truce bought breathing
7

As Muhammad's cousin and | Late Classic period (600-900). | space for the embattled Byzantine
son-in-law — next in line by KEY The city’s rulers engaged ina
: Expansion under the caliphate Empire, struggling to hold back
descent - Ali enjoyed unique "Muslim lands by 656 construction programme to match
: The rapid Arab expansion continued throughout the Bulgars, who established the
status in the Islamic world, but he | their political ambitions, building
i the latter half of the 7th century. Islamic armies — Byzantine Empire c.610 : First Bulgarian Empire in 681 on
faced many challenges. At the : pushed into Central Asia and North Africa, — Sasanian Empire c.610 many impressive structures : conquered Byzantine territory
Battle of the Camel in 656 Ali : bringing them within striking distance of Spain. — Frankish Kingdoms c.610
]
| including massive pyramids, ball : north of the Balkan mountains.
overcame a revolt by the prophet's
widow A’isha and her allies, Byzantine claims to Italy by : Anatolia continued and by 670 they

|!
opposing his inclusive policies. In ! relocating his court to Rome in : had reached the Byzantine capital,
657, the Umayyad emir of Syria, : 663, but raids deep into Anatolia : Constantinople (modern-day
Mu’awiya, asserted his claim on : (modern-day Turkey] by Arab > Istanbul), launching the first |
the caliphate; Ali was also forces led to a collapse in : siege on the city, which would
challenged by the Kharijis, a his authority; in 668, he : last until 677.
sect who objected to the was assassinated and : The Unified Silla kingdom in
application of the

|
Constantine IV took Korea brought to an end the long
hereditary the throne. Arab : Three Kingdoms period, with the
principle. In 661,
Ali was murdered
incursions into : help of Tang China. In 660 |
the Tang destroyed the
by a Khariji, opening
the way for Mu’awiya
kingdom of Paekche,
while in 668 Silla and
ir
|

Ln
to declare himself Tang forces combined
caliph, instituting the to overcome Koguryo,
Arab Umayyad dynasty.
Ali's supporters formed
thus bringing all of the Korean
Peninsula under Silla control.
A
a party of their own,
Having consolidated their conquests of Persia and Byzantine
which evolved into a

|
q North Africa, Arab armies pressed on eastwards and westwards.
distinctive branch Stoneware bird
This grey stoneware incense burner
In Central Asia, Arab forces crossed the Oxus river in 667 and
of Islam, the Shiites,
dates from the Silla kingdom, which continued to advance to within range of the Silk Road kingdom of
in opposition to the Sunni.
was on the verge of becoming the Bukhara. In Africa, they crushed the Berber kingdoms, reaching
Emperor Constans ||
dominant power during Korea’s late Tangiers in 683.
attempted to re-establish Three Kingdoms period.
 Jerusalem’s Dome of the Rock - a shrine sacre d to all three Abrahamic faiths -
has an octagonal floorplan and a massive gold dome.

At the Battle of Karbala in 680

the Shiite leader al-Husayn ibn
Ali, grandson of Muhammad, was
surrounded by Umayyad troops,
deprived of water for several
days, and eventually killed. His
death was proclaimed a
: martyrdom by the Shiites, who
commemorate it to this day. THE NUMBER OF MAJOR STONE
: In China in 690, the Empress
: Wu finally
took the throne in her
BUILDINGS CONSTRUCTED IN
; own name - the only woman in TIKAL'S LATE CLASSIC PERIOD
Chinese history to do so — after
decades of controlling it through
her husband and sons. She even ABD AL-MALIK HAD BECOME : Temple Mount in Jerusalem,
: created her own dynasty, Zhou, CALIPH IN 685, instituting the Dome of the Rock (or
' which she headed until 705. important changes to the way the Qubbat as-Sakhrah],
caliphate was ruled, centralizing completed in 692.
government, insisting that all The harsh ten-year rule of
state business was conducted in the Byzantine emperor
Arabic, setting up the barid (a Justinian Il had aroused
postal/intelligence gathering : widespread opposition and in
service}, and issuing, around 697, 695 he was deposed and had
new coinage: the dinar and his nose cut off by Leontius,
dirham. He also commissioned a who became emperor in his
great shrine to be built on the stead. However, in 698, the
loss of Carthage, the last
Byzantine stronghold in North

44 I HAVE NOT Africa, to the Arabs led to

another revolt and Leontius
SEEN THE suffered the same fate as his
EQUAL: NEITHER predecessor.
The turn of the century was a
HAVE I HEARD time of change and unrest in the
TELL OF Americas. In North America, the
spear was superceded by
ANYTHING... : widespread adoption of the bow
THAT COULD and arrow. In the Valley of Mexico : Ancient
around 700, the great city-state of | Teotihuacan
RIVAL IN GRACE Teotihuacan, which once housed ses ;

: Temple at Tikal
THIS DOME OF over wat 100,000 people, collapsed prob
: and
IS Mask WaS

bringing six centuries of growth

: Flanking Tikal’s Great Plaza, the 38m THE ROCK... 99 and dominance to an end. Social,
: a figurine representing
: a god. The mask would
(122ft} high Temple II was built economic, and environmental : have been decorated with
during the construction boom of the Mukaddasi, Arab geographer,
c.10th century factors were probably to blame. : inlays and ear ornaments.
Late Classic resurgence.

89
 t SEN ~ a 7 .
Mapre euaageliuamg
qe
lqodetyo ey
ed TTYaesS
secu STIOA.ps88 76a NTONt Hea 0 ‘

Sere EY|
“soveey, 7” al TA a
1

ei : <1 Seat tHe a # Ws nS bApaass oa oge

A detail from the illumin ted | Greek fire being deployed, as illustrated in the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript from the ) Aniconici mage of Christ held by
manuscript of the Lindisfarne Gospels. ‘ 12th century, which chronicles the history of the Byzantine Empire. Nicephorus, Patriarch of Constantinople.

ANGLO-SAXON ART FUSED : caliphate control from Provence | CASA GRANDE FLOURISHED
GERMANIC AND CELTIC : to the borders of China. | AROUND THE 720s. The success of
ELEMENTS, and, through The Arabs did experience some this settlement of the Hohokam,
travellers and Christian pilgrims, » setbacks, however. In 717, yet | an ancient people of the Sonoran
it also reflected Roman and » another incursion into Byzantine desert in modern-day Arizona, lay
Byzantine influences. A product » lands triggered a change at the in a watering system that allowed
of this unique synthesis was the : head of the empire, bringing Leo a range of crops to be grown,
Lindisfarne Gospels, an © II, founder of the Isaurian despite the arid environment. The
illuminated manuscript produced : Dynasty, to the throne. Although Hohokam lived here for more than
c.701 at the priory of Lindisfarne, : unable to prevent the Arabs from | a millennium; they were known as
on Holy Island, off the northeast : reaching the walls of the capital | “canal builders” because of their
coast of England. ; and launching the second siege sophisticated irrigation
In 705, with the help of Bulgar : of Constantinople (717-18], Leo's technology. Casa Grande was at
allies, the deposed emperor energetic command of the _ the centre of a trade network
Justinian Il returned from exile : defence, and the deployment of that stretched from the Pacific
(see 690-700), regained the ' the secret weapon “Greek fire”, | coast to Tucson and to the Gulf of
Byzantine throne, and exacted : halted Arab advances in the | Mexico. The earliest structures
brutal revenge on those who had : Eastern Mediterranean. Byzantine at Casa Grande were probably pit
| His favourite concubine
mutilated him. This Tang dynasty scroll shows Xuanzong watching his fleets, wielding Greek fire- | houses; the “great house” that
By 705, Zoroastrian refugees \ concubine Yang Guifei mount a horse. The emperor's love : spouting siphons, gained control | gives the site its name came
fleeing the Islamic conquest of | for her inspired much drama and poetry. : of the seas, and Leo was able to much later.
Persia established communities begin restoring the empire. In 725, the Khazars, a Turkic
in India and became known as the IN 710, THE VISIGOTHIC KINGDOM : resist the invaders, with defeat In 713, the Tang emperor | people of Central Asian origin,
Parsees. Persian Zoroastrian | OF SPAIN had descended into civil ' at the Battle of Covadonga in 718 Xuanzong came to the throne. His | established their capital at
emigration continued during the ) war, presenting a tempting : checking the Arab advance. The 43-year reign would see Tang | Atil, on the Volga delta at the
following centuries. | prospect to the Islamic armies : year 718 is one of the dates China reach its apogee, ' northwestern corner of the
now established in North Africa, traditionally given for the start of » economically and culturally, with | Caspian Sea. From here they
| just a short distance away across ; the process of Christian : the establishment of many controlled trade routes to all
the Straits of Gibraltar. In 711, a | reconquest of Spain. Nonetheless, : schools, patronage of the arts, ' corners of Asia and built an
' Muslim army under general Tariq : by the end of the decade further : and a great literary flowering. empire that would control a huge
_ ibn Ziyad, landed at Gibraltar. expeditions across the Pyrenees, swathe of Eastern Europe and
§ Tariq was a Berber (native of : and successful campaigns in | Western Asia for centuries
2 | northwestern Africa], or, in the : Central Asia, had extended | to come.
' parlance of the times, a Moor, and In Byzantium in 726, the
| itwas a mixed army of Arabs and
Deanne!
emperor Leo III (see 711-20)
Moors that achieved the conquest : _ instituted a policy of iconoclasm
, of Spain, known to the Islamic The Arab expansion indirectly proved the saviour of the Byzanti ne (smashing images deemed
world as al-Andalus. According to Empire, when Kallinikos, a Syrian Greek forced into exile by the sacrilegious] in response to the
| tradition, Tariq defeated the Arab invasion, brought to Constant inople the recipe for a secret idea that God was punishing
| Visigothic king, Roderick, at the weapon that came to be known as Greek fire. Now believed to Christian Byzantines by their loss
51 _ Battle of Guadalete, and by the have been a concoction of naphtha , sulphur, quicklime, and nitre of land to the Arabs and Slavs.
Ruins of Lindisfarne Priory | end of the year most of the Iberian -a sort of medieval napalm - this highly flammable mixture was | The controversy encouraged the
The Benedictine Priory, built in the peninsula was under Islamic sprayed at enemies from a siphon device that could be fitted to Roman papacy to assert their
12th century, replaced an earlier _ control. Only the northwest, the prow of a Byzantine war galley. _ independence from Byzantine
church founded by StAidan in 635. | known as Asturias, managed to _ imperial authority.
 3 uh ao ake : : ie S Se ave Sei
z Pie )
In 1837, artist Steuben depicted the Battle of Tours-Poitiers as a clash over the fate of The Great Mosque at Samarra, Iraq, built by the Abbasid Caliphate. Once the
Christian Europe. In reality Islamic raiders were beaten back ina minor skirmish. | largest mosque in the world, the minaret stands at 52m (171ft) tall.

: checked and Europe preserved : overtaxed the surrounding _ THE FOUNDATION OF THE ABBASID : Carloman. In 748, Pepin hada
: for Christianity. Arabic sources : ecology and exceeded their ability | CALIPHATE IN 750 was the : son, Charles, who would go on to
record it as a minor skirmish, : to cope with drought. Collapse | culmination of growing tension in : unite most of Western Europe
: and in reality its main : was just around the corner. the Islamic world. Under the © under one banner (see 761-90).
- significance was that it Umayyads (see 651-70) the Arab © Tiwanaku, a pre-Columbian city
: demonstrated the need for the elite stubbornly maintained their : on the altiplano (high plains) of
| Frankish kingdoms to special tax and political status, : Bolivia, reached it’s height in
: presenta unified defence. | failing to deal with the growing : around 750. Tiwanaku was the
: The Maya city-states _ grievances of the mawali {non- centre of a civilization that

THE : of the Late Classic | Arab Muslims). In 747, revolt broke :: flourished from the third to tenth
: period reached | out in Persian Khorasan, : centuries (see 951-60). The city

POPULATION : the peak of their stronghold of the Abbasid clan,

who traced their descent back
: itself was probably a ceremonial
: and trading centre; its cultural
to Muhammad through his ; and economic influence spread far

a
DENSITY eee

a
uncle, al-Abbas. In 749, Abu : through South America, and
al-Abbas al-Saffah was : it would profoundly affect the
: Central America. proclaimed caliph at Kufa in : development of later civilizations
: The population of Iraq, and the following year at : in the Andean region. Tiwanaku
SINCE CONQUERING SPAIN,
: Tikal, for instance, the Battle of the Zab he : thrived in the harsh environment
ISLAMIC FORCES had made
: swelled to at least defeated Marwan ll, the last - of the Bolivian altiplan thanks to
regular raids across the
: 60,000, ina city Umayyad caliph. Marwan fled : its sophisticated raised-field
Pyrenees, striking deep into
: spread out over to Egypt but his head was sent ' agriculture system and extensive
modern-day France before
: 76sq km (47 sq back to Damascus, whereupon ' use of terracing and irrigation,
retreating to al-Andalus. In 721,
: miles). Mayan rulers al-Saffah instigated a general ? which enabled it to achieve yields
an incursion into Aquitaine - a
: built stone massacre of the Umayyad : in excess of even modern
dukedom nominally in vassalage
: temples, palaces, clan to remove potential » petrochemical farming
to the Frankish kingdom — had
: ballcourts, and opposition. : (see below), and supported the
been checked by Duke Eudo at
: observatories, and In 741 Charles Martel : development of a sophisticated
the Battle of Toulouse. But in
: controlled a trade (see 731-40) died and was : culture. The Tiwanaku people
731, Eudo was unable to halt a
: network stretching succeeded by his sons : built pyramids, temples, and
fresh invasion of Islamic forces
Pepin the Short and : colossal statues.
under Abd al-Rahman I, emir of : from California to
al-Andalus. After defeat at the : South America. Yet
Battle of Arles, Eudo was forced © the height of the 25
to appeal to Charles Martel, the : city-states’ glory wi
Frankish mayor of the palace, for : sowed the seeds of < 2

help. Martel raised an army and : downfall, as the populations oO

: 1
met the Islamic forces on the
banks of the Loire, between
| Tiwanaku yields a)
: Statue of Chaak, Mayan god | Raised fields combined 2 1
| Tours and Poitiers, in 732. He \ with irrigation canals oO
: Mayans would have sought
| was victorious at the Battle of enabled Tiwanakuto
: help from god of rain and
Tours-Poitiers, and subsequent : thunder, Chaak, for their achieve yields Le
Christian historians would depict of up to 21 tonnes per 0 ee a
: crops. Their civilization sat in
| hectare, according Traditional Modern Tiwanaku
this as one of the defining : a region of poor soil and Petrochemical Intensive
clashes of the age - the moment : fragile ecology, | to experimental
reconstructions. FARMING YIELDS COMPARED
at which Islamic expansion was : so rain was vital.
 f 7 * - - a
| a ein a
JE caret aa oo t Sh y
The interior of the Mosque of Cordoba, Spain, shows architecture from the | The two-tier crop rotation system introduced in the 760s divided fields | Roland bids farewell to Charlemagne
earliest phase of construction during the reign of Abd al-Rahman |. ' between cultivated and fallow land, then alternated, promoting soil fertility. in this medieval illustration on vellum.

UNDER THE NEW ABBASID : which led to the loss of most of i THE DEATH OF PEPIN III IN 758, Charlemagne’s
CALIPHS (see 741-50] the Islamic : Tang China's Central Asian | had seen the Frankish kingdom European Conquests
empire continued to grow. Initial possessions and introduced the _ customarily divided between his Charlemagne inherited
success came in 751 against the » Islamic world to papermaking. | sons Carloman and Charles [see land from his father then
Chinese in the Silk Route kingdom Outlying regions of the caliphate _ panel, below). embarked on war after
of Tashkent. The Islamic armies ATLANTIC war, continuing the work
: asserted their autonomy. In Spain Meanwhile, the great monastic OCEAN of his father and
were victorious at the Battle of : in 756, one of the last surviving retreat on the Scottish isle of lona grandfather.
Talas River near Samarkand, Umayyads, Abd al-Rahman |, was developing a reputation for
: declared an independent piety and scholarship. It is KEY
ae @ Bologna
Emirate of Cordoba. possible that one of the treasures Frankish Empire on
Barcelonae
In Europe, the _ of Celtic Christianity - the Book of Charlemagne’s accession
Romee
Carolingian Pepin III Kells — was produced by monks Charlemagne’s
conquests
(c.714-68) i in the monastery at lona. Lavishly Mediterranean
Sea Regions recognizing
deposed the last | decorated and illuminated, this Charlemagne as overlord
Merovingian priceless artefact survived the
king, Childeric Ill. Viking raids (see 791-800), and for : Sasanian capital), the new city | THE DEATH OF CARLOMAN IN 771
With the pope’s safekeeping it was later was Carefully laid out on a | meant that Charlemagne became
support Pepin was transferred to a monastery at : circular plan and was connected | sole ruler of the Franks. The
crowned and was Kells in Ireland. : to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers _ following year he launched a
soon able to return The founding of Baghdad in » by canals. Baghdad became a | series of bloody campaigns with
the papal favour. 762 signalled the arrival of the : trading hub that attracted _ the aim of bringing the peoples
When the Lombards | first truly Islamic imperial city. merchants from northern Europe, | east of the Rhine back under
conquered Ravenna, Sited near Ctesiphon (the old : India, and China. Frankish rule - they had been

|
the last Byzantine | subject to the authority of the
territory in Italy, the | preceding Merovingian Dynasty.
Lombard king, Aistulf
At this time the various Saxon
then set his eyes on
| tribes were still pagans, and
Rome. Pope Stephen II | Charlemagne was determined to
appealed to Pepin for
| convert them to Christianity and
help, and in 755 and 756 } | thus bring them under the
Pepin invaded Italy,
| hegemony of the Frankish state.
seizing Ravenna. It was | From 773-74 he conquered the
later claimed by the
| kingdom of the Lombards,
papacy in a document entitled
_ bringing northern Italy into his
the Donation of Pepin, that
| empire and establishing his rule
Pepin had conceded all former
_ over Venetia, Dalmatia, and
conquered territories in northern
_ Corsica, thus extending his reach
: Italy to the pope, but this was
| down both sides of the Adriatic
: almost certainly not the case. Athletic and physically impressive, Charlemagne spoke Latin and coast and into the Mediterranean.
understood Greek, but never learned to read. His intent was to _| Inthe late 770s, he attempted to
Pepin Ill
extend Frankish hegemony, foster a close relationship with the _ | project his power into Spain by
Also known as Pepin the Short, papacy, and reform the Church to ensure divine support for the _ taking advantage of infighting
Pepin Ill was the first Carolingian Frankish Kingdom. This depiction from a 15th century tapestry is _ | among the Muslim rulers. Invited
King of the Franks. This carving from | | testament his enduring legacy. _ to intervene in local politics by
his tomb dates to the 13th century.
| disgruntled emirs, Charlemagne
 wD weeG PK ms
Offa's Dyke, which roughly follows the line ' 1e Welsh-English border, was e giant Buddha at Leshan in China was begun
constructed during the reign of Offa of Merciz Stretches are still visible today. ‘713 and finished90 years later.

: sent his armies across the CHARLEMAGNE’S CONQUEST OF : historians in the 1930s as a sort of VIKING RAIDS on the shores of
Pyrenees but they failed to take | WEST SAXONY in 782 comprised : pre-Christian Germanic the British Isles started in 789
the city of Saragossa (modern- ' a bloody development with the martyrdom, while others have | and gathered pace in the
day Zaragoza in Spain) and were mass execution of 4,500 Saxon : called into question its details and 790s with the looting of
forced to retreat. | prisoners at Werden. This event : even occurrence. Meanwhile, the rich monasteries of
This botched expedition | was appropriated by Nazi » concerned about ignorance and Lindisfarne and lona. The
inadvertently launched one of : illiteracy among clergy, “Vikings” (possibly from the
the great romances of | Charlemagne launched a _ Old Norse language]
medieval times, the : Carolingian cultural renaissance. originated in Scandanavia.
legend of Roland. In In 786, Haroun al-Rashid In Tang China, the influence
778, Roland, one of - (r.786-809) acceded to the _ of Buddhism continued to
Charlemagne’s generals, : caliphate in Baghdad. Under his | grow, signalled by monuments
was killed during an attack : rule the Barmakid family gained such as the Leshan Buddha, a
on the rearguard of the : great power as his viziers giant statue of the seated Buddha : Functional and stylish brooch
Carolingian armies as they © (high-ranking advisors) and ' carved into a bluff next to the : Skilfully crafted out of gold, this
retreated through the : favourites, while the intellectual | confluence of several major rivers. : Viking brooch was not only beautiful
Pyrenean valley of ; and cultural flowering of the In Constantinople {modern-day : put also practical, used to fasten
: Islamic world gathered pace. Istanbul), the emperor invited his : cloaks or other clothing.
Roncesvalles. The attack
was actually carried out by - Growing enthusiasm among | mother Irene to become
Basques, but Roland's Breton : the rich and powerful for books | co-ruler in 792; four years later : more or less complete loss
encouraged scholars to begin she had him blinded and declared : of authority in Africa west of
followers took up the tale and as
: translating ancient Greek and | herself empress. This move : Egypt. They conceded to the emir
it spread through France in the
: Roman texts into Arabic. | spurred the scholar Alcuin of York : of the province of Ifriqiya
following centuries it morphed
In 785, Offa of Mercia ' to suggest that the imperial seat : (modern-day Tunisia and part of
into a legend with many
(r.757-96}, effective | was effectively vacant, and on : Algeria) the right to make his post
fictitious elements: Roland
overlord of Britain, _ 25 December 800, Charlemagne : hereditary. The emir, Ibrahim ibn
became the nephew of an
started constructing _ was crowned Emperor of the : Aghlab, thus founded the
elderly, white-bearded
the monumental Romans by his ally, Pope Leo Ill. : Aghlabid Dynasty. This paid
Charlemagne; his attackers
earthwork known as In the same year he received an : tribute to Baghdad and nominally
the perfidious Saracens;
Offa's Dyke, on the _ embassy from Haroun al-Rashid, recognized Abbasid authority, but
and Roland was Count of
border between emblematic of how the focus of ruled much of North Africa as an
the Marches of Brittany.
Wales and Mercia. power in Europe had shifted. : independent state.
By the 11th century, the
Originally 27m In 800, the Abbasid caliphs in
“Song of Roland”
(89ft] wide and 8m Baghdad were forced to recognize
appeared as an early
chanson de geste; a heroic (26ft) high, the
purpose of the dyke
44 (CHARLEMAGNE] WAS
epic of the age of chivalry.
is unknown, and it
In Constantinople, the
probably fell into disuse
death of Emperor Leo IV
brought to the throne his
soon after its completion. LARGE AND STRONG AND OF
| infant son, Constantine VI.
: During his minority the empire LOFTY STATURE, THOUGH NOT
: was under the regency of the
Empress Irene, his mother.
Imperial gift
An exquisite water jug sent to
DISPROPORTIONATELY TALL. 99
Charlemagne by Haroun
al-Rashid, probably c.800. Einhard, Charlemagne's friend and Frankish historian, c.830
 THE NUMBER F, 4
OF STATUES AT :
BOROBUDUR
TEMPLE
pom
AOdoHTg

||
tea

p de!
PFE go
WO
% g

Louis the Pious inva copy of Raban This 14th-century manuscript depicts scholars seated in the House of Wisdom;
Maur's Boak ofthe Cross. the Abbasid caliphs recruited scholars of all religions, from Europe to China.

THE TIBETAN EMPIRE EXPANDED CONFLICT BETWEEN THE THE HOUSE OF WISDOM.
in the early part of the 9th century, BYZANTINES AND BULGARS al-Hikmea, was an inst
and extended its control to the -90) continued through the
Bay of Bengal. Its influence in f the 9th century
Central Asia was indicative of D e Byzantine emperor Abbasid Baueced: It
Tang China's weakness in the Nicephorus | (r.802-11] twice 2 ¢
region. Meanwhile, in northern the Bu(gar capital Pliskas,
India the Gurjara-Prathihara
dynasty, which had united the
oe811, the Bulgar khan, THE NUMBER
region and held back the advance OF BOOKS IN
of Islam, continued to grow in
strength with the conquest of
killed and Krum THE HOUSE
7) = [o} om ny n ra eSiL
ined with silver
of

OF WISDOM
J i) oO.
Kanayj in modern-day India by for use as a drinking cup. Two
Nagabhata Il, around 801 years later, Krum attempted to 9

The Temple of Borobudur, a besiege the Byzantine capital world. Mimicking the practises
Buddhist monument in central Constantinople, but was unable of the Abbasid’s Persian
Java, Southeast Asia, was to breach the walls and so oO redecessors - the Sasanians
completed in the early 9th retreated, devastating Thrace — the Translation Movement
century. The colossal structure, for good measure. collected manuscripts from other
which is the largest Buddhist Chaarlemagne (see 760-800)
idaistaee Il cultures and older traditions, and
monument in the world, contains died in 814 and his last remaining
This statue ofJayavarman | fram translated them into Arabic,
over 2 million stone blocks and the 12th- eS Bayon templ son, Louis
the Pious(r.814-40), thus preserving much ancient
is covered in almost 2,000 sqm Angkor Thom, was construct acceded to the throne. He had scholarship that would otherwise
(21,500 sqft) of carvings. The his namesake, Jayavarman VIi. been crowned co-emperor by his have been lost. Ptolemy's seminal
monument is a three-dimensional | father the year before. work on cosmology, the Almagest,
mandala, or cosmic wheel; around 770, was powerful enough for instance, was translated from
walking its path, which is a to establish an independent Greek into Arabic around 827,
journey of over 3km (2 miles], Khmer Empire and have himself and it was only through this
re-enacts the journey towards proclaimed chakravartin, or Thanks to the House of translation that European
nirvana [englightenment). Its “universal ruler”. In Sanskrit this Wisdom and other similar scholars would later be able to
construction was an epic translates as ‘god-king”- the centres of scholarship across access this ancient text.
achievement, and a testament to authority of Khmer kings rested the Caliphate, Islamic scholars Civil strife in the Carolingian
the power of the Srivijayan on their direct link to the gods, went far beyond the learning Empire (800-88) resulted from
Empire (c.760-1402), which had which was reflected in the of the ancient Greeks and tension between Louis the Pious
grown rich from the extensive monuments they would construct Romans. Islamic scientists and his sons over their
maritime trade of the region. at the temple city of Angkor in made great advances in inheritances. After the death in
For much of this era Srivijayan centuries to come [see 880-90). fields such as alchemy 819 of his first wife — mother of his
influence extended over the Around 801, Bulan, the Khan of (proto-chemistry), medicine, sons Lothair, Pepin, and Louis
Southeast Asian mainland, the Khazar Empire (see 861-70), toxicology, metallurgy, the German - Louis the Pious had
including the Mekong basin hosted a debate between the mathematics, and astronomy. married the ambitious Judith of
kingdom formerly known to the three Abrahamic faiths, and This illustration from The Book Bavaria who prevailed on Louis to
Chinese as Funan. But, in 802, chose Judaism. of Knowledge of Ingenious grant to her son, Charles the
Jayavarman ll, a vassal ruler Mechanical Devices shows an Bald (823-77), lands that had
whose family had been quietly innovative handwashing device. previously been promised to
extending their territory since
Lothair. In retaliation Lothair,

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 The area Sceund Segesta itin Sicily, with,itsGreek ruins, was occupied earlyon ; The ancient city of Pagan, in SoHat became the eaplal ofa powerful :
in the Aghlabid iinvasion of the island. Buddhist state occupying roughly the same area as the current region.

: Louis’ co-emperor since 824, THE ISLAMIC CONQUEST OF SICILY : the Pope to mediate between the THE TREATY OF VERDUN in
rallied his brothers in revolt ) had begun in 827 with the arrival : Frankish rulers, which resulted | 843 marked the definitive
against their father. In early 830, of an invasion force from Aghlabid : in the desertion of Louis the Pious division of Charlemagne’s
Louis was deposed, and although in North Africa, sent by the Emir : and Charles the Bald by their empire. After the death of
Lothair’s misrule saw his father | Ziyadat Allah | (r. 817-38) to take : followers, and their subsequent | Louis the Pious in 840, his
restored by the autumn, the older | advantage of internal divisions : imprisonment. This was one three surviving sons
man’s authority was compromised among the Byzantine rulers of : episode ina series of conflicts (see 821-30)
and the scene set for worse ) the island. Hindered by outbreaks : that saw the collapse of central | embroiled
conflict to come. ' of plague, the Islamic forces made : authority and increasing Frankish themselves in further
Wessex, the Anglo-Saxon little headway until 831 when : vulnerability to raids from the conflict over land. In
kingdom in south and west Palermo fell after a year-long : Norsemen to the north and west, | 842, Charles the Bald
England, became the dominant siege. The city then became the : Bulgars and Magyars to the east, and Louis the
English power as a result of the capital of Islamic Sicily, although : and Saracen pirates to the south. | German teamed up
victory of King Egbert over King | total conquest of the island did and swore oaths to
: Beornwulf of Mercia at the Battle | not happen until 902. | impose a settlement on Lothair
: Saracen warriors
© of Ellandun, Wiltshire, in 825. The Field of Lies, in that saw the Frankish Empire
: “Saracens” was a European term for |
: Egbert was subsequently able to Alsace in 833, was a : Muslims, especially those occupying | divided into regions. These
: Coffee plant
: conquer the southeastern meeting brokered by : Sicily and raiding Europe. broadly equated to France in : The coffee bush is native to the
: counties of England, and by the west, Germany in the east, : mountains of Ethiopia and Yemen,
:; around 828 Wessex was the most | and a middle kingdom that : where it was first recorded in use in
: powerful state in the land, with would later become known as : the mid-15th century.
: Egbert recognized as bretwalda, Lotharii regnum, or Lotharingia
| (modern Lorraine). for protection from Vikings and
: or overlord, of England until his
The rise of the Cholas, a Tamil other raiders.
: death in 839.
dynasty of southern India, can In around 848, the Burmese
: The emergence of Great
| be dated to 846, when the Chola : city-state of Pagan was founded
: Moravia began around 830, with
king Vijayalaya, captured the : in the Irrawaddy Valley. Indian
: the establishment of the
| city of Tanjore from the : influence is readily perceivable in
: Principality of Moimir, to the
Pandya kingdom. : the architecture of this part of
' west of the White Carpathians,
: under the rule of Moimir I. The Capitulary of Meersen was | Southeast Asia due to cultural,
a proclamation by the West : religious, and mercantile ties.
: Moimir was one of two Slavic
Frankish king Charles the The legendary discovery of
polities to establish themselves
Bald in 847, ordering every : coffee is dated to around 850
: in the power vacuum left by the
free man to choose himself a : when it is said that an Ethiopian
: collapse of the Avars in 805; the
_ lord. Charles intended the : goatherd named Kaldi noticed
other - to the east of the White
decree to facilitate the levy : that, after eating some red
: Carpathians, in what is now
of armies, but it was also : berries, his goats became
: Slovakia - was Nitra, under the
indicative of the increasing : extremely lively. He brought a
: rule of Prince Pribina. |n 833,
inability of the Frankish : sample to a local Islamic holy
Moimir would conquer Nitra,
rulers to protect their subjects. : man, who, disapproving of
© setting his principality on the
In place of central authority, : intoxicants, threw them on the fire
: path to becoming the Great
the peasants relied on local : where they roasted and released
: Moravian Empire.
lords; they gave up freedoms : adelicious aroma.
and bound themselves to a
feudal aristocracy in return
 Wengen in the pation of the The fratisplece of The Besnand Sutra, the resist known printed work, The landscape of Iceland offered scant
Maya city of Palenque. shows Buddha explaining the sutra [sermon] to an elderly disciple. welcome, yet Vikings settled here by 874.

THE DECLINE OF THE CLASSIC ALFRED THE GREAT OF ENGLAND,

MAYA civilization continued as the an educated man who had spent
e ieabandonments that began time in Rome with the Pope,
with Palenque at the end of the acceded to the throne of the
9th centurys south and east Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex
into the Guee Maya heartland. in 871. During the reign of his
The last recorded inscriptions at elder brother Aethelred |
Mayan cities Quirigua and Copan (865-71), Danish Vikings had
date to 810 and 822; at Caracol invaded Wessex, but Alfred had
to 859; and at Tikal to 889. A helped defeat them at the Battle
combination of drought, famine, of Ashdown in 870. On assuming
disease, and social upheaval KHAZAR EMPIRE the kingship, Alfred averted
were probably responsible, as crisis by defeating the Danes at
overpopulated cities and their The Caspian Sea is still known in the region as the Khazar Sea for Wilton in southwest England,
overstretched resources reached the empire that ruled the area between it and the Black Sea from but another attack in 875
a tipping point. the 8th to 10th centuries. A contributing cause to the empire's caught him unawares and he
The first recorded use of a decline may have been a rise of 7m [23 ft] in the sea level. was forced to retreat to the
crossbow was in France in 851. Somerset marshes.
Although slower to reload than According to the popular
a longbow, the crossbow, or CYRILLIC SCRIPT WAS INVENTED Around the mid-9th century, the legend, Alfred was here given
arbalest, required little training by the Byzantine missionary later : Khazars adopted Judaisim (see shelter by a peasant woman
or strength to operate. known as St Cyril in around 863. : 801-10). According totradition, who, unaware of his identity,
The Fujiwara regency, Originally named Constantine, they chose an Abrahamic faith left him to watch some
assumed by Yoshifusa (c.804-72] Cyril and his brother Methodius to put them on equal footing with cakes that were cooking on
on the accession of his grandson, were sent to convert the Slavs in : Christianity in the Byzantine the fire. Preoccupied with the
the child-emperor Seiwa in 858, Moravia by Byzantine emperor, : Empire and Islam in the Caliphate. problems of his kingdom, Alfred
marked the Fujiwara clan’s Michael Ill in around 862. Cyril let the cakes burn. Nonetheless
domination of Japanese power. devised a new Glagolitic” script he was able to summon his
to translate the Bible into Slavic; armies and defeated the Danish
nN
this later became Cyrillic script. king Guthrum at the Battle of
In 867, Basil, a favourite of » King Alfred
Edington in 878, forcing him to
Michael Ill, deposed his master and
: A statue of King Alfred was erected
conclude the Peace of Wedmore, : at his capital, Winchester, in 1901.
took the throne as Basill. His reign under the terms of which : His sword doubles as a crucifix,
marked the start of one of the most Guthrum converted to : emblematic of his militant faith.
oa
glorious periods of Byzantine Christianity and agreed toa
MINUTE
history. Intent on restoring the division of the country (see 881-90). : island and even over-wintered
3-4 empire internally and externally, The settlement of Iceland there, but the first permanent
NUMBER
ARROWS
OF
PER
Basil rebuilt the army and navy and demonstrated how the Vikings settlement, according to the
0 — ___ ee tc revised the legal system. : were advancing on other fronts. medieval Icelandic Landamabok
Crossbow Longbow The Diamond Sutra of 868 is the : Irish monks had probably already ' (Book of Settlement), was by
world’s oldest surviving printed reached the North Atlantic island, » the Norwegian chieftain
Crossbow vs longbow - Early Cyrillic script
Although the longbow could be book. An illustrated Buddhist text, and Viking navigators had other Ingolfur Arnarson in around
This wax tablet contains psalms of
fired much faster, the crossbow it was found in a cave in David, written in the early 11th clues to its existence, such as : 874. According to legend, he
had a greater range and was easy Dunhuang, a Silk Road town in : century. It is believed to be the oldest the passage of migrating birds. : selected the spot for his
to operate. northwest China. document written in Cyrillic. Vikings had already visited the : homestead by throwing his

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 The facade of a building known as the Nunnery Symeon of Bulgaria, depicted in the centre, had been educated asa monk in ,
the leading Maya city-state of the Late or Terminal Classic Period. Constantinople before returning to take control of the Bulgars in 893.

THE GROWING POWER OF THE : modern-day Turkey, forcing the

44 WE DISCERN SWEDISH VIKINGS, known as the
Varangians or Rus, used rivers | BULGAR KHANATE (see 811-20) : Byzantine emperor to pay tribute.
ACROSS THE | such as the Volga and Dnieper to | worried the Byzantine emperor
Leo VI, who in 895 prompted the
: Symeon would rule for another
: 30 years, vying for the Byzantine
CENTURIES A push ever further inland from the
| Baltic, establishing dominion over | Magyars to attack the Bulgars. : throne, only to be thwarted by
COMMANDING | the eastern Slavs of the region. However, this merely provoked the : the impenetrable walls of its
: capital, Constantinople, on
new khan, Symeon [r.893-927],
AND VERSATILE Having founded the settlement
of Novgorod in 862 and launched to mobilize the Pechenegs - a / numerous occasions.
INTELLIGENCE, | audacious raids on Constantinople * tribe that had recently arrived on The Toltecs (c.800-1000) were
: probably refugees from the
WIELDING WITH by navigating rivers all the way to
the Black Sea, they now colonized
|
|
the Dnieper - to invade Magyar
lands. The Magyars were forced to : collapsed Teotihuacan culture
EQUAL FORCE ever further south. In 882, the Rus | migrate west, settling in present- : (see 690-700), who settled in the
: Valley of Mexico, founding a
THE SWORD OF _ prince Oleg (r. 882-912) defeated
his rivals Askold and Dir, seized
day Hungary, from where they
| launched extensive raids on : capital at Tula c.900, and forging
WAR AND OF their settlement at Kiev, and
: Slavonic-Viking Jewellery
Frankish territories for years to : a militaristic empire that inspired

JUSTICE. 99 transferred his capital there from : Viking invaders conquered

come. In the summer of 896,
Symeon defeated a Byzantine
their descendants, the Aztecs.

| Novgorod. The city would become ! territories along Russia's waterways, |

the capital of Kievan Rus, a loose : establishing a hybrid culture that army at Bulgarophygon, in
: Winston Churchill, British
: Politician, on King Alfred, 1956-58 federation of territories, until 1169. : mixed Slavonic and Viking styles.
The Danelaw - the part of Toltec coyote
) England in which Viking law was - Paris in 885-86 - he was proven Toltec art, such as this depiction
: throne pillars overboard and upheld - was formalized by the incapable of protecting his people. of acoyote-god, influenced other
! following their drift. | Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum in : Odo, Count of Paris (c.860-98), pre-Columbian American
886, following renewed attacks by : who had led a heroic defence civilizations, including the Aztecs.
' The Twelfth Imam, al-Mahdi
: — believed by some Shi'ites to } Guthrum. Alfred would keep the : against the Vikings in 885, was
; be the ultimate saviour of | south, including London, while the » elected king of West Francia in
: humankind - miraculously | area to the north of a line between : 887. From now on, East and
: disappeared in 874. According to | the Thames and Lea rivers went : West Francia would develop as
: some Shi'ites, when the Eleventh | to the Danish, who would live ; separate regions.
© Imam, Hasan al-Askari, died in under their own laws. The catastrophic decline of the
i 874, his successor, a seven-year- In 887, Charles the Fat : Classic Maya city-states of the
: old boy, went into literal and | (c.839-88), the last Carolingian : southern lowlands continued
: spiritual hiding, and ever since king to rule both the primary : throughout the 9th century, and
: has been said to be “occulted”, Frankish territories, West and | Tikal was abandoned by around
or hidden until the day of his | East Francia (modern-day France : 889. Maya city-states of the north
' messianic return. ' and Germany], was deposed. © (the area of Mexico's Yucatan
: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Charles, already king of the East : Peninsula] now took precedence
' a unique written record of events f Franks since 879, had been : in what is known as the Late or
: from wars and politics to the elected king of the West Franks in © Terminal Classic Period.
weather, was kept from around 880 , 884. However, he was a victim of Foremost among these
: until the mid-12th century. It was ) the declining power and authority "civilizations was Chichen Itza,
: indicative of the scholarship that of the Carolingian monarchs (see : which commanded the advantage
: King Alfred fostered, inviting | 841-50). Unable or unwilling to © of cenotes, or water holes; of
: vital importancein this drought-
: scholars to England and translating | meet the Vikings in battle -
: major classical works himself. specifically during their Siege of : vulnerable region.
 x
This stone relief is from the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
Breakdown of central authority in the period led to economic contraction.

TANG CHINA HAD BEEN IN : fragmenting into ten independent ABD AL-RAHMAN III BECAME THE
MILITARY DECLINE since defeat by | kingdoms. The Later Liang | NEW UMAYYAD RULER of the
the Arabs at the Battle of Talas : Dynasty was short-lived (907- ,_ Cordoba emirate on the death of
River in 751-760, and the Huang : 923), with a succession of groups William the Pious, who donated ' his grandfather, Abdallah, in 912.
Zhao rebellion of the 880s : seizing control of the Huang He the land for the abbey in 910, | His territories had been reduced
signalled the end of the dynasty. region and founding dynasties of placed no obligations on its _ by rebellions and he quickly set
Zhuwen (c.852-912] was a : their own, but proving unable to Benedictine monks, so that it | about regaining much of his lost
warlord who had originally been : hold on to power. This period of was free from secular | kingdom. During his reign and
part of the Huang Zhao uprising : anarchy, known as the Five oversight and answerable only _ | that of his successors, Cordoba
and then instrumental in the rebel : Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, to the Pope. Cluny became the | reached the peak of its power
defeat. Richly rewarded for his : lasted until the establishment of centre of a monastic empire of | (see 921-930).
role, he steadily built up his power : the Northern Song Dynasty (see great power, governing around According to traditional
base until in 904 he was ready to : 951-960), and was a time of great 10,000 monks. In 1098, Pope . sources, Prince Igor, ruler of
seize control, executing the Tang : hardship. Authority broke down, Urban Il, a former Abbot of | Kievan Rus from 914-945, was
emperor Zhaozong and most of the economy collapsed, and Cluny, declared it “the light of ) the son of the legendary Rurik,
his sons, and installing the barter replaced money in many the world”. | who founded Novgorod in 862.
emperor's 13-year-son on the ' areas. There was extensive flood | Under his protection, Kievan Rus
throne as a puppet ruler. In 907, : and famine as flood defences and | (see 881-890) became a
he took the throne for himself, : irrigation works fell into disrepair. : Pious, Duke of Aquitaine, became : Carinthia, in 906 and 907 they
founding the Later Liang To the west and north of the Five : the centre of amonastic “empire” : wreaked havoc in Moravia, and
Dynasty, but although he ' Dynasties region, Shatuo Turks | Igor | of Kiev
_ in Europe (see panel, above). : in 908 they attacked Bavaria,
controlled the northern heartland Igor, who ruled from 914 until his
: and Khitan Mongols consolidated Displaced westwards by the » Saxony, and Thuringia. With the
of China - the Yellow River Valley
| death in 945, gestures to his court
: kingdoms of their own. The : Pechenegs (see 891-900), the : Frankish emperor unwilling or ) in this19th-century illustration.
region of Huang He - he was : Khitans of southern Manchuria Magyars launched a series of : unable to help, the East Franks
unable to prevent the south : established their empire in 905 : devastating raids throughout the : elected regional “dukes” to
> eae pies F : under the leadership of Yell : decade. In 901, they ravaged ' defend against the incursions.
2 ead
Z Loi) 13!
7 te ; = eg ha ~ Abaoji (872-926). He went on to
SHsulea 2 Finch tioil - declare himself emperor in 916, The Five Dynasties
: A succession of
: founding the Liao Dynasty,
ELISE’YG Sus eee : which lasted until 1125, including
: regimes was unable to
: consolidate power, GANZHOU Khitane YAR
: a brief period as one of the : leaving warlords to the Ba (
: Five Dynasties controlling : north and south to set Vighurs cor
> northern China. : up independent LATER nee
: In 909, Sa’id ibn-Husayn, an : Kingdoms. The ’
the
Ismaili Shi'ite, overthrew bee
i oun Aghlabid Dynasty in E this map, which shows Tibetans he ee WU YUE
: Kairouan (modern-day Tunisia], a tangle of borders wu
_ declared himself al-Mahdi(the —-and states. Man oO a
Lat een
et 9) Ape) pen rb
x Ve » : Shi'ite messiah], and founded :
GES caisii ; the Fatimid Dynasty, named
2 NSells d)So is
Fatimid era text
© forthe daughter of the prophet eee AN
Named for Muhammad's daughter, : Muhammad, from whom he KEY . South
Fatima, the Fatimids proved patrons ' claimed descent. j M@ Chinese’states ue
of learning through their sponsorship | The Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy, & Pee rcp By
of Cairo’s al-Azhar school. : founded in 910 by William the peoples

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| AETHELSTAN, LORD OF WARRIORS,
* RING-GIVER TO MEN... WON ETERNAL
GLORY, IN BATTLE WITH SWORD |
EDGES, AROUND BRU ABURH a
E‘Unknown author, from the Old English poem,
The Battle of Brunaburh, 937 oa 2

is decorative arielat the Caliph’s Palace in Madinat az-Zahra, Spain, wa: Logberg, or Law Rock, in Iceland is
4 erected by Al-Rahman II in imitation |of the Abbi sid Caliphs iin Baghdad, the centre of the oldest parliament.

IN 932, THE UMMAYAD CALIPH ABD : counter the threat. The results
: formidable power in the region, : effectively independent fiefs that
AL-RAHMAN III (see 911-920] : were immortalized in an Old
earning the respect of the : owed only nominal authority to
' captured Toledo, bringing all of English poem recorded in the
Byzantines by force of arms : the king (see 841-850). A powerful |
Muslim Spain back under one : Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (see
during the Rus-Byzantine war of : faction of West Frankish
| banner. Al-Rahman also waged a © 871-880), which reported that five
941, and winning lucrative trade : magnates had elected Count Odo
| successfulwar against the : kings and seven earls died on the
concessions from them. : of Paris to the kingship in 887, so
Christian kingdoms of Leon and battlefield, alongside
In 911, in recognition of : Charles spent much of his reign
| Navarre on his northern borders, “Uunnumber'd crowds” of soldiers.
helplessness in the face of © engaged in civil war with Odo and
| forcing them to acknowledge his Victory confined the Welsh and
constant and devastating Viking : his descendants.
overlordship. In general, Jews and Scottish to their borders, halted
raids (see 881-890], the West One of the tribal dukes who
Christians enjoyed tolerance : Viking expansionism, and helped
Frankish king, Charles III, : came to power with the
PEOPLE
OF
NUMBER
THOUSANDS
IN under the caliphate, though they : create England as a nation.
granted a large area of land : impotence of the Carolingians in rs
. remained second-class citizens, In 946, the Persian Shiite
guarding the mouth of the River " the face of the Magyar threat, 8th 9th 10th
| making issues such as tax status : Buwayhids took Baghdad and
Seine, which consisted of a large - Henry, was elected king of the CENTURY
a driving force behind conversion. : forced the caliph to recognize
part of what later became : East Franks in 919, founding the _ Cordoba’s population growth The Silla kingdom (see : Ahmad ibn-Buwayh as supreme
Normandy, to the Norse chieftain, Saxon Dynasty. The last | This estimate shows how Cordoba
| 651-670) was conquered by the - commander. Although Abbasid
Rollo, also known as Hrolf, on the Carolingian monarch of the East | grew rapidly from a small town to
| Koryo kingdom in 935, : caliphs remained in place until
condition that he became a : Frankish kingdom, Louis the become one of the world’s
completing the reunification of : 1258, they were mere
Christian. Charles’ grip on the © Child, died in 911, after which | biggest medieval cities.
Korea under the Koryo leader figureheads; real power now
crown was tenuous; the authority : Conrad, duke of Franconia, was
i Wang Kon, who now became King : passed to Buwayhid sultans
of the Carolingian monarchs had : elected as king. On his death he | THE WANING AUTHORITY OF THE
ABBASIDS IN BAGHDAD prompted T’aejo (r.918-943]. Wang Kon had : who ruled from their capital
declined precipitously, with local : nominated his strongest rival,
| Abd al-Rahmaan III to declare | acceded to power in the Three : in Shiraz, Persia.
: counts ruling what were : Henry, as successor.
' himself the true caliph in 929, | Kingdoms state of Koguryo in 918, Henry | (see 911-920] was one
| thus amending his kingdom, from renaming it and leading it in : of the tribal dukes who came to
| emirate to caliphate. During the successful military ventures : power in the face of Magyar
/ 10th century, his capital, Cordoba, against the Kingdom of Paekche, : threat to the Carolingians. Known
| became the largest and most who were conquered in 934, and : as Henry the Fowler, he enlarged
_ developed city in Western Europe. | the Silla. During his reign, T’aejo : the kingdom and inflicted the
In 930, Icelanders started consolidated power by : first great defeat that the
meeting to decide on justice and incorporating Silla nobility into his - Magyars [see 901-910} had
| legislation at an outdoor | new ruling bureaucracy. : experienced since beginning
assembly on the plains of In one of the bloodiest battles : their raids into Europe, at the
Thingvellir. All free men who ever fought on British soil, the : Battle of Riade in 933. Henry
had not been outlawed could | Anglo-Saxon king Athelstan : was powerful enough
attend the Althing, making it (c.893-939] crushed an alliance of : to ensure that on his death the
the oldest representative _ forces in 937, cementing his : succession would be hereditary,
| assembly
in the world. | control of Britain and his kingship : and the election of 936 was a
During what archaeologists call of a the now unified Anglo-Saxon formality, acknowledging his son,
_ the Pueblo Il phase, the Pueblo | realm of England. Alarmed by the : Otto, as the new king. Otto's
| peoples of Chaco Canyon, North ' prospect of Anglo-Saxon : coronation ceremony in 962
America, were thriving. They built expansionism, the king of Alba [in : consciously emulated that of
. immense structures called | modern-day Scotland] had joined : Charlemagne (see 761-770), and
“great houses”, some with up to | forces with the Vikings and other : he was crowned at Aachen, the
700 rooms. northern British realms to : old imperial capital.
 g Fi ‘me “aie
‘ieey Ps: og PX
This detail from the “Gateway of the Sun”, a great stone doorway at : _ This detail from the imperial crown of Otto | shows the biblical figure,
Tiwanaku, is carved with a figure known as the Staff God. ' King Solomon, holding a scroll.

THE PRE-INCA, ANDEAN : retreated to smaller, rural jm. Iceland 33% 33%
Shick
CIVILIZATION OF TIWANAKU : settlements, and returned to a rowing protecting rowers
declined precipitously in the : pre-urban lifestyle.
second half of the 10th century. The establishment of the Song
Sophisticated agricultural and dynasty in China brought an end
irrigation techniques {see 741-50) © to the anarchy and warfare of the
had allowed Tiwanaku to : Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
support a population of up : era (see 901-10]. Known as the 33%
to 60,000 people, with up to : Northern Song in its early stages ready
1.4 million in the wider region, » because the capital was at to attack
according to some estimates. A Kaifeng in northern China, the
prolonged drought is believed to : dynasty was founded by Zhao
have been responsible for its : Kuangyin (r.960-76), who was a
decline and archaeological : general under the Late Zhou, the
| GREECE | Longboat crew in battle
evidence suggests that the main : last of the Five Dynasties. He dealt
city was abandoned as citizens
Athense | By keeping part of the crew at the
with the threat from external
e | oars Viking raiding parties
! states such as the Khitan Liao Ato
“erranean Sea | maintained an aggressive posture
: (see 901-10), the Tangut kingdom | without sacrificing mobility.
: of Xia Xia, a confederation of | Viking oe ie KEY
: Tibetan tribes, and conquered By the late 10th century, Viking seafarers had DURING HIS SHORT REIGN, JOHN
—> Viking expansionist
: several of the Ten Kingdoms to penetrated to every corner of Europe and beyond, exploration 8-10th TZIMISCES, nephew of Nicephorus
: the south. Zhao used the civil _ reaching as far as Greenland in the north. centuries
Il (see 961-70), won a string of
service examination system to
) victories. Having fought off a
assert control over the military, THE POPE’S IMPERIAL CORONATION : 933. Further afield, Vikings ' revolt by general Bardas Phocas
and centralize power. OF OTTO! as emperor in 962, : continued to prosper as they | in 971, Tzimisces crushed a
Emperor Otto I, “the Great” revived the Carolingian Roman : penetrated into all parts of | campaign by the Kievan Rus
(912-73], defeated the Empire in the West. In 961, Otto : Europe. | leader, Sviatoslav, and conquered
Magyars at the Battle of made an expedition to Italy in The death of Byzantine emperor Bulgaria as far as the Danube.
Lechfeld in 955. Since : response to a plea for protection » Constantine VII in 963 brought | In 972, he campaigned in the East,
being displaced by | from Pope John XII, and in Pavia his infant son Basil Il (958-1025) _ taking Edessa, Damascus, and
Byzantine-Bulgar conflict | he had assumed the Italian crown. : to the throne. In practice, | Beirut, reaching the gates
(see 891-900), the Magyars had | The following year he went to : authority was assumed by the of Jerusalem in 976. He died
raided Frankish territories, | Rome to receive the imperial general Nicephorus Phocas. As suddenly that year.
: reaching as far west as Aquitaine _ crown and assert his authority Nicephorus Il (r.963-969], he In 980, the Vikings
: in 951. The son of Henry |[see | over the fractious papacy. continued the restoration of the started raiding England
: 911-20}, Otto vigorously asserted _ His son was crowned co-emperor empire that had begun with the again, though they suffered
: royal authority from his coronation as Otto Il in 967. reconquest of Crete in 961, a reverse in Ireland, where / /
in 936, gaining control of all the , In 965, King of Denmark, regaining Cyprus and Cilicia Malachy II forced Viking
. East Frankish duchies. His ' Harald Bluetooth, converted to in 965, subduing the Bulgars Dublin to paytribute.
| powerful army ended the Magyar | Christianity, and the religion in 966-69, and invading
Bronze Mirror
: menace and also defeated the | spread rapidly through the Nordic northern Syria in 969. That
This intricately decorated mirror : Wéends - tribes on the eastern | region. Denmark had been forced ; same year he was assassinated
from the Song dynasty illustrates : border engaged ina long struggle _ to accept missionaries as : by his nephew, John Tzimisces.
the artistic sophistication of China : to resist Frankish colonization | the consequence of defeat by the
in this period. : and Christianization. East Frankish king, Henry |, in
 on ih {
| Venice's modern splendour is the result of control of the lucrative trade routes b
Europe, the Byzantine Empire, and the East in the 10th century.

IN 981, THE ISLAMIC FORCES OF : 983 after an expedition to : Balam, Chichen Itza was
: southern Italy. Although his infant : conquered by Toltecs led by
CORDOBA defeated the Christian
: son, Otto III (r.983-1001), : Kukulcan, the Mayan name for
kingdom of Leon in Spain, under
: managed to hold on to the crown : the Toltec god Quetzlcoatl or “the
| the leadership of Al-Mansur.
: thanks to the strong regency of feathered serpent” — possibly the
“Al-Mansur” was the honorific
title taken by Muhammad ibn Abi’ ' his mother, Theophano, the East
: Franks were also faced with an
: exiled Toltec king, Topiltzin.
: Despite the record in the
THE WEIGHT
i Amir, the powerful and energetic
vizier who was the true power | uprising among the Wends, the : chronicle, however, archaeological IN SILVER OF
| findings suggest that the city
behind the Umayyad throne [see : forcibly converted Slavic tribes on
: the eastern border. The Wends : collapsed around this time. THE DANEGELD
911-20). He campaigned
successfully against Leon, : restored their pagan religion and By the end of the 10th century, IN 991
: resisted Frankish colonization for : the mercantile powers of Venice
Navarre, and Catalonia, making
: nearly two centuries. : and Genoa were beginning to
) their kings subordinate to the
| caliphate, and extended Umayyad In 987, Toltec forces conquered : dominate the Adriatic and IN 991, A FORCE OF ANGLO-SAXON
: Al-Mansur the Yucatan Maya and made Tyhrrenian seas respectively. WARRIORS made a stand against
control to Africa via campaigns in : This 17th century oil painting depicts
: Chichen Itza the capital of a : Venice, in particular, enjoyed a much larger army of Vikings at
Mauretania (modern-day : Al Mansur, or Almanzor to his the Battle of Maldon in East
: Toltec-Maya state. According to : lucrative trade links with the
Morocco and part of Algeria]. : Christian subordinates. Al Mansur
Anglia, England. They were
| means “the Victorious”. : the early Mayan chronicle Chilam : Byzantine Empire.
In 986, the Viking explorer, Eric slaughtered. The English king,
the Red, led a party of Icelandic Aethelred Il, “the Unready”
colonists to the shores : “Greenland” in the hope of
(r.978-1016), was forced to pay a
of the bleak landmass attracting settlers. He succeeded
tribute known as the Danegeld,
he misleadingly named : in recruiting 24 boatloads of men,
to buy off further incursions.
women, and children willing to
Byzantine emperor Basil Il
: entrust their lives to Viking
launched the first of a long series
: longboats, and brave the perilous
of campaigns against his
crossing. Only 14 ships arrived,
greatest enemy, the Bulgarian
rectangular : but they quickly established a
tsar Samuel, in 996. Basil had
wool-cloth © thriving colony that may have
won major victories in Syria the
sail eventually numbered around
year before, but it took him
: 5,000 people.
nearly 20 years to finally defeat
Otto Il, the emperor and king of
| the Bulgarians.
East Francia, died of malaria in
From around 1000, the

TOLTECS inhabitants of Easter Island, or

Viking longboat
Rapa Nui - an island in the Pacific
“== Considered by some to be the greatest
technical achievement of the early The Toltecs, who ruled a state centred on Tula in modern-day Ocean - began to carve
monumental statues known as
medieval era, the Viking longboat Mexico, were notable for their aggressive militarism, which
aA combined river, close-to-shore, and changed society in Central America, paving the way for militaristic moai. Thought to represent
NR ocean-going capacity. ancestors and to channel mana
states such as the Aztec. The term ‘Toltec” came to mean
“city-dweller” or “civilized person”, but its literal meaning is “reed - spiritual energy - the cult of
person” - signifying an inhabitant of Tollan (“Place of the Reeds”, | moai consumed the Easter
Islanders to the point where they
the city now known as Tula]. Toltec art and architecture,
characterized by monumental masonry and giant statues, was may have fatally compromised
greatly influential in the region. their environment - setting them
on the path to ecological disaster.
 rt CE j 5
These ruins at Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon, reveal one of more than One of the greatest but cruellest Byzantine emperors, Basil Il became _ The Brihadishvara temple was built by
a dozen Great Houses constructed by the Anasazi. emperor in 976. Aged 20, he ruled for nearly 50 years. _ the Cholas in their capital Tanjore.

AROUND 1000, THE ANCIENT i many as 10,000 people, and this MURASAKI SHIKIBU (LADY | IN 1025, THE CHOLA KING
PUEBLO CIVILIZATION centred on set the Anasazi on a collision MURASAKI) wrote the novel Genji | RAJENDRACHOLADEVRA launched
Chaco Canyon in southwest North : course with the fragile ecology of Monogatari (The Tale of Genji) | an audacious naval expedition
America reached its climax. The " the region {see 1161-65]. in instalments between 1011 and against the maritime empire of
Anasazi used sophisticated Mahmud of Ghazni (c.971-1030) 1021. It is regarded as the first ; | Srivijaya in Sumatra, also sacking
dryland agriculture and hydrology ! was a Muslim intent on Japanese novel, and possibly the the Pegu kingdom in Burma.
to thrive in the arid environment, spreading the faith into India. In first psychological novel in world | Rajendra had inherited a strong
and controlled trade routes that 1001, at Peshawar, he defeated literature. kingdom from his father, Rajaraja |,
extended as far as the Pacific : Jaipal, raja of Punjab, who then In 1014, Brian Boru, High King | who had conquered Sri Lanka
coast of present-day California : committed suicide. of Ireland and self-styled and instituted a programme of
and the Valley of Mexico. They Probably the first European to Emperor of the Gael, defeated a | Hindu temple building centred
achieved impressive feats of : set foot on North America, Leif coalition of Dublin Vikings and on the-Chola capital of Tanjore.
architecture, most notably the : Ericson landed in a place he Celtic Leinstermen at Clontarf, in Under Rajendra, the Cholas
construction of Great Houses : called Vinland in around 1002. Ireland. Although the Norse | expanded their kingdom
such as Pueblo Bonito, one of 13 : Shortly after this discovery, kingdom was crushed and Viking to include Bengal, and
such buildings in Chaco Canyon. Greenlanders under Thorfinn incursions into Ireland halted, | shattered the power of
Pueblo Bonito was six stories high | Karlsefni tried to establish a Brian Boru was killed in the battle _ Srivijaya, securing control
and comprised more than 600 colony, spending three winters and his dream of a united Irish | of the lucrative Indian-
rooms. It probably functioned : there. The remains of kingdom fell apart thereafter. _ Chinese trade routes.
as a ceremonial centre, storage : settlements at L’ Anse aux In 1014, at the culmination Cnut [also known as
depot, and elite residence. Meadows, in northern of an 18-year war {see 991-1000),
Lady Murasaki
Canute) was the son of
Well-maintained roads - some ' Newfoundland, attest to Viking the Byzantine emperor Basil II
: Ascene from a 16th century hanging | Sven Forkbeard, king of
with stone kerbs - connected ! presence in North America. defeated the armies of the
SS
nS
SS : scroll depicts author Lady Murasaki. | Denmark and Norway,
Chaco Canyon to thousands of | Bulgarian tsar at Belasita. : Of noble birth, she chronicled the _ who had invaded England
smaller Anasazi settlements Earning the name Bulgaroktonos :_ affairs of the Heian court. and driven the Anglo-
across the region. The canyon (Bulgar Slayer), he put out the Saxon king, Aethelred II,
itself may have been home to as eyes of 15,000 captured warriors © of shock. By the end of the into exile in Normandy in
before sending them home. : decade the Bulgarians finally 1013. After staging his
CNA atsae
Basil's arch-enemy, Samuel the : submitted to Byzantine | own successful invasion in
Bulgarian, was said to have died : annexation. ) 1015, Cnut was accepted
Leif was the son of Eric the Red, founder
| as overlord of all England
of the Greenland colony (see 981-990).
3,000 1 ,000 in 1016, and went on
Stories differ on the exact details of his
survivors survivors ' to expand his empire.
discovery of North America. According
By 1030, it included
to one account, he was returning from
_ Norway, Denmark, and
a visit to Norway in 1002, where
| the Faroe, Shetland, and
he had been converted to
Orkney islands.
4,000
Christianity, and was blown off
course, landing at the place he 6,000
called Vinland because of the KILLED KILLED Chola sculpture of Shiva
grapes growing there. Another GAELIC The Cholas were staunch
VIKING
account suggests that he aimed | Hindus and enthusiastic
_ The bloody Battle of Clontarf
for a land sighted to the west by temple builders. Shiva, one
Fought between the largest armies yet assembled in Ireland,
an Icelandic trader. | of the major Hindu deities,
_ the Battle of Clontarf was a bloody affair. Up to 4,000 Gaels
is depicted here as a young
and up to 6,000 Norse and their allies were killed. | and handsome man.

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The Seljuks are shown here battling the Byzantines, Betneen 1041 and 1048, Bi Sheng invented the first moveable type printing
having already conquered Persia. _ system, using clay letters held in wax within an iron frame.

BANTU IS AFAMILY OF LANGUAGES use of Hinayana Buddhism as a

: Awise and capable king, Cnut IN 1037, THE SELJUKS, UNDER
that originated in the Bantu : cultural and political driver made
managed conciliation between his i CHAGRI BEG AND HIS BROTHER
homeland (now southern Nigeria : Pagan the centre of Burmese
: Danish and Anglo-Saxon subjects. | TUGHRIL BEG, invaded Khurasan
and northwestern Cameroon]. © politics, culture, and religion. He
: He collected Danegeld (Danish in Persia. In 1040, they crushed
Bantu-speaking people spread : developed Burmese as a written
: tax] to pay for a standing navy and _ the Ghaznavids at the Battle of
from here to the east and south : language, instituted a programme
> army -animportant innovation. | Dandangan, winning control of : of building, and forged trade and
eastern Persia, the first step on and Bantu became the dominant
language familyinsub-Saharan : cultural links to India and China.
the road to creating a new
Africa, although whether this In China, sometime between
Islamic empire. The Seljuks were
indicates conquest, colonization, 1041 and 1048, the commoner Bi
) Oghuz Turks, originally nomads
or simply cultural influence is less : (or Pi) Sheng invented the first
| from Central Asia who had
clear. The Bantu expansion | moveable type system. Block
converted to Islam and moved to
started in the Late Stone Age, : printing had been in use in China
Transoxiana where they served
accelerating as the Bantu : for centuries, and since the Later
as mercenaries in the region,
speakers acquired iron technology : Tang dynasty (923-36) had been
before turning their attentions
and cattle-husbandry skills. By : used for most book production,
to Khurasan.
the mid-11th century, Bantu tribes : but Bi Sheng introduced the
In 1031, 40 lesser
had become sophisticated : innovation of using tiny clay
dynasties were founded on : King and Emperor pastoralists, able to sustain high : blocks - one for each character.
the shattered remnants of the : Ferdinand | was the first ruler of
population densities and complex : The characters were moulded on
Cordoba caliphate, in Spain. : Castile to call himself king. He
/ social and economic networks. : the ends of thin rods of wet clay,
Known as the Muluk : added the title of emperor after
This in turn led to the emergence : which were fired to harden them.
al-Tawa‘if(“Party Kings’), : his conquest ofLeon.
of chiefdoms, and Bantu : Unlike wood, this clay type did not
these short-lived dynasties
: final break up of the caliphate, speakers dominated Central and : distort when wet and could be
took control of different
southern Africa. : used over and over again.
provinces of Cordoba after the : with the Abbadids seizing Seville,
» the Jahwarids taking Cordoba In 1044, Anawrata seized power
strife that brought down the
: and the Hudids seizing in the Pagan kingdom in Burma.
Umayyads following the
execution of Abd al-Rahman : Saragossa. With the Islamic His military prowess and skilful
Sanchol, son of al-Mansur, in _ state in disarray the Christian
1009. He was the last capable : kingdoms to the north were
leader of the caliphate but his : encouraged to expand southwards. | KEY
attempt to move out from Sancho II] of Navarre, who had
i Bantu homeland
behind the throne and conquered Castile and was 2000 BCE
take the crown led to : overlord of Christian Spain, died —> Spread of Bantu AFRICA

his downfall. ‘ in 1035, and his kingdoms were

Subsequently, the : divided between his two sons.
Lake
Berber faction nominated | Ferdinand inherited Castile, and Bantu expansion Victoria

their own candidate for ~ in 1037 he killed his brother-in- From their homeland in the Lake
Tanganyika
: law, the king of Leon and made border region of southern
caliph and Cordoba Lake
Nigeria and northwestern ATLANTIC
descended into civil war : himself emperor there in 1039. He OCEAN Nyasa
Cameroon, Bantu speaking
for 22 years. In 1031, the ' went on to conquer Navarre and people spread east and
death of Hisham Ill, the last : impose serfdom on parts of south, through the tropical ¢,1000 =
Kalahari
Umayyad caliph, who had : Muslim Spain and Portugal. forest, eventually spreading Desert
already lost control of to all parts of central and c.1000

several provinces, led to the southern Africa.

 x Ee , cae
Labanga Mosque in Ghana is possibly the oldest mosque in sub-Saharan
A
In this detail from the Bayeux Tapestry, complete din 1080, William the Conqueror
Africa. Ghana was Islamicized by the Almoravids in the 11th century. | exhorts his troops to prepare themselves for battle.

IN MOROCCO, IN 1054, AFIREBRAND : conquest of West Africa, where a IN 1066, AT THE BATTLE OF
CLERIC NAMED IBN YASIN inspired © number of powerful states had | HASTINGS, William Duke of
the unification of Saharan tribal : arisen, including that of Ghana. | Normandy {c.1028-87) defeated
groups.The confederation - : Yoruba was the name given by | Harold Godwinson (c.1022-66), Which was greater: secular
known as the Almoravids, from outsiders to a group of city-states | the last Anglo-Saxon king of or religious authority? This
the Arabic “al-Murabitun” : in Nigeria that shared a common | England. England had fallen into was the question at the
(“people of the frontier garrisons”) : language and culture. The oldest | the Norman orbit earlier, with heart of the Investiture
~ built an empire that would : and most prestigious Yoruba | Edward the Confessor spending Controversy. This 12th-
eventually encompass much of : kingdom was Ife, where a | his youth in exile at the Norman century manuscript
northwestern Africa and Muslim : sophisticated urban culture was | court while Cnut (see 1021-30) illumination shows Henry IV
Spain (see 1081-90). In 1054, the =_well established by the mid-11th _ ruled England. William claimed requesting mediation from
Almoravids began the Islamic © century. Ife was the spiritual and | that Edward had promised him Matilda of Tuscany and Hugh
= mythical centre of the Yoruba, | the English crown, but when of Cluny. Matilda was one of
' butits poor location meant that | Edward died, in 1066, Harold was the most powerful women of
: it never exerted wide-ranging | elected king. He marched north the Middle Ages. It was her
military or political control | to defeat a Norse invasion, before stronghold of Canossa where
over the other Yoruba | dashing south to Hastings to face Henry made his penitence.
states. lfe is most | William, where he was killed and R erogar spxrecs/MAT bulpiorSupplicas Arg;

famous for its artistic | his army shattered. William the

achievements, most | Conqueror quickly took southeast | SINCE CHARLEMAGNE’S : against the king. In 1077, Henry
notably terracotta England, then the southwest, and _ CORONATION BY THE POPE (see : \Vcrossed the Alps in the dead of
and bronze heads. | suppressed a great uprising inthe | 791-800), the Western emperors : winter and appeared at Canossa,
In 1059, Pope / north in 1069. | had considered it their divine right : dressed as a penitent, to submit
Nicholas II Under their leader Tughril Beg, | to appoint — or invest — bishops. : to the pope [see panel, above].
recognized Robert | the Seljuks had occupied Baghdad | Emperors had derived great : He was absolved but controversy
Guiscard the | and ended the Buwayhid dynasty ' income and power through their quickly flared up again, with a
Norman as Duke of | [see 931-50], retaining the Abbasid _ dispensation of religious offices, "rival, Rudolf of Swabia, being
Apulia and | caliph as a figurehead but giving ' and Emperor Henry Ill (1017-56) : elected to the German (formerly
Calabria, and him the title of sultan. Tughril Beg | had gone further still, in 1046, : East Frankish) throne. In 1080,
Count of Sicily- died in 1063; his successor Alp _ insisting that it was the : Henry had a rival pope elected,
territories under Arslan extended Seljuk dominion | emperor's right to appoint the : while Gregory allied himself with
Byzantine and Arab into Anatolia, Armenia, and Syria. | pope. Pope Gregory VII _ Roger Guiscard, Count of Sicily,
control — legitimizing | represented the opposite view; he " against the imperial camp.
his attempts to | held that only popes had the right In 1071, the Seljuks crushed
conquer them. | to invest clerics. In 1075, at the : the Byzantine army at Manzikert,
, Lent synod, Gregory issued a : capturing and ransoming
| decree forbidding lay investiture. - Emperor Romanus IV and going
| The emperor, Henry IV (1050- : on to conquer Anatolia (present-
Ife bronze head
1106}, who was fighting to reduce : day Turkey). This began its
This head probably dates
| the power of German prelates, ' transformation into a Muslim
2:1
from the 14th century, but Battle of Hastings
it represents an artistic defied the decree. In 1076, © Turkish region. In 1077, the
Anglo-Saxon casualties
_ tradition stretching back to . outnumbered Norman | Gregory excommunicated him, : Seljuks established the Sultanate
the 11th century that was at losses by two-to-one, thanks in part | absolving his subjects of their : of Rum there, while other
least as sophisticated as to their forced march from the north, | oaths of loyalty and triggering a : conquests brought them Syria and
any in contemporary Europe. and the advanced Norman tactics. _ rebellion by Saxon nobles : Jerusalem.
 Al GOING TO FIGHT FOR
LET’ SUCH ASARE
, 660; :
: ee OF THE hOSs UPON
ae eels FORM ¢

‘Pope UrbanII,1095

Hassan-i Sabbah leads initiations at Alamut, in an illustration

from Marco Polo's 13th-century Travels.

IN 1090, A GROUP OF ISMAILI IN 1092, CHINESE POLYMATH

SHIITES BECAME INVOLVED INA | SU SUNG DESIGNED AND
| DISPUTE over the Fatimid | CONSTRUCTED A COSMIC ENGINE.
succession in Cairo [see 901-10). This mechanical astronomical
Under the leadership of the | clock was 9m (30ft} high, and was
charismatic Hassan-i Sabbah, this | water-driven with an armillary
group recognized the claims of an sphere, which showed the position
| infant called Nizar, and were | of celestial objects.
therefore known as Nizari n 1094, a Castilian who had
served both Christian and Islamic
THE NUMBER
Ismailis. Forced to flee Cairo,
Hassan led the Nizaris to his \ Masters, Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar,
homeland in Persia where they
captured a fortress known as OF PLACES | known by the Moors as Et Cid
(“the lord”), captured Valencia in
Alamut in the mountainous region LISTED IN THE ) eastern Spain and established
of Kazvin and made it the base of a
de facto Nizari kingdom. Thus was _ :; -DOMESDAY | himself as ruler.
At the Council of Clermont in
born the group later known as the
Assassins - a name derived from
BOOK ) 1095, Pope Urban, a French
) Cluniac (see 910), preached to an
the word “hashashins”, a label | assembly of mainly Frankish : Battle of the Crusades
applied by their enemies who threat. Defeating Alfonso at Zallaka | clerics and nobles about Muslim : This manuscript illustration shows Crusader knights joining battle with
claimed they used intoxicants such : in 1086, they annexed most of “defilement” of the Holy Land, : Saracens - the generic term used by Europeans to refer to their Muslim
as hashish to brainwash devotees | Islamic Spain. } urging his audience to take up : foes. Around 30,000 knights took part in the First Crusade.
) into blind obedience. In 1085, William the Conqueror arms ina holy war. Urban had
: (see 1061) commissioned a survey been entreated by the Byzantines : and Baldwin of Bouillon, Count : became king the following year.
Alarmed by the advances of
: of his new kingdom - known as the | for help against the Seluks, and : Raymond of Toulouse, and the ' Under the overlordship of the King
Alfonso VI of Castile, the
: Domesday Book - probably to | saw a way to channel the energies Norman Bohemond of Otranto, - of Jerusalem, the Crusaders
| Abbadids (see 1031) summoned
: regulate military service and / of European nobility away from : took the Seljuk Rum capital of : established four principal states:
the Almoravids from North Africa
: assess taxation opportunities. | constant in-fighting and towards a : Nicaea in 1097, conquered Edessa : the kingdom of Jerusalem, which
| to defend against the Christian
| Christian expansion that would ' in the same year, captured Antioch : thrived on trade mediated by the
2,
| benefit the papacy. Fired by : in 1098, and marched on : Italian trading powers; the county
| religious zeal and spurred by the : Jerusalem in 1099. Godfrey was : of Tripoli, set up by Raymond; the
| promise of remission of sins, elected king of Jerusalem but took : county of Edessa, established by
| together with the prospect of the title Defender of the Holy : Baldwin; and the principality of
} winning booty, land, and control of ; Sepulchre; his brother, Baldwin : Antioch, set up by Bohemund.
| the lucrative trade with the Orient,
many nobles of France (formerly
West Francia) and Lorraine
joined, or “took the cross”.
Other nations were either in The Siege of Antioch
Islamic forces at the Siege
conflict with the papacy or
of Antioch outnumbered
indifferent, so the First the Crusaders considerably.
Crusade was a largely In fact Antioch fell only
The Domesday Book | French affair. Taking advantage of when a traitor opened a
| Nicknamed “Domesday” in reflection of the trepidation that the great
' disarray in the Muslim world, three gate to a party of knights
undertaking inspired in the native English, William's survey actually led by Bohemond of Otranto.
| groups of Crusaders under Godfrey :
comprised two manuscripts; the Great and Little Domesday.
 oe.
ee, “G | a
Sa
PTE ila a
ei
f141
An illustration from Edward Fitzgerald's translation of the Rubaiyat; of the 600 | Monumental ruins in the city of Great Zimbabwe, capital of the Mwene Mutapa | The 12th-century Cathedral of
verses, only around 120 are thought to have been written by Khayyam himself. | Empire. After it seized control of the gold trade, the empire grew rich. ' St Nicholas at Novgorod, Russia.

SOMETIME AROUND THE START : much to the disarray of the Islamic | NOTED FORITS FINE ARTS AND : Cr ae are THE 12TH CENTURY SAW AN
OF THE 12TH CENTURY, OMAR ' regimes it had dispossessed. The || CRAFTS and construction of 3 (es EXPLOSION OF CATHEDRAL
KHAYYAM (1048-1131), an : Fatimid Caliphate in Cairo was monumental temple mounds, BUILDING all over Europe, as
astronomer and mathematician in _ rich but decadent; the Abbasids the post-Moche culture, known population growth,
the service of the Seljuk sultans, : in Baghdad were little more than as the Sican or Lambayeque increased wealth, and
composed a series of four-line ! figureheads; the Seljuk Turks had | onthe northern coast of Peru, architectural advances
poems, or “roba’iyat”, which » failed to forge a unified empire, reached its height in the early combined with religious
became famous thanks to the : and instead warlords and tribal 11th century. But a prolonged zeal, civic pride, and
translation made by Edward : groups had set up a patchwork of drought, followed by the personal ambition
Fitzgerald in 1859. Khayyam’s : competing states such as Rum, | catastrophic flooding, led of potentates. The
career reflected the Seljuk era. » Danishmend, and Damascus. _ to cultural and political development of the
At Samarkand, in the early : Throughout the early 12th century, | collapse. In the early 12th Romanesque and
1070s, he was able the Crusaders battled century, the state recovered Gothic styles was given
to pursue his constantly against these from the convulsions of the expression in the great
mathematical m foes. In 1101, Raymond | 11th century and rebuilt cathedrals, but each
studies thanks to IV of Toulouse | around a new capital at region developed its
patronage from (c.1042-1105) led Tucume. New temples were is own, distinctive idiom.
a local jurist, & anew Crusader built and the capital flourished #% loam hh Wie In Novgorod,
for
and under ' until its conquest by the a a 5} instance, the Cathedral
the strong Chim (see 1375}, by which of St Nicholas (started
Seljuk sultan f Baldwin of Bourcq
time there were 26 mounds in 1113) was given
Malik Shah F This coin features
Baldwin of Bourcg,
and accompanying enclosures. domed cupolas.
(r.1072-92), cousin of Baldwin | In central southern Africa, The Investiture Controversy
Khayyam was who he succeeded as in what is now Zimbabwe, the between the papacy and the
invited to Isfahan count of Edessa, then as Mwene Mutapa Empire, also ) Western emperors rumbled on
in 1073 to set up an king of Jerusalem [see 1118). known as Great Zimbabwe after | (see 1071-80). Henry IV's failure
observatory and lead its monumental capital, emerged to reconcile with the papacy had
a team of top scholars. : army from Constantinople as the most significant regional helped bring about his downfall;
In this period he made many : against the Sultanate of Rum, power. A kingdom of the Shona : | concerned that the ongoing
mathematical and astronomical © taking Ankara in June, only to be peoples that emerged around 900, : , dispute was undermining royal
breakthroughs, including destroyed by Danishmend Turks Mwene Mutapa was initially based : | authority, his own family had
an unprecedented accurate in August. Baldwin | of on cattle herding, but from around : | conspired against him, and he
measurement of the length of : inlaid
Jerusalem (c.1058-1118) steadily | 1100 it took control of the lucrative | was imprisoned. His successor,
; turquoise
the year to 12 decimal places. improved his access to the trade routes linking the gold, _ HenryV (1086-1125) launched a
Although he is now most famous Mediterranean by taking a series | iron, and ivory production centres powerful expedition to Italy to
for the Rubaiyat, it is not certain : of coastal cities from the _ of the interiorto the Arab | force an imperial coronation.
that Khayyam wrote most or any : Fatimids, defeating them at i trading kingdoms on the east : Under duress (he was a
of the verses involved, and he was : Jaffain 1102, Acre in 1104, and ) coast, which offered luxury prisoner of Henry at the
little regarded as a poet in his own : Ramleh in 1105, although | goods from Asia. time), Pope Paschal Il
time. Much of the current : Raymond died in an attempt to offered major concessions on
reputation of the work derives : take Tripoli in 1105.
| Ceremonial knife the investiture issue in the
from the very free translation
| This gold knife is from the Middle Treaty of Sutri, but he
by Edward Fitzgerald.
_ Sican culture in Peru. The early repudiated them the following
The success of the First | 1100s mark the threshold between year and the issue remained
Crusade (see 1091-1100) owed | the Middle and Late Sicéan cultures. | unsettled (see 1122].
 Stained glass window of a Templar Guelph and Ghibelli ne forces join battle in Italy. These factions, based on the German
_ KnightinWarwickshire, England. | Welf and Hohenstaufen dynasties, would come to dominate Italian politics.

IN 1121, MOHAMMAD IB-TUMART,

44 IN THIS | ABERBER LEADER from the Atlas
RELIGIOUS | Mountains, was hailed as the
al-Mahdi (the Muslim messiah The school of thought known as Scholasticism
ORDER HAS | - see 874) and led his forces, - because it was taught by the scholastics, or
FLOURISHED | known as the Almohads, in a school masters - developed as the dominant
philosophy of learning in medieval Europe, hand
AND IS campaign of conquest against
Almoravid territories in Africa. in hand with the emergence of the universities.
REVITALIZED A synod at the German town of Scholasticism was an approach to learning
that used a method of formal discussion and
THE ORDER OF Worms, in 1122, presided by a
| papal legate drew up a concordat | debating. It became the intellectual basis for
KNIGHTHOOD. 99 agreement] ending the Investiture 4) medieval religious and philosophical dogma.
‘
Controversy - though not the
| From The Primitive Rule of the | imperial-papal rivalry. A
Knights Templar | compromise was agreed along the at Ascalon (Ashkelon], Venetian : Emperor Lothair II [Ill in some : philosopher Boethius of one
| lines already adopted between : ships destroyed the Fatimid fleet. ' sources]. Immediately he was : treatise on logic. This began to
| Henry! of England and Anselm : This marked the start of the : plunged into a bitter civil war : change in the early 12th century, as
In Jerusalem, in 1119, a group of
: dominance of Italian maritime with the Hohenstaufens, and the : the conquest of Islamic areas such
knights, led by the French Hugues | (see 1107}, under which the
emperor would be involved : power in the Mediterranean. : two opposing sides became : as Toledo and Sicily gave Christian
de Payens (c.1070-1136), formed
in investiture but not control it. : Emperor HenryV died in 1125, entrenched as pro-papal and : scholars access to Arabic works.
an order to protect pilgrims
Essentially it was a victory for : with no male heir, and an election pro-imperial factions known as : Increasing exposure to the works
travelling along the dangerous
: was held to choose his successor. : the Guelphs and Ghibellines : of Aristotle led medieval scholars
| road from Jaffa, on the coast, | the papacy.
| In 1123, Frankish forces from » The closest heir was Conrad of : respectively. They would plague : to consider him the “master of
| to the holy city. The new king of
Jerusalem defeated a Fatimid : Swabia (1122-90), of the house : relations between and within the : those who know’ and the chief
Jerusalem, Baldwin II (cousin
: of Hohenstaufen [allied to the : city-states of northern Italy into authority on matters of reason.
of Baldwin | and his successor as ' army at Ibelin, while off the coast
Salian dynasty and their © the 14th century - long after they In 1125, the French king Louis VI
' count of Edessa], assigned them
anti-papal policies}, : had ceased to dominate German : (1081-1137] successfully
quarters in part of the Temple
but the powerful : power politics - as they became ' rallied French nobles to repel
| Mount compound, next to the site
archbishops of Mainz : associated with class struggles : an English-German invasion.
where the Temple of Solomon
and Cologne angled : and reactionary versus : This proved to be a milestone in the
had once stood. Accordingly, they
for the election of a | reforming parties. : French monarchy’s attempts to
| called themselves the Poor Fellow
‘ | candidate more friendly The work of Aristotle : assert its authority, and thus
| Soldiers of Christ and of the
a Ciao im tp | to the Church. Lothair (384-322 cE) had survived in : in the emergence of France as
Temple of Solomon - also known
Ce Gaccdlinonn of Saxony (1075-1137), Byzantium and among the Arabs, : anation-state.
| as the Knights Templar.
' Bologna University was the of the house of Welf, was : but Western Europeans only had
chosen and became access to a translation by the
first in the western world. It was
) founded in 1119 (or possibly
earlier, depending on the source].
Aristotle in translation
Institutions such as Bologna A page from a translation
| University were the incubators
} of Aristotle's Nicomachean : THE APPROXIMATE
for the philosophical school of Ge: ! Ethics, written on vellum
lice Sun
PROPORTION OF
}
Sasi Li
thought known as Scholasticism | -a writing material made
| (see panel, right). | from calf skin, which is ARISTOTLE’S WORK
more durable than
papyrus or paper. SURVIVING TODAY
 HOAHAGRGALS OPOEE GOREE 6447070840 645608

celenir teOimewneh cotult

A mosaic shows Roger II being St Alban’s Chronicle, shows Matilda } An illustration rom a 15th-century copy of the History of the Kings of Britain, Ascene from the Siege 0
symbolically crowned by Christ. ~ of England holding a charter. by Geoffrey of Monmouth, shows Brutus the Trojan setting sail for Britain. _ a battle of the Second Crusade.

IN 1126, THE JIN - the Jurchen | THE DEATH OF HENRY I, IN 1135, IN 1137, LOTHAIR DIED SUDDENLY : strengthen his position since IN 1141, JOHN OF SEVILLE
dynasty established by Aguda (see | PITCHEDENGLANDINTODYNASTIC | while returning froma : taking the crown, alienating TRANSLATED FROM THE ARABIC
1115} in Manchuria - turned on | STRIFE. His only male heir died in | successful campaign in Italy = many of his nobles, on one hand, | the Epitome of the Whole of
their erstwhile Chinese allies, | 1120 while crossing the English against Roger of Sicily. Lothair’s : and powerful clerics, on the | Astrology, while in 1142 Adelard
overrunning northern China and | Channel, and although Henry had | plans to concentrate German : other. He particularly blundered of Bath translated an Arabic
seizing the Northern Song capital | made his nobles swear allegiance | territories in the hands of the » by arresting his chief minister | version of Euclid’s Elements of
at Kaifeng. The Jin took control | to his daughter, the Empress Welf clan, and create a stable Roger, Bishop of Salisbury. At a | Geometry, one of the founding
of northern China and moved the | Matilda (1102-67), she had spent inheritance for his son-in-law, : stroke, he lost many of his ablest ' texts of mathematics. This
capital to Beijing. This marked | little time in England and her evaporated when the election of : administrators, and was | transmission of learning,
the end of the Northern Song. ‘ second husband, Geoffrey of 1138 chose the Waiblinger Conrad : henceforth unable to rein in the ) ancient and contemporary, via
However, a Song prince, Gaozong, | Anjou, was unpopular with the of Hohenstaufen (1135-95). The : depredations of barons and Arabic into Latin, was a key
escaped to the south and _ English nobles. Among those who Waiblingers were descended from : other landowners, who became ' contributor to the emergence of
established the Southern Song | had sworn fealty to Matilda was the dukes of Franconia; the name : laws unto themselves. The | an intellectual renaissance in
dynasty in Hangzhou in 1127.

|
) Henry’s nephew and ward was later corrupted by the Italians : country deteriorated into a state Europe, and beyond that to the
The death of Pope Honorius, | Stephen of Blois (r.1135-54). On into “Ghibelline”. Conrad set about of anarchy famously lamented by | scientific achievements of the
in 1130, resulted in the election his uncle's death he immediately reversing the grants of Lothair, : the author of the Peterborough | Early Modern period (1500-1800).
of two rival popes, Innocent II ‘ went to London, secured the taking Saxony away from the : Chronicle, who wrote that under In an attempt to end
and Anacletus Il. During this support of most of the nobles and Welfs, which promptly sparked : Stephen's reign the English | the civil war that was
papal schism, Roger Il, count | the Church, and had himself renewed civil war. - “suffered nineteen long | convulsing Germany, an
of Sicily, recognized Anacletus | proclaimed king. However, In 1139, Matilda entered ' winters... when Christ and all his | 1142 meeting, or diet,
as pope — his reward was the | Matilda refused to renounce her England to reclaim her crown : saints slept”. at Frankfurt confirmed
throne of Sicily. | claim, and their contest would from the usurper Stephen of Sometime around 1140, the the Welf Henry the Lion
' lead to a period of warfare and Blois. Stephen had failed to :; Welsh cleric Geoffrey of | (1129-95) as Duke of
breakdown of central : Monmouth (c.1100-55) wrote the ) Saxony (which he had
authority known as the : History of
the Kings of Britain, an already taken by force).
Legendary castle
Anarchy (see 1136-40). Tintagel, Cornwall, where the ruins : important example of early | Henry engaged in
In 1133, Lothair Il | of a 13th-century castle still stand, ; Anglo-Norman literature that | a vigorous renewal of
(1070-1137) went to Italy to is featured in the Arthurian legends : introduced the legend of King German expansion
intervene in the papal schism, created by Geoffrey of Monmouth. : Arthur to a European audience. to the east, where his
| installing Innocent Il. In return,
| the Pope confirmed the Matildine
| inheritance (the vast estates of
| Matilda of Tuscany, which she had
| willed first to the papacy and then
| to the emperor, sparking a dispute
that would become tied up with
| the Guelph versus Ghibelline
Pot helm helmet
| contest - (see 1121-25] and | This type of helmet
_ crowned Lothair as emperor. In was typical of those
| 1135, Lothair pacified his rivals, | worn by Crusader
Song dynasty porcelain ware
| Conrad of Hohenstaufen and his knights. Made of
The Qingbai (“blue-white”) glaze on
| brother Frederick of Swabia, | steel, the pot helm
this ewer is characteristic of Song
| apparently securing the German helmet completely
dynasty porcelain from southeastern
| crown for his son-in-law Henry covered the head
China, where the dynasty survived
save for two small
the Jin invasion. | the Proud, of the House of Welf.
| eyeslits.
 ~ Angkor Wat, in Cambo
- nearly 200 hectares (500 acres) and the central tower is 42m (138ft) high.

44 THOSE WHO ARE OF GOD... STRIVE || CISTERCIAN

IN 1146, THE INFLUENTIAL
MONK, BERNARD OF :
: Aquitaine (c.1122-04), and the loss
: of her territories [see 1151-55).
TO OPPOSE THE MULTITUDE OF THE CLAIRVAUX (1090-1153], eggedon : © : The Byzantines were forced to

INFIDELS, WHO REJOICE INA | by Pope Eugenius III, preached a

) new Crusade to liberate Edessa
: step in where the Crusade had
: failed, occupying western Edessa,
VICTORY GAINED OVER US, AND | from the clutches of the Zengids; : but Roger of Sicily took
DEFEND THE ORIENTAL CHURCH | Conrad III of Germany (1093-
| 1152) and Louis VII of France
: advantage of Byzantine distraction
© to invade and plunder Greece in
FREED FROM THEIR TYRANNY BY SO | (1120-80) “took the cross”. But : 1147. The disasters of the Second
GREAT AN OUTPOURING OF THE / the expedition was a disastrous : Crusade marked the beginning of
: the decline of the Frankish
BLOOD OF YOUR FATHERS... 99 affair, except for incidental
success In Portugal achieved by a _ Crusader kingdoms.
contingent of English and Flemish : In 1147, the Almohads under
: Pope Eugenius II, from Papal bull calling for the Second Crusade, 1145 | Crusaders who helped Afonso- ~ Abd al-Mu’min (1094-1163}
| Henriques, Count of Portugal, : completed the conquest of
take Lisbon from the Moors in Almoravid Morocco, taking
} campaigns against the heathen 1147. Conrad and Louis took Marrakech, before invading
Slavs were given the status different routes to the Holy Land, Moorish Spain (although it took
of Crusades. j their armies meeting equally them until 1172 to subjugate all
In 1144, the atabeg (governor) of disastrous fates as they struggled the Islamic kingdoms).
Mosul, Imad el-Din Zengi | through Anatolia. In 1148, forced » Suryavarman Il (c.1113-50)
(1085-1146), founder of the | to hitch a lift on a Byzantine ship, : was the most warlike Khmer king,
Zengid dynasty, took advantage | having lost his army at the Battle : although most of his foreign
: Koutoubia Mosque in Morocco adventures were unsuccessful. He
of feuding between the Crusader of Dorylaeum, Conrad met up
: The Koutoubia (“booksellers”)
principalities to seize the with Louis. Rather than pitch their : launched attacks against the Dai
: Mosque, built by the Almohads,
Crusader county of Edessa. Fulk, : reflects the mercantile success of : Vet of northern Vietnam and made
king of Jerusalem, had died in 25,000 ~ : Almohad Marrakech, where book, : repeated attempts to subjugate the
1143 and his successor Baldwin : cloth, and other sougs flourished. : Champa. More significant
M1 (1130-63) was only a child, was his building programme, the
20,000
under the regency of his mother : depleted forces against the : zenith of which was the temple
Melisende. She didnot have the | : powerful Zengids, they decided : of Angkor Wat. This vast complex
15,000 ! instead to launch an attack on : includes five towers symbolizing
authority to settle a dispute \
between Antioch and Edessa, k ee
eee) Damascus, the only Muslim state * holy mountains, and masses of
and Imad el-Din besieged Edessa | 10,000- : that wasfriendly to the Crusader : elaborate carvings.
CRUSADERS
until it fell to him. The loss of : kingdoms. Hampered by lack
Edessa caused alarm and 5,000-) : of supplies and threatened by
outrage in Europe, and provided : the Zengid leader Nur al-Din,
the trigger for the Second : successor to Imad el-Din, the
Crusade (see 1146-50). French German
: Siege of Damascus also failed.
In 1145, Eugenius Ill issued H : The Second Crusade broke up
| French and German Crusaders
a call-to-arms in the form ' having failed to achieve anything
| The German force outnumbered the
: beyond a damaging fallout. Louis
THE AREA OF
of a Papal bull. | French contingent during the Second : ;
Crusade. Neither army achieved any : was cuckolded by one of his
success: defeat in Anatolia preceded
failure at Damascus.
: generals, eventually leading toa
: divorce from his wife, Eleanor of ANGKOR WAT
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Monks Mound, the largest mound at Cahokia, is over 30m (100ft) high. The University of Bologna was | The Hassan Tower in Rabat, Morocco, is all that was built of
It has been estimated that it took 15 million baskets of earth to make it. | originally a school forjurists. what was intended to be an Almohad super-mosque.
i
THE CITY OF CAHOKIA SPRANG : Mississippians, Cahokia would | WITH ORIGINS DATING BACK TO : hereditary, and his son Yusuf
UP AT THE CLIMAX of the decline rapidly, within around | PERHAPS 1088, BOLOGNA CLAIMS : abn Ya’qub (1135-84) succeeded
Mississippian (or Cahokian) : acentury, with a return to to be the oldest university in the : him. He would spend most of his
culture of the American Bottom : low-density farming communities. Western world (see 1116-20) - in : reign battling internal opposition,
(an area of the Mississippi River In 1152, Conrad III (b.1093), king | the sense of an institution : although he was also noted for
Valley). Around the mid-12th of the Romans, died and his _ specifically designated as a : military success in Muslim Spain
century they constructed more : nephew Frederick of Swabia, universitas, as opposed to a : and for his patronage of the arts.
than 100 mounds, including one known as Barbarossa (see panel, | studium generale, as centres for In 1164, the Zengid emir Nur
with a base that is larger than that : below) was elected as successor. teaching had previously been © al-Din (1118-74) defeated the
of the Great Pyramid at Giza, ' Of combined Welf and Waiblinger known. In 1158, the emperor : Crusader princes at Artah.
along with a huge landscaped ! parentage (see 1131-35], he | Frederick | (1122-90), on | Throughout the 1160s, Nur al-Din
plaza that may be the biggest : brought relative peace to the advice of scholars : contested with the Crusader
earthen city square in the world. : Germany. His coronation as who may have been : kingdoms, particularly as they
The most remarkable feature of :; @mperor in Rome was delayed Bologna alumni, granted ; vied for control of the ailing
Cahokia is the speed with which it : because the city was in the grip the university a charter, firmly Fatimid kingdom in Egypt,
came into existence. Until around of a revolutionary commune led _ establishing the institution as led by the vizier Shawar.
1050, Mississippians lived in by radical reformer Arnold of an independent centre of Amalric, who had become
small villages and had never built ' Brescia (1090-1155). Frederick scholarship. Early universities king of Jerusalem in 1162,
on anything approaching this ' allied with the papacy against tended to specialize in one was the first to occupy
scale. By the 1150s the city may Arnold and Norman Sicily, making field of study, and Bologna was Egypt, but Zengid success at
have covered 493 hectares (4,000 : his first expedition to Italy in 1154. dedicated to law. Artah forced him to march
acres) and been home to 30,000 : The following year, in the face of In 1159, Alexander Ill (c.1100-81} | north, leaving the way clear for
people. Its cultural and economic > Roman hostility, he was crowned was chosen as pope, although Nur al-Din's general Shirkuh
influence spread across the : by the new pope, Adrian IV his election was opposed by the and his nephew Saladin to
Midwest, from the present : (1100-59), but had to retreat to emperor, Frederick I. invade Egypt {see 1167).
Canadian border to the Gulf Coast. : Germany, abandoning Adrian, | Frederick had once again Around the mid-12th
Perhaps because urban living : who was forced to ally himself | invaded Italy, this time intent
| The Bodhisattva Guanyin © century, the dense urban culture
was So exceptional for the : with the Normans. ' on assuming his full imperial | This 12th-century Chinese statue : of the ancient Pueblo peoples at
inheritance. With the aid of the | depicts the Buddhist deity Guanyin, : Chaco Canyon in North America
League of Pavia (Bresci, Parma, | who protects those in danger - collapsed, probably because their
| | and others), he had subdued | perhaps accounting for his popularity. ' marginal system of agriculture
Energetic and ambitious, || Milan and its associated cities, but | : had overtaxed the fragile dryland
Frederick | was determined to | | at the Diet of Roncaglia, in 1158, | IN 1161, THE SOUTHERN SONG : ecology, leaving them vulnerable
make Germany the dominant he had gone too far. Harking back | REPULSED AN INCURSION by the : to drought. Dating of timbers from
state in Europe, and to reassert | to the Roman era, Frederick ' northern Jin (see 1126-30}, : the Chaco Canyon pueblos show
authority over all the imperial | insisted that ancient law gave him ) securing their kingdom from : that the youngest timbers date
lands in Italy. Aware of the | | the right to appoint an imperial | invasion. A peace treaty of 1165 : from around the 1160s - in other
historic context of his office,he | podesta [local governor) to rule | recognized an uneasy truce : words, there was no construction
desired to restore the imperial | | each city. Milan was pushed into | between the two powers. : after this. Other Pueblo, or
crown to Roman-era glory, | | revolt, and other cities joined i The Almohad caliph Abd : Anasazi, sites show evidence
and began to style his realm | them in forming a Lombard al-Mu’min died in 1163, having : from this period of fortification,
the’Holy Roman Empire. In | | League under the auspices of the | destroyed the Almoravids and : destruction, and even cannibalism,
Germany, he pacified rebels _ papacy. Alexander III would earn | extended Almohad rule from but there is also evidence of
and expanded royal lands. | | the title “the Great” for leading ' Morocco to Tunisia (the province _ orderly abandonment, presumably
| this anti-imperial rebellion. | of Ifriqiya). He made his office » by people moving to new sites.
 46 WILL NO ONE
OF THIS :
_RID ME EN
TURBUL T
PRIEST? 99
Attributed to HenryII,1170
‘Sy
oe i ,

The murder of Thomas Becket is depicted in stained glass at Canterbury Cathedral. Muhammad of Ghur, travelling by elephant, leads
_ Canonized in 1173 , Becket became one of the most popular English saints. _ his army in the Islamic conquest of India.

IN 1170, THOMAS BECKET, : versus royal jurisdiction. During : for instance, replaced the THE GHURIDS WERE A DYNASTY
ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, : the anarchy of Stephen’s reign : Danegeld with new levies, but | FOUNDED
IN 1151 by Ala-ud-Din
was murdered in Canterbury : (see 1136-40], clerical courts had : itwas the judicial reform that Husayn, who conquered much
Cathedral, England, by four : encroached on areas previously © brought him into conflict with his of Ghaznavid Afghanistan and
knights of the court of Henry II : under royal jurisdiction. Following : friend and chancellor Thomas founded a new state based at
(r.1154-89)}. Although he swore : Stephen's death, Henry : Becket. Becket had already | Ghur in western Afghanistan. In
} that he had not ordered the crime, ! Plantagenet cameto thethrone. : been forced into exile after being 1173, Ghiyas-ud-Din became
| and was absolved of responsibility © He controlled England alongside : found guilty of violating the i emir, making his brother
by Pope Alexander in 1172, : the territories of Anjou, : Constitutions of Clarendon Mu’izz-du-Din, better known as
Henry's famous outburst (see : Normandy, and Aquitaine - known : [see 1164]. On his return he vexed | Muhammad of Ghur, co-emir.
above} had prompted the action of : as the Angevin Empire - and set : Henry by excommunicating Together the brothers brought
the knights. The context for this : about instituting a badly needed : royally favoured bishops. most of Afghanistan under their
| outrage was an ongoing dispute : reorganization of his new At its height, in the late 12th control, and in 1175 Muhammad
| over the extent of ecclesiastical : kingdom. Taxation reforms, century, the commercial empire launched the Islamic invasion of
of Srivijaya, based in Sumatra, northern India.
: controlled much of the Malay The Spanish rabbi Benjamin of
tablet in clay : Archipelago. Its authority Tudela (1130-73) was the first
with moulded : extended to colonies around the recorded European to have
: East Indies and as far as Sri approached the borders of China,
: Lanka and Taiwan. Srivijayan in an epic journey he made from
power was based almost 1159 to 1173. His account, The
: exclusively on its maritime Travels of Benjamin of Tudela,
: prowess. By securing the seas recounts many exotic legends,
: in the region against piracy they including Noah's Ark resting
a. OD _ at
: enabled and directed trade on Mount Ararat.
: Leaning Tower of Pisa
between China, India, and the In the medieval period, the city : Pisa’s famous leaning tower is
: Islamic world, but imposition of of Pisa, in Tuscany, became the : 54.5m (179ft) talland 17.5m (57ft) in
: heavy duties and taxes stoked centre of a thriving city-state. Its : diameterat the base.
: resentment and, eventually, revolt. cathedral was constructed in the
Frederick I's fourth expedition 11th century, but in 1173 work © that rejected many of the teachings
to Italy, beginning in 1166, began on a separate bell tower. : of Catholicism. Despite initial
prompted the renewal of the Even during construction the : blessing by Pope Alexander III,
Lombard League (see 1156-60) foundations sank and the tower : the Waldensians’ refusal to abide
and the construction of the mighty began to slant. Eventually it ~ by his injunction against preaching
fortress town Alessandria, came to lean 4.5m (15ft) from © led to their denunciation as
: named for the pope. With this the perpendicular. : heretics in 1179 and a long history
: citadel guarding the mountain During the 1170s, a new : of persecution (see 1206-10).
: passes, Italy became virtually religious movement emerged In 1174, the Zengid emir Nur
: independent of imperial authority. in Lyons. Also known as the Poor : al-Din died. His nephew Saladin,
Men of Lyons and the Vaudois, : who had already assumed control
the Waldenses were led by Peter - of Egypt, quickly marched north to
Votive tablet : secure Syria, and was duly
Waldes (c.1140-1218), a rich
This votive tablet from the trading
empire of Srivijaya is engraved merchant who gave away his recognized as sultan of Egypt and
with Buddhist figures. The ruling property and began to preach a Syria by the caliph in Baghdad,
Sailendras were ardent Buddhists. radical creed of gospel simplicity founding the Ayyubid dynasty.
This depiction of the Battle of Yashima during the Gempei wars illustrates a
heavily armed Minamoto discovering the terrified mother of Emperor Taira.

: comprehensive Peace of BY THE 1180S, THE CRUSADER : Saladin mobilized his army,
EMPEROR FREDERICK
BARBARROSA’S FIFTHEXPEDITION Constance in 1183 [see 1181-85]. | KINGDOMS OF OUTREMER ("beyond © intent on punishing Reynald, but
TO ITALY in 1176 (see also Now reconciled with the _ the sea”, as they were known in : his progress was checked by
1151-55) ended in disaster for the : emperor, Pope Alexander
III was | Europe) were in an increasingly : Frankish fortresses and another
imperial forces when his army : able to call an ecumenical council Growing populations, new | precarious position. Europe was : prolonged famine. In 1185,
was crushed at the Battle of : at the Lateran Palace in Rome, agricultural implements, and | deaf to entreaties for Crusader : Baldwin died and his sickly infant
Legnano. The battle marked one : in 1179. The council decreed that constant military activity reinforcements, and the Christian | nephew inherited the crown as
of the earliest occasions in the : papal elections would be solely increased the demand for Byzantines were preoccupied with ~ Baldwin
V(1177-86).
medieval era when cavalry were » in the hands of the cardinals, and iron in the Middle Ages. | other matters, such as war with In 1183, the peace between
defeated by infantry. This had : that a two-thirds majority was Charcoal was still the main _ Norman Sicily. Meanwhile, their Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and
class implications as knights on : needed to elect a pope. It was source of power for iron | Muslim opponents were gathering : his Italian foes was ratified as the
horses generally belonged to the : hoped that this would draw a forges, but deforestation under the leadership of Saladin, or : Peace of Constance, but although
feudal aristocracy, while footmen : line under years of contention caused wood shortages. Salah al-Din, (c.1137-93} the sultan : imperial authority over Italy was
with pikes represented freemen ; between papal candidates As a consequence, demand of Egypt and Syria. By 1183, he had : recognized, the Lombard cities
of the rising bourgeoisie. In 1177, : elected by the anti-imperial party for coal increased in and suppressed Christian rebels at : were granted effective autonomy.
Frederick was forced to concede ' and “anti-popes” — persons scavenging for sea coal was Edessa and Aleppo, and with both The Battle of Dannoura of 1185
the Peace of Venice with the : selected by the emperor to increasingly supplemented | sides reeling from the effects of a : marked the climax of the Gempei
pope; a prelude to the more : oppose the legitimately elected by mining. The first record drought, had brokered a peace : Wars. Warrior Minamoto
or sitting pope. of a coal mine comes from treaty with the leper king of : Yoshitsune, younger brother of
In 1176, the army Escomb near Durham, in | Jerusalem, Baldwin lV : Yoritomo, the founder of the
of Byzantine northern England in 1183. (c.1161-85]. The uneasy peace was : shogunate, destroyed the Taira in
emperor Manuel shattered, however, by the actions : the naval battle.
Commenus was of Reynald of Chatillon, an
destroyed by the : marked the end of Taira adventurer from the Second
: Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria
Turks of the : domination of Japan (see Crusade, who persistently raided : Saladin escapes from battle on
Fray
Sultanate of Rum : 641-650), and the start of the unarmed caravans of Islamic : acamelin this 18th-century
iCae
(see 1100-05) » Minamoto shogunate. Civil pilgrims, and sponsored a pirate : engraving. He was renowned as
at the Battle of : wars in 1156 and 1159 had left fleet that pillaged the Red Sea. : a generous and principled leader.
Myriocephalum. - control of Japan in the hands of
The Byzantines were : Taira no Kiyomori (c.1118-81],
never again able to who quickly assumed a similar
send land forces to : level of power to the Fujiwara
help the Crusaders. : clan [see 851-860). Not only did
The Gempei Wars : he act as prime minister, but he
(1180-85) in Japan : also married his daughters to the
: imperial family, enabling him to
place his infant grandson on the
Pope Alexander III : throne as emperor in 1180. But
This 14th-century : his excessive lust for power and
fresco shows : perceived corruption alienated his
Pope Alexander I// provincial supporters, and in the
presenting a sword : same year there was an uprising
to the Venetian Doge
- by the Minamoto clan against
for use against the
emperor, Frederick : Taira rule, which grew into the
Barbarossa. : five-year-long Gempei Wars.
 < ee aay es ae 7%, owe Ce “ a
eS
The Horns of Hattin, an extinct volcano crowned with two rocky outcrops, King Richard | of England, also known as Richard the Lionheart, is shown
was the site of the Battle of Hattin in 1187. _ leading Crusaders into battle.

ON 4TH JULY 1187, THE CRUSADER j 200 Templars and Hospitallers horns made of
:
gilded wood |
| THE THIRD CRUSADE was : CRUSADER ARMOUR
ARMY WAS DEFEATED by the : were executed, while Saladin

— 2'7KG cranwoun
_ hampered by infighting among
forces of Saladin. The Crusader personally beheaded Reynald. Ses
the European factions of the
forces were led by the new king of : King Guy was later released, Crusaders of Outremer,
Jerusalem, Guy of Lusignan, who © but, with his army annihilated, and although Richard the 1 . bk THE WEIGHT
had seized power on the death : itwas easy for Saladin to cow Lionheart won most of his OF A SWORD

0.4kg
of the infant Baldwin V in 1186. : many of the remaining battles, he was unable to THE WEIGHT
Baldwin's regents had negotiated : Crusader strongholds into achieve his sworn aim of OF A MACE
another truce with Saladin, but : surrender. He took Acre in July “liberating” Jerusalem. The
: and Jerusalem in October. Tyre, Crusade had already got off to a : and hold the holy city. With
Antioch, Tripoli, and a few castles bad start (see 1186-90], and there : continued infighting among the
: were all that remained of the | were further delays en route : Crusader barons, the murder
: Crusader kingdoms. | when, in 1191, Richard stopped to : of Conrad of Montferrat by
The Crusader kingdom of | conquer Byzantine Cyprus. He : Assassins (see 1081-90)
: Outremer had been pleading for sold the island to the Templars, : soon after being made king,
: European assistance for years _ who would later pass it on to the : reinforcements arriving for
: and the fall of Jerusalem in | diminished Crusader kingdoms, : Saladin, and bad news from

3:2
Battle of Hattin
: 1187 finally prompted Pope where it became one of the main : England - where his brother John
Saladin’s troops
bs outnumbered the
: Gregory VIII to preach a new supports for continuing Christian : was scheming to seize the crown
Crusaders by 30,000 to 20,000, yet ; Crusade. The dispatch of presence in the Holy Land. : - Richard was forced to conclude
| his success was owed to his tactics Anglo-French forces was On finally arriving in Palestine, : apeace treaty with Saladin in
and the Christians’ desperate thirst. : delayed by disputes between § Richard joined Philip
IlofFrance 1192. Outremer would henceforth
: Henry II of England and Philip in the siege of Acre, which : be confined to a 145km (90 mile)
once again, Reynald of Chatillon : Il of France, and then by the was actually a double siege : coastal strip, from Tyre to Jaffa,
had broken it, raiding a caravan of : death of Henry and the — King Guy had laid siege to : along with Antioch and Tripoli.
pilgrims and provoking Saladin : accession of Richard | in the city on his release from : In 1192, Minamoto Yoritomo
into a final campaign to sweep the : 1189. Richard | and Philip II captivity (see 1186-90], but : (see 1181-85) awarded himself
Holy Land clear of the Christian : finally set out in late 1190. Saladin had then encircled © the title Seii tai-shogun
principalities. Goaded by Reynald, : Frederick Barbarossa had his forces. Acre was taken : (“barbarian-subduing great
King Guy led a combined force : already set out overland in by the Crusaders in July : general’). Since the end of the
of Crusader knights, Templars, 1189, but was drowned en and much of the population : Gempei Wars, Yoritomo had
Hospitallers, and English route the following year. was massacred. Philip II : dispatched all challengers,
mercenaries (see 1116-20) across returned to France, but : including his brother Yoshitsune.
_ a waterless plateau in the blazing metal plated Richard | had sworn to : As undisputed military dictator,
gloves or tekko
heat to take up a position on liberate Jerusalem, and : his bakufu, or administration, at
the Horns of Haittin, an extinct marched along the coast, : Kamakura now supplanted the
volcano. Between them and Lake skirts split for ease retaking towns and defeating : imperial court. Japan would be
of movement
Tiberias — the main source of Saladin at Arsuf in September. : ruled by shoguns - military
| fresh water for the thirst-crazed Although he would go on to : dictators - for centuries to come.
knights — lay the well-rested and Samurai armour clear Muslim forces from : In 1192, the Ghurids of Persia
This beautifully presented
provisioned army of Saladin. the rest of the coastal strip, defeated a Hindu rebellion at the
Japanese armour dates from
Using raiding tactics, Saladin the 19th century, though the and camp within sight of Battle of Taraori near Thanesar in
drove the Crusaders into : first samurai warriors fought Jerusalem, Richard : India. The following year, Delhi was
desperate confusion, surrounding : with similar armour in the realized he did not have : taken and Muhammad of Ghur
and capturing them all. More than : 12th century. the forces needed to take : founded the Sultanate of Delhi.
 “Genghis Khan, battling ~~ Peterhouse college, Cambridge was
A Persian painting ) s Temujir ater known,
founded 75 years after the university.
Tartars. The Tartar tribes fought consta lywith he Mongols.

: Constantinople, where relations : avenged the destruction of the BY 1206, TEMUJIN HAD UNITED
POPE INNOCENT IIIl HAD
' with the Byzantines quickly : capital by deposing the Champa | ALL THE TRIBES OF MONGOLIA into
PROCLAIMED A NEW CRUSADE in
1199, intent on restoring papal : soured; the city was taken for the : king in 1191, suppressed a revolt | the Khamag Mongol Ulus “the All
supervision to the crusading © first time in its history, and was ' in the west, restored Angkor, and | Mongol State”, reorganizing tribal
movement, and hoping to reunite : brutally sacked. A new Latin finally gained ascendancy over the society into an army grouped ona
the Greek and Latin churches to : Empire of the East was ! Champa kingdom. Jayavarman decimal system. At the Mongolian
fulfil his vision of a single : proclaimed under a new emperor, :; made Mahayana Buddhism the | capital of Karakorum, he took the
Christian dominion under the : Baldwin of Flanders, while Venice : state religion and taxed the | title Chinggis Khan or “ruler of the
papacy. In 1201, envoys met © was awarded nearly half the city, : resources of the kingdom to build | world”. The name is now most
Enrico Dandolo, Doge of Venice, to | numerous Mediterranean islands, : great temples, as well as hospitals, commenly spelled, “Genghis”.
arrange passage to Egypt for the : and other territories. Although the ! shrines, roads, and bridges. One | In 1208, Pope Innocent Ill
Fourth Crusade. Under the : Byzantine emperors relocated to : of his temples, Preah Khan, was proclaimed a crusade against
Peace of Venice {see 1176-80], : Byzantine Nicaea, the Fourth : served by 98,000 retainers. heretics in the south of France -
the Venetians agreed to transport : Crusade marked the end of the In around 1200, the Chimt& state, the Albigensians (Cathars based
33,500 men and 4,500 horses for a i Byzantine Empire as a true power, : centred on their capital at Chan ' around Albi) and Waldenses (see
payment of 85,000 marks. In : which discredited the Crusading : Chan in the Moche valley in Peru, | 1171-75).
Their teachings
addition, they would supply 50 war: movement and helped the Turks. : began to expand. Their power challenged the worldliness of the
galleys in return for half of the In the late 12th century, the _ rested on their mastery of | established church, while their
Crusaders’ conquests. : Mongolian and Turkic nomads of | intensive agriculture techniques anticlericalism attracted nobles
: Jayavarman VII
When the Crusaders gathered in : the steppes were fearsome but : and elaborate irrigation. At Chan keen to appropriate church lands;
: This bronze statue of King
Venice in 1202, it transpired there : disunited. Temujin (c.1162-1227), : Jayavarman VII, in Mahayana : Chan, Chimu leaders built _ the Cathars, for instance, were
were too few of them, and they : who later became known as : Buddhist style, portrays a serene : citadels, or palaces, high-walled ' under the protection of Raymond
could not pay the agreed bill. : Genghis Khan, was a minor : and contemplative king. : buildings with audience chambers of Toulouse, who ruled much of
Instead, they agreed to help : leader who became a nokhor : and storage depots. It is believed southern France. The pope's
Venice by taking Zara in Dalmatia : (companion) to Toghril, Khan of : neighbouring Tartar tribes in : that each new Chimu ruler was | declaration gave license for the
-a rich source of wood for : the Kereits, the dominant tribe in : 1202, but inciting resentment : obliged to build and fund his own French king, Philip II (1165-1223],
Venetian galleys. Pope Innocent : Central Mongolia. Through ability : among other Kereits so that in : citadel, which drove the expansion | to allow his northern lords to
protested, but worse was to come. and charisma, he rose to become : 1203 he clashed with Toghril : of the empire. | wreak havoc in areas outside of
In 1204, the Crusaders arrived in : a great general, crushing the : himself. He emerged from this In 1202, the mathematician
: confrontation as the dominant :; Leonardo of Pisa, better known as
: leader among the Mongol tribes. : Fibonacci (c.1177-1250)}, | 44 KILL THEM
Jayavarman VII (c.1125-1220) : produced the most influential
ALL, GOD
| WILL KNOW
had returned from exile to claim ' book in European mathematics to
i the Khmer crown in 1181. He date, the Liber Abaci, or Book of
: Calculation. Based on Arabic
» mathematics, it introduced
HIS OWN. 99
KEY
plee
: Europe to Hindu numerals (0-9) Abbot Arnaud Amaury, on the
—» Campaigns of Genghis
Teebiean
Khan 1206-1227 : and to the word zephirum, a Albigensian Crusade
Kaifeng : Latinized version of an Arabic
/ Empire of Genghis
® Ningbo
Khan 1227 word that, in the Venetian
— Silk road : dialect, became
Arabian © zero in algebra,
Map of Genghis Khan’s empire
r Temujin would go on to unite the Mongol : addition, and
tribes and conquer a huge empire. His : the Fibonacci
successors would extend it still further. : Sequence.
 46 [AMTHE
| PUNISHMENT

This 19th-century oil painting depicts the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, — Adetail from the south gate of the
said to have been the decisive battle of the Reconquista. _ | -great Khmer city of Angkor Thom.

| PETER Il OF ARAGON (1178-1213) ; lawwhen it suited him. The barons | | DOMINGO DE GUZMAN, A CASTILIAN
AND ALFONSO VIII OF CASTILE : revolted and after a brief civil war, | CLERIC DIED IN 1221. In 1203, he
(1155-1214) defeated the : John was forced to sign the Articles had gone to Rome to ask
Almohads (see 1146-50) at the » of the Barons, known in history as | permission to do missionary work
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in : the Great Charter or Magna Carta. | with the Tartars (see 1201-10), but
| 1212. Alfonso had earlier been : Although this mainly concerned the j | was sent to France to preach to
| crushingly defeated by the ! rights of barons, in stating that the | the Cathars of Languedoc
' Almohads in 1195 but had fought é king was not above the law, it was ' instead. By adopting absolute
off invasions by the other Christian an important milestone for human poverty, he was able to challenge

|THE HEIGHT OF
Spanish kingdoms and rebuilt his : rights. King John immediately the Cathars and make some
army. After this decisive victory, the : disowned the charter and war headway, although ultimately his
Almohads were soon expelled from
- | Spain, leaving only local Muslim
:
3 clauses 4 surviving |THE WALLS OF failure to “correct” the heretics led
to the Albigensian Crusade (see
Although only 200 Cathars | dynasties that could not stand up to : stillin use copies
|ANGKOR THOM | 1206-10). However, like Francis of
lived in the town of Beziers in | the Christian advance. Accordingly, Assisi (see 1226-30), he had
Languedoc, Crusaders this battle is traditionally said to be created a new kind of monastic
massacred the entire a decisive point in the Christian JAYAVARMAN VII DIED IN AROUND order - the Dominicans - adapted
population in 1209. Asked reconquest or reconquista” of 1220, having seen his greatest to the new urban culture. The
how the attackers should | Moorish Spain {see 1241-45}. creation take shape. At Angkor, in _ Dominicans and Franciscans
distinguish between Having lost most of his lands in modern-day Cambodia he had were mendicant friars, mainly
Catholics and heretics, | France, King John of England CLAUSES ORIGINALCOPIES | created a new city, Angkor Thom, recruited from the middle classes,
crusade leader Abbot (1166-1216) joined in alliance with centred on the great state temple _ living off charity rather than
Amaury is reputed to have Emperor Otto IV (1178-1215) and : The Magna Carta =
of Bayon. The temple comprises farming, and devoted to preaching
: Of the 63 clauses contained in the
given his famous order to | others, but they were crushed at towers decorated with huge, and charity in towns and cities.
: original Magna Carta, only three
“kill them all”. In its pursuit | the Battle of Bouvines in Flanders : survive as laws today. Numerous sculpted faces; the identities of A largely ineffective affair, the
of Cathars, the papacy would | in 1214 by Philip Il of France and : copies were made, to be distributed these are disputed, although they | Fifth Crusade was the fruit of
eventually create the | the rival German emperor, : around England; four survive. may include Jayavarman himself. | Pope Innocent's determination to
Inquisition [see 1231-35). | Frederick Il. This ended Anglo- Having conquered most of ' reboot the Crusading movement.
/ Norman hopes of regaining French : broke out once more, this time with Central Asia and northern China, Targeting Egypt, the Crusaders
territories. King John’s barons : added French involvement. Genghis Khan’s empire (see » took that but then lost Damietta,
© his control, preparing the way for were forced to concentrate on : Retreating from a French invasion 1201-05) now bordered the and failed to account for the Nile
“an expansion of royal power. | England, where they had cause for © force in 1216, the king lost his _ Khwarazm Empire of Persia. floods, which foiled their advance
© |n 1209, Cambridge University | discontent. Thanks to a dispute : baggage train - and royal treasure _ on Cairo. They high-handedly
: was founded by scholars who had | with the pope, the king had been » = while crossing the Wash in | rejected a treaty offered by the
| Mongolian dagger
: relocated from Oxford. By 1226, "briefly excommunicated. More : Lincolnshire, England, and died The Mongolians had a deservedly sultan that would have given them
: they had aquired some formal importantly, he was taxing the soon after. His infant son, Henry Ill fearsome reputation. After archers Jerusalem, and left Egypt in 1221
© organization. barons heavily and invalidating the : (1207-72) came to the throne. had decimated the enemy, fighters having accomplished nothing.
with hand weapons would close in.

a
pe es ee
This 13th-century painting by Giotto di Bonodore | This 14th-century image shows Pope Steppe landscape; little changed
shows St Francis of Assisi preaching to the birds. Gregory IX receiving a list of heretics. since the days of the Mongol Empire.

| IN 1231, POPE GREGORY IX _ ON HIS DEATH, GENGHIS KHAN had

' established the Papal Inquisition, | informally divided his empire
a campaign by the church against between four of his sons. Given
heresy. Prior to 1231, the authority over the west, Batu
| investigation of heresy had been | Khan (c.1207-55) established the
THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE the responsibility of bishops but it Kipchak Khanate, also known as
| now became the preserve of
KILLED DURING THE specialist inquisitors, mostly
the Golden Horde Khanate. In
the winter of 1237, when the

ALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE drawn from the Dominican and

| Franciscan orders (see 1221-25).
frozen rivers allowed his cavalry
| to cross, Batu invaded Russia.
| In 1233, the Dominicans were Over the next four years, his
THE RENEWAL OF THE : was followed eventually by the : ) charged with bringing the | armies conquered the Russian
ALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE (see : submission of Raymond Vil, Count. : | Inquisition to Languedoc in | principalities and blazed a trail of
: Crusader coin
1206-10) in 1226 was in spite of of Toulouse - the Cathars’
: Arare Crusader coin from the France, where the Cathar heresy | destruction deep into Central
the Pope declaring an “official” : protector. Under the Treaty of : Kingdom of Jerusalem illustrates clung on despite the military Europe. Under the overlordship of
end to the Crusade at the Fourth : Meaux (also known as the Peace : the effects of intermingling policy: | defeat of the Count of Toulouse | Ogodei (see 1231-35], the
Lateran Council of 1215. In reality, : of Paris) of 1229, the town of i the inscription is written in Arabic. _ (see 1226-30). | expanding reach of the Mongol
the battle for the south of France : Toulouse was ceded to the Mongolian expansion | Empire had important
descended into vicious guerrilla : Capetian dynasty - the ruling Meanwhile, Emperor Frederick II _ continued, though Genghis Khan implications for pan-Eurasian
warfare. Renewal of the Crusade : house of France from 987 to 1328. of Germany realized that peace (see 1201-05) had died in 1227 trade. The Pax Mongolica or
_ = with the Muslims was better than while suppressing a rebellion in | “Mongol Peace” achieved in the
=. unwinnable military adventures. Xia Xia in China. He was ' lands under Mongolian control
: In 1229, he concluded a treaty succeeded by his second son, made the perilous passage
: with the sultan of Egypt that Ogodei (c.1186-1241]}, who was across Central Asia and the silk
: restored Jerusalem and some still more ambitious. Ogodei sent | road increasingly viable, enabling
£ surrounding land to the Christians. | armies to the east and west, _ the first direct contact between
: The Sixth Crusade thus passed leading the final assault on the Europeans and the Chinese
H without bloodshed, although | Chinese Jin Empire (see 1126- since Roman times in
' Frederick was roundly condemned 30), which was conquered by | around 1240.
| for this achievment. 1234. The Southern Song had By 1236, the Teutonic Knights
A former soldier, Francis of aided the Mongol advance, but la military order formed in 1198
|. Assisi had founded the _ when they tried to seize Kaifeng in | by German merchants serving at
: Franciscan order in 1209 (see northern China in 1235, the the Hospital of St Mary of the
§ = 1221-25}. In 1224, he received the | Mongols turned on them. | Teutons in Jerusalem - had
: stigmata (the wounds of Christ), In 1235, Sundiata, king of the _ completed the subjugation of the
| . and he was canonized just two | Keita, a Mande people from | Pomeranians, a pagan tribe in
: years after his death in 1226. sub-Saharan Mali, defeated the Prussia. Under their grand
Susu king Sumnaguru at the | master, Hermann von Salza
Battle of Kirina. The Susu had , (c.1179-1239], the knights
_ destroyed the old Ghana Empire | established numerous
Cathar stronghold
(c.830-1235), and Sundiata now | strongholds, and in 1237, they
The Cathar castle of Peyrepertuse in built a new Mande empire on the merged with the Livonian
the Pyrenees was located ina ruins of Ghana. | Brothers of the Sword and
strategic defensive position on the advanced into Livonia (present-
French-Spanish border. day Estonia and Latvia).
 In this 16th-century painting, Ferdi nand Ill, King of Castile and Lon, accepts
fought on the frozen waters of Lake Peipus, Novgorod. | the surrender of the city of Seville from the Moors in 1248.

IN 1241, THE GERMAN TRADING : Medieval trade | IN 1247, FERDINAND III OF CASTILE : a crusade in 1239, but it was so
TOWNS OF LUBECK AND HAMBURG : A manuscript AND LEON (c.1199-1252) laid siege = unsuccessful that it is not usually
formed an alliance to protect the : illumination ofthe port to the Moorish city of Seville. It fell: recognized as an ordinate
Baltic trade routes. This was the : of Hamburg, a founder ) to him in 1248, and with it the last : crusade; Louis’ crusade of 1248
: member ofthe
| first act in the formation of the Moorish kingdom in Spain - with ' is accounted the Seventh, the
: Hanseatic League,
| Hanseatic League [from the : which had its roots in | the exception of Granada. Here, » last Crusade of this magnitude
medieval Latin hansa, meaning : analliance of 1241 | Mohammad ibn-Yusuf ibn Nasr : ever undertaken. Louis landed in
a group or association). Lubeck : with Lubeck. had established the Nasrid : Egypt and took Damietta without
quickly became the centre of dynasty in 1230. By 1238, the opposition, but in 1250 his army
expanding German trade in the _ | Nasrids had begun to reconstruct was destroyed by the Egyptians
Baltic region, which extended : to extend their an old fortress, the Alhambra, : at Fariskur and he was taken
along the Russian rivers as far © Livonian territories which would become one of the captive. His mother, Blanche of
| as Novgorod, and linked to the : eastward and launch wonders of world architecture by : Castile, raised a large ransom to
European trading centres of : the conversion of the the mid-14th century (see : buy his freedom.
| England and Flanders. Russians from the 1350-55). In 1246, the emir of The Mamluks (or Mamelukes)
In 1242, the efforts of the : Greek
to the Roman Granada agreed to become : of Egypt were slave soldiers
Teutonic Knights (see 1236-40) : church were checked Ferdinand’s vassal, but the last : captured from Turkic and
: by defeat at the relic of Moorish al-Andalus would ! Circassian tribes (of the Pontic-
: Battle of Lake | resist Christian pressure until : Caspian steppes], who formed
: Peipus. Led by | 1492 (see 1490-92). the main component of the
f : Alexander Nevski, Louis IX of France (1214-70) : Ayyubid army. Eventually they
: prince of Novgorod, was much respected throughout : became strong enough to take
: the Russians | Europe and had a reputation : power for themselves,
: checked the knights’ progress and : traditional, Batu withdrew his | for justice. Under his reign, royal : murdering Turan Shah, the last
: Lake Peipus thereafter served as : forces back to Karakorum, the ' control was extended to the : Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, in 1250.
: the eastern limit of Livonia. : Mongol capital, for the election | Mediterranean, and the previously : At first the Mamluk commander
In a series of stunning victories : of anew leader. Elsewhere, | autonomous realms of Languedoc : Izz-ad-Din Aybak used the
4 in Eastern and Central Europe, Mongol forces had penetrated | and Provence would become part : sultan’s widow as a puppet ruler,
the Mongol armies destroyed all : the Indian subcontinent, sacking of French Capetian territories. In : but he soon married her and
opposition. Early in 1241, an army : Lahore in 1241. 1244, Louis “took the cross”, : founded the Mamluk dynasty,
of horsemen crossed the frozen In 1244, Jerusalem, which | embarking on a crusade in 1248. © the first slave dynasty to hold
The notion of the Reconquista © River Vistula into Poland, sacking had been under partial Christian | Theobald of Navarre had launched : power in its own name.
_ -the Christian reconquest of Kracow and defeating an alliance control since Frederick II's treaty
Islamic Spain - as a single, : of Poles, Silesians, and Teutonic with the sultan of Egypt {see | THE CRUSADES
continuous project, is a myth, : Knights at Leignitz in April. Just : 1226-30), was lost to medieval
first created by clerical : three days later, another force : Christians for the final time. The FIRST CRUSADE
propagandists in the 14th : under Batu (see 1236-40) : Egyptian sultan, Ayyub, was
SECOND CRUSADE
' century. In practice, the : overwhelmed
the Hungarian army : engaged in a contest with the
advance of the Christian © in their camp at Mohi. By : Syrian branch of the Ayyubids THIRD CRUSADE
kingdoms was by degrees, |: December, Batu was destroying : (see 1171-75) at Damascus,
: Pest, the largest city in Hungary. : which had allied itself with the FOURTH CRUSADE
driven by the need for land,
and facilitated by Muslim : The Mongols had reached the : Christian Crusader kingdoms. FIFTH CRUSADE
dissention and advances in : gates of Vienna when, in 1242, the : In 1244, Ayyub’s forces overran
: Jerusalem and expelled the
SIXTH CRUSADE
military technology. : news reached them that Ogodei,
"| the Great Khan, had died. As was Christians. SEVENTH CRUSADE
as the one shown could express simple concepts. al-Din, a Muslim minister in the service ofthe Il-Khanate.

BY THE MID-13TH CENTURY, THE : In 1253, Hulagu led a huge army HULAGU KHAN (SEE 1251-1255)
MEXICAN TRIBE - better known » into Western Asia to conquer the _ CONTINUED HIS CAMPAIGN
today as the Aztecs — were : Great Seljuk sultanate (see _ AGAINST THE SELJUKS and other
established in the Valley of : 1031-40}, while Kublai launched Islamic powers. In 1256, he The grandson of Genghis Khan,
Mexico. Aztec legend suggests ; Campaigns against the Southern | crushed the Order of the Kublai spent eight years
that they migrated from the : Song and the Kingdom of _ Assassins [see 1081-90), taking campaigning in southern China
ancestral homeland of Aztlan in : Nanchaoin China. _ their stronghold at Alamut in before succeeding his brother
the early 12th century. Settling at Persia. In 1258, he sacked Mongke as Great Khan in 1260.
Chapultepec, near Lake Texcoco, Baghdad and executed the His own kingdom, the Great
Mexico, in around 1250, they were Abbasid Caliph - the figurehead Khanate, encompassed
soon expelled by the Tepanecs, of Islam — in just one of countless Mongolia and China, where he
one of the tribal confederations atrocities committed by Mongol founded the Yuan dynasty,
competing for dominance in the invaders who massacred moved the capital to Shangdu,
wake of the Toltec collapse in the hundreds of thousands of and did much to foster trade
early 12th century. Muslims during their campaigns. and international links.
Although the Mongols had In 1259, Hulagu penetrated deep
conquered most of the Russian into Syria, but as with Batu’s
principalities (see 1236-40), and | campaign in Europe 18 years : regain his Syrian conquests and : formally made sultans of Egypt,
the Golden Horde Khanate had _ earlier [see 1241-45], his ; the westward expansion of the : Syria, and the Levant.
claimed authority over Russia, progress was halted by news of : Mongol Empire was halted. Alfonso X of Castile (r.1252-1284)
surprisingly little changed for the death of the Great Khan, : Hulagu’s conquests, which : won the nickname “the Wise”
the Russians. In return for and he withdrew his armies : encompassed Iran, Iraq, most of : thanks to his learning, patronage of
tribute and military service, while he returned to the : Anatolia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and : the arts and Castilian literature,
the Russian princes were left Mongolian capital to help : Georgia, became the Il-Khanate, : sponsorship of natural philosophy,
in power and the Russian select a new leader. : or Ilkhanate. Meanwhile, the : and judicial reforms. He oversaw
Church was not interfered Taking advantage of Hulagu’s Mamluks gave refuge to a fugitive » the final expulsion of the
with. Alexander Nevski withdrawal, the Mamluk : Abbasid prince, setting him up in : Almohads (see 1121-25) from
(c.1220-63}, the prince of general al-Zahir Baybars : Cairo as the new caliph. | Spain in 1257.
Novgorod who had led the marched north and struck at : Recognized as guardians of the
Russians to victory against the the Mongol garrisons in : Islamic faith, the Mamluks were
Teutonic Knights in 1242, Syria. At the Battle of
became the dominant Russian Ayn Jalut in Palestine,
noble, appointed Grand Duke of
Vladimir after his brother was
General Baybars
defeated the ‘44 HAD I BEEN PRESENT
driven out by the Mongols. Mongols and
AT THE CREATION, I
pacsinemtsveo. WOULD HAVE GIVEN
Under the support of the new expelled them from
Great Khan, Mongke [r.1251-59], Palestine and Syria.

‘SOME USEFUL HINTS FOR

his brothers Kublai and Hulagu
renewed the Mongol expansion. he murdered the

Prince of Novgorod ‘THE BETTER ORDERING

sultan and took his
place. Distracted by
This statue depicts Russian leader,
Alexander Nevski, whose name
derives from the Russian victory at
OF THE UNIVERSE. 99
dynastic struggles, and
later by a protracted
inter-khanate war,
the Battle of the River Neva. Hulagu was not able to Alfonso X, the Wise, on the Ptolemaic system
 “as —— z

This example of Mamluk architecture from the height of the sultanate adorns Geneta Mariam church in Ethiopia, Former stronghold of the Knights Hospitaller, Krak des Chevaliers or “fortress
the entrance to the mausoleum of Qalawun in Cairo, Egypt. built during the Solomonid era. | of the knights” in Syria was taken by theMamluks and fortified further.

ITALIAN NOBLEMAN AND LATER : Paleologus would campaign

DOMINICAN MONK, THOMAS : tirelessly to restore lost
AQUINAS (1225-74) became one of : Byzantine lands.
the most important philosophers The Second Baron's War in
in the history of Western thought. : England between 1264 and 1267
Renowned for his work in uniting : was brought about by a
faith and reason, Aquinas's ! combination of newly kindled
period of greatest productivity : national consciousness and
“$ Quanzhou
occurred between 1258 and 1273, : resentment at foreign gangzhou

when he penned his two best- : interference. Henry III of England Arabian {,~
| Cost of paper versus parchment Sea South
known works, the Summa contra : (r.1216-72] had introduced many | After paper-making technology was
China
Sea
Gentiles and the Summa ! foreign officers into government | introduced to Italy, the cost of
Theologiae. : and taxed the English heavily to || vegetable-based paper fell to 1/6 of INDIAN OCEAN
In 1261, Michael VIII Paleologus : fund overseas adventures and | the cost of animal-based parchment. | Travels of Marco Polo KEY
(r.1259-61], the Byzantine papal extortion. Rebels led by ' To reach China, Marco Polo travelled through —»—»—> Route of Marco
emperor of Nicaea, concluded the : Simon de Montfort, Ear! of THE SOLOMONID DYNASTY IN Anatolia, Iran, and Afghanistan. On his return, Polo 1271-1295
Treaty of Nymphaeum with the Leicester, captured the king at | ETHOPIA was founded in 1270 by he sailed to Hormuz in Persia via Sumatra. — Silk road
| Genoese, agreeing to cede them ? Lewes in 1265 and summoned the | Yekuno Amlak, displacing the
' all the trading privileges once : first European parliament that | previous Zagwe dynasty, and | IN 1271,THE VENETIAN MERCHANT : Holy Land, having forced the
enjoyed by the Venetians (see : included elected representatives. , claiming to have restored the | AND EXPLORER, MARCO POLO : Mamluks to conclude a 10-year
) 981-990). He had already secured Meanwhile, the Mamluks began legitimate line of the ancient ' (c. 1254-1324], travelled to China. : truce in his attempts to destroy
| an alliance with the Bulgarians, a push to rid the Holy Land of the ) Christian kings of Aksum. Amlak Arriving at Kublai Khan's court in : Acre, one of the last remaining
and was now poised to achieve his : Crusader kingdoms once and claimed descent from the biblical 1275, the Great Khan employed : Crusader footholds in Outremer.
dream of re-taking Constantinople : for all. Solomon, via the possibly _ Marco Polo in various capacities. : The Mamluks had already taken
| from the Latin Empire | Ethiopian Queen of Sheba. | In 1292, he escorted a Mongol : the apparently impregnable Krak
| (Constantinople and environs, The town of Fabriano in Italy lies | princess to Persia, returning to : des Chevaliers from the Knights
| captured from the Byzantines | close to the Adriatic port of Ancona, | Italy three years later and writing : Hospitallerin 1271.
| during the fourth crusade], ) which was notable in the 13th ' a travel memoir while a prisoner
} and reconstituting the century for trade with the Muslim of the Genoese. Polo’s memoir,
Byzantine Greek Empire. In _ | world. This is probably how paper . The Travels - known by Italians as
July 1261, a Byzantine army | manufacture became established i Il Milione, because of the belief
| took advantage of the there in the 1270s. Use of animal that it contains a million lies
absence of the Venetian fleet gelatin in place of more degradable - is a fascinating portrait of the
| to cross the Bosporus strait | vegetable gel made Fabriano | Mongolian Empire at its height.
and take Constantinople. The
Latin emperor, Baldwin II
paper more durable, and the town
| became the principal paper
The Pax Mongolica (see 1236-40)
allowed freedom of movement
‘PER CENT
fled, and the Paleologus
ene
| manufacturing siteinEurope. through lands under the authority THE WORLD
| of Il-khanate, and it was said that
| Empire was established. In 1270, Louis IX of France made
| another attempt at crusading, but | avirgin with a pot of gold on her LAND AREA
| onthe request of Charles of Anjou, | head could pass unmolested from COVERED BY
Thomas Aquinas 280
Geskolaén.
| the Eighth Crusade was diverted to
Tunis where disease killed Louis
Constantinople (modern-day
Istanbul) to Beijing. THE MONGOL
This 15th-century altarpiece
depicts Thomas Aquinas,
) and his army. In 1272, Edward Plantagenet
| (1272-1307), heir apparent
tothe
EMPIRE AT ITS
| whose philosophy still
underpins Catholic dogma. English throne, returned from the » HEIGHT
 | Guglielmo Berardi da Narbona was
the temple was destroyed by Muslim invaders and later rebuilt. | killed at the Battle of Campaldino.

IN SOUTHERN INDIA, KING : greatness of the Pandya court was : New Zealand around 1280, | IN THE 1280S, A TRIBE OF
KULASEKHARAI (r.1268-1308) attested to by Venetian merchant, : dividing the territory between TURKOMAN NOMADIC HORSEMEN
expanded the empire of the : Marco Polo, who would pass : hapu (clans). Hapu that traced a and raiders based in northwestern
Pandyas to its greatest extent. © through in 1293, but the empire : common ancestry formed iwi : Maori culture is noted for its Anatolia, known as the Ottomans,
The Pandyas were an ancient : was short-lived, breaking up in : (tribes), some of which could trace = tradition of arts and crafts; | elected Osman (1258-1354) as
Tamil people of the far south, who the early 14th century due to family : their lineage back toasinglewaka_ - chief among these is Te Toi | their chieftain. At this time, the
contended for supremacy over the : quarrels and Muslim invasions. : houra (ocean-going canoe). Whakairo {carving}. Master | political map of Anatolia was
centuries with neighbouring By the late 13th century, the Having conquered Korea and craftsmen were believed to fractured: the Mongol onslaught
kingdoms such as the Cholas and _ Maori had settled in New Zealand © most of China, Kublai Khan channel the voices had broken up Seljuk Rum and
the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). : -with the exception of Antarctica, : (1215-94) set his sights on of the spirits and | replaced it with many small
Under Sundara (r.1251-68] the © the last land mass to be colonized : Japan, sending embassies ancestors, and | principalities, while also driving
Pandya empire had expanded : by humans. Dating the Maori : demanding submission as early intricately carved | waves of Muslim refugees into the
dramatically and reduced some colonization is contentious. * as 1268. Under the bold posts and lintels region. Meanwhile, the Byzantine
neighbouring states to vassalage. According to estimates based on : leadership of the Hojo regency, adorning _ Empire had been successively
His son Kulasekhara went on to : Maori traditions, the first : the Japanese refused to be structures reduced and broken up by Seljuk
conquer Kerala, Kongu, and : Polynesians visited the islands in : cowed. After a failed invasion around the | and Latin encroachment. Osman
Ceylon, and in 1279 he defeated : the early 10th century, and waves : attempt in 1274, Kublai sent marae (sacred was able to lead his tribe in a
the last Chola king, Rajendra III, : of colonization climaxed with the : 150,000 men in two huge space] and waka | territorial expansion, rapidly
and annexed his territories. The : arrival of the Great Fleet of : fleets in 1281, but the (canoes) were _ conquering Byzantine territory.
/ ocean-going canoes in 1350. : Japanese held off the invading believed to Florence, like many other Italian
Divine wind Archaeological findings tell a armada until a great typhoon, accumulate and | cities, had developed into a largely
An engraving shows the destruction : slightly different story. However, it known in Japan as the pass on mana ' autonomous republic or
of the Mongol fleet by the kamikaze : seems likely that Polynesians, ; kamikaze (“divine wind’), (spiritual power]. commune. It was typically easier
(“divine wind") in 1281. : probably from Tahiti, arrived in : devastated the Mongol fleet. | for the German emperors - the

NN \ \ | notional feudal overlords - to grant

| cities powers of self-government
_ than try to control them directly.
| Since the mid-13th century,
Florence had see-sawed violently
between Guelph and Ghibelline
regimes (see 1221-25]. This
Guelph-Ghibelline conflict had
gripped the Italian city-states,
providing a vehicle for the
expression of local class tensions
"as well as national and
_ international politics. When one
faction gained the upper hand ina
S| city, the other was typically
expelled. In the 1280s, the
. | Guelphs had the upper hand, and
_ Guelph partisans exiled from
Arezzo encouraged them to take
| up arms against the rival city. The
‘ | Florentines defeated Arezzo at the
 The Bleanbe Cross at Geadmigten, Northamptonshire, rctond features an | William Wallace was outlawed for killing one of Edward’ s sheriffs in 1296.
ogee arch, marking a milestone for the English Gothic style. He was one of the first men to be hanged, drawn, and quartered.

aL
: Battle of Campaldino, heralding IN 1291, AFTER A DESPERATE THE EXTINCTION OF THE CANMORE
: the start of a period of Florentine SIX-WEEK SIEGE, the Mamluks DYNASTY, followed by dissent
: dominance in Tuscany. Among took Acre, the last major Crusader among the Scottish nobles, had
: those battling on the Florentine stronghold in Palestine, anda allowed Edward | to exercise
: side was the poet Dante Alighieri | few months later they took Beirut, i increasing dominance over the
: (see 1311-17]. ’ the last remnant of the Crusader | Scots, and in 1292 he awarded the
: The line of Slave Kings of Dethi kingdom known as Outremer crown to John Baliol. However, in
Battle of
: came to an end in 1290 with the (see 1181-85). After nearly 200 1295, Baliol made an alliance with
“4 Stirling Bridge
: seizure of power by Firuz of the years, Christian presence in the England’s enemy, France. The - Under William Wallace,
: Khalji Turks - a tribe living in Holy Land was extinguished, and | following year Edward launched a : an estimated 2,500 Scots defeated a
© Afghanistan - thus founding the the Mamluks plundered the campaign to subdue the Scots, : much larger force of English soldiers
: Khalji dynasty. Firuz is best region to deter future Crusades. | defeating them at Dunbar, and : (numbering up to 10,000)atthe
* remembered for releasing into To limit the risk of disastrous | taking the Stone of Destiny - the : Battle of Stirling Bridge.
Bengal 1,000 Thugs or Thuggees, fires, Venice moved its glass- Scottish coronation stone - back
cult followers of the goddess Kali making industry to the island of to London. In 1297, the Scottish The Genoese-Venetian naval
: devoted to murder and robbery Murano in 1291. Venetian glass nationalist William Wallace : conflict continued, with battles in
: Murano glass (c.1272-1305) led a revolt against : the Black Sea and the Greek
: in her name. makers were the only ones in
: This Murano glass vessel dates to
| Europe to master the art of | English dominance, overcoming a : islands. At the Battle of Curzola,
: around 1330. As well as increasing
producing clear glass. Their : fire safety, concentrating the glass | larger English army at Stirling in 1298, the Genoese fleet inflicted
expertise in working with glass : industry on an island helped to | Bridge, but he was defeated at : adisastrous defeat on the
had earlier born fruit in the : regulate it and guard its secrets. Falkirk in 1298 and forced into Venetians, destroying all but a few
invention of spectacles (see 1284). years of guerrilla warfare and : of their ships and killing up to
Edward | of England [r.1272- : underway. Capable of carrying overseas fundraising. : 7,000 men.
1307) had married Eleanor of : more cargo anda larger crew, the
Castile in 1254. Though : construction of the first of the great
1 ff 0 Bo
unpopular with the English, she : galleys in 1294 heralded a distinct re
0
je ie

: advantage for theVenetians. a Sper

and Edward enjoyed a happy “eDanzig
| marriage, and he was devastated
when she died in 1290. The OCEAN ~~
following year he ordered the Bay of
| erection of 12 so-called Eleanor
| crosses to mark the passage of
her funeral cortege to London. / Black Sea
The contest for mastery of the
Mediterranean between Genoa
and Venice continued, with a
Genoese fleet defeating the
_ Venetians off Laiazzo in 1294. The THE NUMBER ~~
_OF GALLEYS
Meg), Crete
) following year, Genoa put together : er.
"8Nean Sea
a huge fleet, with the aim of

: Ornate Mughal screen

landing a killer blow. However,
despite a formal challenge being
IN THE 1295
FLEET OF
i This screen from the main gateway Genoese trade routes KEY
: of the Qutb complex in Delhi was made, it was not engaged. The Genoese opened a lucrative trade route to the — Trade routes
: built by the Khalji sultan Ala-ud-din,
! murderer and successor of Firuz.
Developments in Venetian
shipbuilding, however, were GENOA | North Sea, and competed with Venice to dominate
| trade with the Byzantines and the East.
 46 LET EVIL SWIFTLY BEFALL
| THOSE WHO HAVE WRONGLY
CONDEMNED US - GOD
| WILL AVENGE US. 99
Jacques de Molay, the Grand Master of the Knights
Templar, cursing King Philip and Pope Clement V, 1314

“A ? ac
aa bar aes :

Domenico di Michelino’s painting The Comedy Illuminating Florence, depicts The torture of Jacques de Molay, Grand
Dante, the city of Florence, and scenes from the Divine Comedy. Master of the Knights Templar.

ALTHOUGH THE GHIBELLINES HAD : - including representatives of the FROM THEIR HUMBLE BEGINNINGS, : ; and the richness of their
BEEN EXPELLED FROM FLORENCE : towns and clergy - and received WHEN THEY HAD BEEN SO POOR accessories. At Hereford
(see 1286-90), factionalism still : their backing. Boniface that two knights sometimes had Cathedral a huge Mappa Mundi
plagued the city, with a drawn-out : excommunicated Philip and to share a horse, the Knights : (map of the world) was created
power struggle between the old : Philip called for the Pope to face | Templar had risen to : in around 1300 (its creation is
aristocratic nobility, the new - criminal charges. In 1303, agents dizzying heights. With the : variously dated to 1285 and 1314)
mercantile nobles, and the : acting for Philip forced their way | backing of Cistercian and used as an altarpiece; it is the
powerful guilds. The Guelph : into the papal apartments in abbot Bernard of largest mappa mundi in existence.
faction split into Black {extreme} : Anagni and arrested the Pope, ) Clairvaux (1090-1153), Such maps encapsulated the
and White (moderate) parties. : who died soon after. Facing | and subsequently the medieval world view on the eve
In 1301, the Whites expelled the : tumultuous conditions in Italy, in Pope, they had won of the Age of Discovery.
Blacks, only for them to return : 1303 the cardinals elected the | exemption from secular At the Battle of Bannockburn
when Charles, count of Valois, : archbishop of Bordeaux as Pope jurisdiction and taxation, in 1314, Robert the Bruce, king
entered the city. The following : Clement V. Although hoping to ) and thrived as donations of Scotland [r.1306-29), finally
year the Black Guelphs sentenced establish himself in Italy when of land and money poured expelled the English from Scotland.
the Whites to death or exile - ; the violence subsided, Clement | in. By the 13th century
among them the poet Dante : remained in southern France, they had become de facto
Alighieri (see panel, right). : finally settling in Avignon in 1309, | bankers to much of
In 1301, Pope Boniface VIII : then owned by the king of Naples. : Hereford Mappa Mundi
Europe, able to direct a
: The world is shown as a disc, with
(c.1235-1303) supposedly issued a : This temporary arrangement for large fleet and maintain the : Jerusalem at the centre. Trade and
bull asserting papal supremacy : the papacy would last until 1378. primary Crusader army in : pilgrimage routes are illustrated,
over France. In fact, the bull was a ' Outremer. Templar knights rose : together with places ofinterest.
forgery, put out by the French king | to prominence all over Europe,
: Palais des Papes
Philip IV the Fair (r.1285-1314] to | especially in England, where the : years around 60 Templars were
: Situated on a rocky outcrop, the
stir up animosity against the pope. : papal palace in Avignon is one of the _ Master of the Temple was the » executed. Elsewhere in Europe,
Philip “responded” by calling one : largest and most important medieval first baron of the realm. In the : some arrests were made, but
of the first Estates General : Gothic buildings in Europe. | early 13th century, then Master : there was much less appetite for
_ William Marshal ruled the : condemning the order. At the
' country as regent for the young _ Council
ofVienne (1311-12),
king Henry Ill (1207-72). However, _ Philip forced Pope Clement to
_ after the fall of Outremer, the _ dissolve the Templars, and in 1314 | Dante is the greatest Italian
a | Templars were struggling to stay ' the last Grand Master, Jacques de poet to have lived and one of
| afloat, and presented an easy : Molay, was burned at the stake. the most important writers
~) | target for their enemy, Philip IV of : Hereford, in England, was an in European literature. He is
France. Philip coveted the Templar ; Important centre for the wool best known for his epic poem |
lands and cooked up charges of : trade - one of the main sources the Divine Comedy, and for
heresy in which to indict them. On | of wealth in medieval England. his tragic love for Beatrice,
| 13 October 1307, Philip’s officials : Foreign buyers flocked to the who married another and
simultaneously arrested every : country to buy wool for export to died young. Exiled from his
Templar in France. They were : the textile industries of Flanders native Florence for political
| accused of a variety of crimes, : and Italy, and the wool trade was reasons, Dante spent much
including sexual and occult : described as “the jewelin the : of his life travelling from one
) outrages and worshipping an idol. : realm”. The wealth of places such city to another. He died in
| The use of torture obtained lurid : as Hereford was expressed inthe ; Ravenna in 1321.
confessions, and over the next few : magnificence of their cathedrals
 er

| The earliest purceean illustration of a cannon, from a book by Walter de The> gilded bronze doors on the Baptistry in Florence, sculpted and cast by sai
| Milemete, presented to the future Edward III of England in 1326. Pisano, took six years to make after he won the commission in 1329.
i

| GUNPOWDER WAS SLOWLY BUT: FLORENCE IN THE 1320S AND : Sangama dynasty in the south, : Flanders,
which triggereda
| STEADILY CHANGING THE FACE OF - 1330S WAS HOME TO ARTISTS : led to the establishment of the : revolt there against French
WARFARE. Arabs and Moors had including Giotto di Bondone : last great Hindu empire in India, : domination. In 1337, Philip VI
| probably gained knowledge of (c.1267-1337) and Andrea Pisano centred on the city of Vijayanagar. : of France declared Edward's
gunpowder from the Chinese, (c.1290-1349] - both seen as Edward II of England invested : French territories forfeit, while
using cannons in Spain as early as | forerunners of the Italian power in favourites, especially Edward claimed the French
| 1284. The Mamluks are believed Renaissance [see pp.168-69). : Piers Gaveston (murdered by : crown, triggering the start of
| to have used handguns at Ain Giotto painted naturalistic frescoes resentful barons in 1312) and the the Hundred Years War.
} Jalut, while the Mongols acquired _THE PERCENTAGE on the walls of the Basilica of : Despenser family. He also
the technology on conquering
_OF TIMBUKTU’S Santa Croce in around 1325, and : alienated his wife, Isabella of
: France, who was sent to France
Vijayanagar sculpture

POPULATION AT
| China. Europeans probably picked in 1334 was put in charge of the : Lord Hanuman, the Hindu monkey
) it up from Spain and contact with construction of the Duomo : in 1325 to arrange the marriage of © god, is shown carved on a rock
the Mongols. The first record of SANKORE | (cathedral). Greatly influenced by : their son. While there, she : surface in Vijayanagar, the heart

UNIVERSITY
cannons forged from iron comes Giotto, Pisano won a commission became the lover of Roger : of the last great Hindu empire.
from Metz in 1324; later that year to craft a set of bronze doors for : Mortimer,
and when
an English fortress in Gascony the Baptistry of Florence, they returned, in
} was bombarded for a month. passage through Cairo that he finishing them in 1336. : 1326, they leda
The Mali Empire of West Africa : destabilized the economy. On The Tughluk dynasty of the : revolt against
| reached its height under Mansa ' his return, he employed an Delhi sultanate had expanded : the king. The
Musa (r.1312-37], extending from : Andalusian architect to build a the reach of the Muslim state, : Despensers were
| the Atlantic to Nigeria, and from : new palace at Timbuktu, which reducing neighbouring Hindu : hanged, Edward
| the Sahara to the rainforest. His : became a centre for Islamic kingdoms to vassal status, and : was forced to
great wealth was based on Mali’s : scholarship. Mali was later repelling a series of Mongol : abdicate in favour
gold, and when he travelled on visited by the Moroccan scholar incursions. In 1325, Muhammad : of his teenage son,
ii
pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-25, : Ibn Battuta (c.1304-69), who first Tughluk (c.1300-51) murdered his : and Roger and
he dispensed so much gold on his : set out on his travels in 1325. | father and took the throne, quickly Isabella ruled as
establishing a reputation for : regents. Eight
Moscow @ Bulgar
e KHANATE OF THE CHAGATAI cruelty. In 1327, he transferred the : months later,
GOLDEN HORDE KHANATE capital from Delhi to Daulatabad : Edward II was
Ki New Sarai =
EUROPE - for defensive reasons, forcing the : horribly murdered.
: EMPIRE OF THE
Grampa
‘ op stent age iee 4
Se" ’
GREAT KHAN entire population to relocate. In : The regents ceded
1336, a revolt led by Harihara | : Gascony to France
Tangier, ANATE ‘Balkh ‘,
‘—Baghdad Multan Matayas
INA
Hangzhou
! and his brother Bukka of the : and acknowledged
Delhi : Robert the Bruce
© as king of an
44 THE FIRST _ independent

AFRICA | KING AFTER THE : Scotland. In 1330,

© Edward
Ill(r.1327-
Mogadishu'e. CONQUEST WHO : 77) had Mortimer
Malindi
INDIAN OCEAN
WAS NOT A MAN : hanged and began
: his own rule. Rising
| The travels of Ibn Battuta
KEY
——>—> Route of
OF BUSINESS. 99 : tension with France
: was exacerbated by
Ibn Battuta’s first journey was the Haj (pilgrimage) Ibn Battuta
1325-1345 William Stubbs, English historian, : Edward's embargo on
to Mecca. He made seven further journeys, visiting
almost every corner of the Muslim world. — Silk road describing Edward II, 1875 : wool exports to

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TheStrait of Gibraltar, where Marinid

= a
An illustration from Froissart's Chronicle, of 1346, depicts the Battle of Crecy,
forces destroyed the Castilian fleet. at which the English used mobile artillery for the first time.

THE BATTLE OF RIO SALADO IS HAVING GAINED MASTERY OF THE | THE PAPACY WAS REFORMINGITS :
CONSIDERED, BY SOME, to be the ENGLISH CHANNEL at the naval | BUREAUCRACY and improving its
defining battle of the Reconquista, battle of Sluys in 1340, Edward III | finances under the Avignon popes. |
ending forever the threat of was free to invade France. He In 1348, ClementVI(1291-1352)
Islamic incursion into the Iberian | landed in Normandy in 1346 and | bought Avignon from Joanne of
Peninsula from Africa. The Marinid ' took Caen, but retreated in the Naples and work continued on its
dynasty of Morocco, which had face of a huge French army. At | papal palace. Scholars and
overthrown the Almohads in the | bay, on the borders of the forest artists were attracted to the
mid-13th century, gathered avast | of Crecy, Edward took up a | papal city, briefly among them the
force and destroyed the Castilian | defensive position and inflicted a | Florentine Francesco Petrarch
fleet in the Strait of Gibraltar. | crushing defeat on the forces of | (1304-74), who had been crowned
The Marinids then marched inland | Philip VI. This was largely thanks | poet laureate in Rome in 1341. In
to the River Salado where they to the indiscipline and arrogance } 1351, Petrarch started to arrange
were defeated by the Christian | of the French knights and the ) his poems in sonnet form. He was :
kings Alfonso XI of Castile | effectiveness of the Welsh and | alsoa scholar, whose translation i
(r.1312-50) and Afonso IV of | English longbowmen. At the cost The effects of the Black Death | | and popularization of Classical
Portugal (r.1325-57). ' of ahandfulof casualties, the are best recorded in Europe, | literature contributed to the
English killed tens of thousands, | where it had profound h emergence of humanism, a new
including the kings of Bohemia consequences. It depopulated | schoolof philosophy
that would
and Majorca, the duke of Lorraine, the land, depressed the ' help to trigger the Renaissance.
the count of Flanders, the count of economy, checked intellectual | In 1354, the Nasrid king of
THE AMOUNT ' Blois, eight other counts, and
| three archbishops. The English
and artistic progress, changed
the social order, contributed
| Granada, Yusuf 1, was murdered
| by his son Mohammed V (1338-
IN FLORINS _ use of combined aristocratic and to the end of feudalism, and 91} who took the throne. Under

OWED BY |
yeoman forces had produced a triggered a wave of anti- | Mohammed, the Alhambra - the
| powerful new form of army. They Semitic pogroms on Jews, | fortress-palace of Granada - was
EDWARDII would go on to besiege Calais, who were blamed for the
pestilence, forcing many to
) further developed, becoming a
| treasure of Islamic architecture
migrate to Eastern Europe. The Ottomans were invited to
To finance his expensive war in
| Gallipoli, on the Dardanelles
France, Edward Ill of England
| (the straits separating Asia from
(r.1327-77) had taken out huge : which fell in 1347, after a | Europe}, by John Cantacuzenus
loans from Florentine bankers, : protracted siege. _ (c.1292-1383), claimantto the
especially the Peruzzi family. : Also in 1347, the Black Death | Byzantine throne, to help in his
When the money ran out, Edward : arrived in Europe. It is thought to ) attempt to gain power. Led by
renounced his loan in 1342. » have been carried initially by | Orhan, the Turkish dynasty soon
With the king of Naples also : Genoans returning from the | seized the peninsula, securing
defaulting on loans, the Peruzzi » Crimea, where they had been | themselves a foothold in Europe.
were bankrupted, throwing exposed to it by infected Mongols.
Florence into economic chaos. : Transmitted by fleas that were
Walter de Brienne, the mercenary ' carried by rats, the plague was
| Plague deaths
duke of Athens, was called in "spread by ship to the principal | Architectural jewel
It is estimated that up to 45 per cent
to take power in Florence but, : ports, and then to every corner of
| The Court of the Lions is at the heart
of the total population of Europe was
eventually, a mercantile | of the Alhambra palace, built by
killed by the various waves of the : Europe and Western Asia. A large | Mohammed V as the winter
oligarchy took over. Black Death plague. : proportion of the population died. residence of the royal family.
 *Ss
wer
3B
To many people, Petrarch is known
aeet Saal
This mural features Timur Leng, who rose from humble _ Constructed of brick and timber, the Bell To wer of Xi'an, was built during the
as the “father of humanism”. early Ming dynasty, in the reign of Zhu Yuanzhang, the first. Ming emperor.

BOHEMIA HAD EMERGED ASA : dissolution in 1806. The Bull | EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, HAD
POWERFUL STATE under the ' established Bohemia as first BEEN MADE PRINCE OF GASCONY
Premyslid dynasty in the 13th : among the electors and AND AQUITAINE in 1362, moving to
century. Under the Luxembourg guaranteed its independence. | Bordeaux and becoming a major

THE SPAN, IN
dynasty, it became the central : Timur Leng [1336-1405] - also | player in continental affairs. In
force in German imperial : known as Tamerlane - rose from | 1367, he intervened in a dynastic
geopolitics, while its ruler ' modest beginnings to become
' leader of a Turkic-Mongol
| dispute in Castile, where French
YEARS. OF THE
MING DYNASTY
Charles | (Charles IV as Holy ally Henry of Trastamara (1334-
Roman Emperor) sought to : Chagatai tribe in Transoxiana, 79) had deposed English ally
modernize the imperial : Central Asia, in around 1362. Pedro |, thereby placing control
institution and advance the : Despite having a limp, and the | of the Castilian navy in the
| fortunes of Bohemia. In 1348, he : fact that he was not of Chinggid | French camp. Edward defeated _ Under Murad I (r.1362-89), the
| had enlarged the kingdom by : descent (directly descended from | Henry at Najera but was forced to : Ottoman Turks extended their
| granting it territories such : Genghis Khan - only Chinggids | withdraw owing to illness. : control deep into the Balkans.
as Moravia and Silesia, and : could become khans], he was Subsequently, Henry regained the In 1371, Murad defeated an
refounded Prague to become one destined to become one of the Castilian throne. In 1372 - after : alliance of Serbs, Byzantines, and
of the foremost cities in Europe, : greatest conquerors in history. | Charles V of France [r.1364-80) : Bulgars, and held control over
with a major university. In 1356, : Edward of Woodstock, eldest son ) had fomented a Gascon much of Thrace, Macedonia,
Charles IV issued the Golden : of Edward Ill, also known as the | rebellion, restarting the Hundred ° Bulgaria, and Serbia. He also
Bull, which regularized the : Black Prince {1330-76}, had won | Years War - the Castilian navy : created the Janissaries, a
| election of the emperor toa : his spurs at the Battle of Crécy \ proved instrumental in defeating an : slave-warrior corps that became
majority vote of seven electoral : aged just 16. He went on to become English fleet at La Rochelle. : the mainstay of Ottoman armies.
princes, most of which were : one of the most effective English China was reunited by conquest
hereditary; the papacy would have : commanders. When hostilities | from the south, as a native 70,000 ~
no role. This, in turn, allowed the » renewed between England and | rebellion drove out the Mongol
electoral principalities to develop | France in 1355, he invaded | Yuan dynasty. In 1368, rebels 60,000~,
| sovereign states, and set the | France, winning a great victory under Zhu Yuanzhang 7,000 dead
constitutional basis of the Holy : near Poitiers in 1356, in which he (1328-98) - a former peasant
50,000
Roman Empire until its final : captured King John of France. turned Buddhist monk then
general - struck north from
their base in Nanjing,
Golden Bull displacing the Yuan from
| Edicts issued with
Beijing. Taking the imperial 100 dead
golden seals were
called Golden name Hongwu, Yuanzhang
TROOPS
OF
NUMBER
Bulls. That of established the Ming
Emperor Charles dynasty, setting up a strong,
IV sought to centralized, government, in
| prevent future which the position of
imperial elections emperor was strengthened,
descending into
but so was access to the English French
| conflict.
bureaucracy. In 1372, he
: Battle of Najera
passed an edict attempting : Outnumbered by almost three to
to ban maritime trade and : one, the English-Gascon army
thus limit contact with : defeated the French-Castilian forces
foreigners. : with the loss of only around 100 men.
 We f
tj ES ‘3
RGR ¥ }
A 16th-century painting captures the triumphant return of the ' An illustration from Froissart’s Chronicle depicts the Peasants’ Revolt, the first great popular
Doge to Venice after victory over the Genoese. rebellion in English history, led by Wat Tyler, who was executed by the mayor of London.

THE WAR OF CHIOGGIA, BETWEEN | THE BLACK DEATH AND : marched on London and : hundreds of Noh plays and
VENICE AND GENOA, was triggered | SUBSEQUENT
LABOUR SHORTAGES siezed the Tower, burning the : developed the highly stylized and
by the continuing contest for contributed to rising social © palace of John of Gaunt and killing © symbolic performances.
control of the trade routes tension in England. Around 1362, : Archbishop Sudbury, who was — Castilian influence in Portugal
through the Dardanelles, along h| for instance, the poor country » blamed for the poll taxes. Richard : in the 1380s threatened the
which flowed the lucrative trade | priest William Langland had : Il cleverly appeased the rebels; : Independence of the kingdom and
of the Byzantine Empire and the |i written Piers Plowman, a poem in : Tyler was executed and the revolt sparked resentment among the
Silk Road beyond it. In 1376, English sympathizing with the : was brutally suppressed. : Portuguese. An uprising
the Byzantine emperor John V , | plight of the poor peasant. Japanese Noh drama developed : triggered by a nun resulted in
Palaeologus (r.1341-76] granted , | Churchman and scholar John : in the 14th century, mainly under i Jodo [1358-1453], illegitimate son
to Venice the Aegean island of | Wycliffe (or Wiclif] had caused a : the aegis of Kanami Kiyotsugo : of Pedro |, seizing control of the
Tenedos, key to the Dardanelles. stir with writings that prefigured © (1333-84) and his son Zeami : country. In 1384, John | of Castile
Meanwhile, his son and rival Protestantism, and a popular : Motokiyo (1363-1443], who wrote : (1358-90) invaded Portugal, but
Andronicus IV [1348-85] granted Biblical egalitarian sect, known as : Jodo was elected king by the
it to Genoa. In the ensuing war, the Lollards, partially inspired Portuguese parliament and, with
the Genoans defeated the by Wycliffe, was winning English hetp, defeated
Venetians at Pola and, in 1379, widespread support. In Castile at the Battle of
seized Chioggia in Italy and 1377, the so-called Bad Aljubarrota, in 1385. In
blockaded Venice. Under Vittorio Parliament, dominated doing so, he freed
Pisano, the Venetians counter- : Executioner of Cesena
by the king’s son John Portugal from Castilian
: The anti-pope Clement Vil was
blockaded the Genoese fleet, | of Gaunt, earl of influence and, after
: known as the “executioner of
starving It into submission. : Cesena” for his brutal suppression Lancaster and marrying the daughter
Genoese maritime power was : of arebellion in the Papal States soon-to-be regent to of John of Gaunt,
broken and Venice now controlled : while acting as a papal legate. his infant nephew founded the Anglo-
the Levantine trade. Richard II (1367- Portuguese Avis
: after. The Roman mob pressured 1400), introduced a dynasty.
the conclave of cardinals to choose |poll tax; subsequent
44 NOTHING : an Italian pope, and Urban VI { parliaments
In 1384, Philip the
Bold of Burgundy
GREAT IS EVER » (c.1318-89] was duly elected.
French cardinals, meanwhile,
| extended it, causing
| widespread
inherited the county
ACHIEVED : elected Robert of Geneva grievance. |n 1381,
of Flanders, adding to
his extensive
WITHOUT MUCH : (1342-94) as anti-pope Clement
: VII. The French king, Charles V,
attempts to territories. France,
ENDURING. 99 . threw his weight behind Clement,
reintroduce serfdom
triggered the
ruled by the young
and mentally ill
: while Richard II of England allied Peasants’ Revolt, Charles VI, was now
St Catherine of Siena, (1347-80) ' with the Holy Roman Emperor which saw peasants dominated by rivalry
: Charles IV in supporting the rising against landlords, between the houses of
In 1376, Dominican mystic and » Roman candidate. Thus began the burning manors, and Burgundy and Orléans.
miracle worker Catherine of Siena : Western, or Great Schism, which destroying records. Up
travelled to Avignon to convince : Saw rival popes installed in Rome to 100,000 men, under
Gregory XI (c.1336-78) to return : and-Avignon until 1417. Jack Straw and Wat Tyler, Noh mask
the papacy to Rome. A few In Noh drama, which involves
months later, Gregory went to muSIC, singing, speech, and mime,
mask usually made masks are used by the principal
Rome to attempt to restore order
of wood or clay character, and by female and
in the Papal States, and died soon
elderly characters.
 Si Nad Ps Ce mi:
Travelling pilgrims are shown in an illustration from the Canterbury Tales. This unfinished poem by Geoffrey Chaucer, | Aminiature from the Topkapi Museum in Istanbul, shows the Battle of
17,000 lines long, vividly illustrates the medieval world view on social, religious, and moral matters. | Nicopolis, at which the Ottomans destroyed a crusading army.

| JAGIELLO OF LITHUANIA (C.1362- THE START OF THE MING DYNASTY : Courts}. During this period, the
1434), THE LAST PAGAN RULER : IN CHINA TRIGGERED CHANGE IN : line of the emperor Godaigo -
in Europe, was crowned king KOREA, which was considered a : driven out of the capital, Kyoto, by
of Poland and converted to In Europe, the medieval period client state by the Ming. The the Ashikaga shogun Takauji, in
Christianity in 1386. Marriage to saw the vigorous advance _| Koryo empire had supported the : 1336 - had maintained a rival
Jadwiga of Poland united the two of Christianity until it | new Chinese dynasty, but this did : court in the mountainous
kingdoms, and brought Lithuania encompassed the entire region | not prevent the Ming from : Yoshino region south of Nara.
into the Catholic Church, although (with just a few exceptions]. threatening to invade. In 1388, Yi : Japan was wracked by civil war
pagan traditions lingered on. The spectacular success in Songgye [1335-1408], a leading » until the shogun Ashikaga
Timur Leng (see 1356-65) converting Europe posed | general who favoured the : Yoshimitsu (1358-1408)
completed his conquest of Persia extreme challenges to the | Chinese, seized power in Korea. : negotiated a reunification
| in 1386 and raided deep into the Church, as it struggled to In 1392, as King Taejo, he : and brought Ashikaga power
| Caucasus, sacking Tbilisi in reconcile temporal and _ founded the Yi dynasty, also : to its apogee.
Georgia and capturing the Georgian spiritual power. Internal | known as the Choson [or Joseon), The Nicopolis Crusade of
king. However, when the army of forces would continue to a name taken from an ancient : 1396 - intended to roll back the
the Golden Horde attacked his revolutionize the religion. | Korean kingdom. Taejo : Ottoman advance in the Balkans
Central Asian territories, in 1387, | restructured his government on » - saw a Franco-Hungarian
he was forced to turn back and | the Chinese model, and instituted © expedition led by Sigismund of
meet them. It took another nine : Member of Parliament. He was : Canterbury Tales, partially | wide-ranging land reforms to : Hungary humiliatingly crushed
| years for him to destroy the threat. : instrumental in the development : modelled on Italian author Giovanni | redistribute estates from the : at the Bulgarian town of
Geoffrey Chaucer (c.1340-1400) : of Middle English - a combination : Boccaccio’s Decameron, tells the | hands of the oligarchy, replacing : Nicopolis on the Danube. A huge
was a soldier, scholar, writer, : of Old English and French story of pilgrims on the road to the them with a new class of : army, featuring volunteers from
diplomat, government official, and : influences. His greatest work, the : shrine of Thomas Becket (see | technocrats known as the : most of the Christian states,
! 1170); it was begun in 1387. | yangban. Neo-Confucianism : proved ill-disciplined. The failure
At the Battle of Kosovo, in 1389, | was adopted as the state religion, of this adventure proved that
: the Ottomans defeated the Serbs | and a new capital was founded at : Christian Europe had to look to
:and Bosnians, smashing the | Hanseong (Seoul). The Yi dynasty : its defence.
: Serbian empire and absorbing lasted until 1910.
:most of its territories. The Ottoman In Japan, the union of
: leader, Murad, was killed in the the northern and
: battle but his son Bayezid the _ southern imperial
_ +:Thunderbolt (1360-1403) took over. | courts in 1392 brought
: News of Murad’s death prompted | to an end the Yoshino
:the Ottoman vassals in Europe and | period (also known
:Anatolia to revolt, but Bayezid as the Period of
swiftly reduced most of them, Northern and Southern
Arabian
:bringing their territories under
Sea : direct Ottomanrule. The Ottomans |
| now controlled most of Anatolia and || Gyeongbokgung Palace
: the Balkans south of the Danube. | This colossal palace, built
by King Taejo (Yi Songgye]
The Timurid Empire : Bayezid introduced the devshirme in 1395, is also known as
Established by Timur Leng, the —> Campaigns of Timur '-the levy of Christian children
Timurid Empire eventually reached the “Palace of Shining
© Extent of Timur’s empire : who were converted to Islam and
a greater extent even than that of | Happiness” and the
| Genghis Khan, but it would not long :used in the administration and “Palace Greatly Blessed
! survive Timur’s death. : Janissary corps. | by Heaven’.
 Zheng He, Chinese explorer "

The wallof skulls atthe Templo Mayor archaeological site in Mexico City is male from skulle carved in stgne; Wladyslaw II Jagiello of Poland prepare:
covered with stucco; the Aztecs practised human sacrifice at the vast temples in the centre of Tenochtitlan. __ for the Battle of Tannenberg.

FOUNDED BY THE AZTECS IN 1325, : Meanwhile, they expanded their HAVING CONQUERED AS FAR AS |THE RELENTLESS ADVANCE OF
the city of Tenochtitlan - existing © political territory through RUSSIA in the East, Timur Leng | THE ORDER OF TEUTONIC KNIGHTS
on the apparently unpromising marriages, alliances, and | (see 1386-90) set his sights on the | (see 1236-40) had brought
site of a marshy island in a : conquest. After a flood, greatest empire - China. In 1405, Prussia and much of the Baltic
partially brackish lake - reached ‘ Tenochtitlan was laid out ona he embarked on a campaign, but | coast under their control, cutting
its height at the beginning of the ! grid pattern, with quarters died en route to China and was Poland off from the sea. The union
15th century. Tenochtitlan means arranged around a central buried at his capital, Samarkand. of Poland and Lithuania under
“Place of the Fruit of the Cactus” : sacred district, regarded as Despite his possibly exaggerated | King Wladyslaw II Jagiello
—a reference to the vision that : the centre of the world. A huge | reputation for cruelty, Timur was _ (c.1362-1434) posed a new threat
supposedly informed the choice of : population of up to 200,000 a devout Muslim and a patron of | to the Order, and the Great
location. In this vision, the tossed : was supported by intensive the arts and architecture. His Northern War ensued. At the
heart of a conquered enemy - agriculture and extensive enormous empire did not long | Battle of Tannenberg in 1410 -
landed on the island where an : networks of trade and tribute. survive him, quickly breaking | one of the greatest cavalry
eagle wrestled with a snake ona The African Songhay kingdom down into a Timurid state ruled by | confrontations of the age - a huge
cactus growing out of a rock - as : was centred on the trading : Songhay gold coin his son Shah Rukh (1377-1447), Polish-Lithuanian army of up to
depicted on the present-day _ metropolis of Gao, in the Niger : This coin from the Songhay Empire which soon fragmented further. 16,500, including Bohemian
Mexican flag. The Aztecs drained : Bend area of West Africa. Gao : is from the Songhay city of Gao; rich In 1404, John the Fearless | mercenaries, Russians, and even
the island, reclaiming had long been a prosperous city : and powerful, the city provided the
(1371-1419) became duke of _ Tatars (Turkic Mongols], defeated
surrounding land, and joined the : basis for building the empire.
: thanks to interregional and _ Burgundy, leading opposition to
land together with causeways. : trans-Saharan trade with the i the regency of Louis, duke of
Islamic world, especially : 15th century, Mali declined and Orleans (1372-1407), brother of
@Tenayuca
VALLEY OF in salt, gold, slaves, and : Gao won its independence, the mad king, Charles VI of France
MEXICO
ivory. In the mid-13th » beginning the growth of a (1368-1422). In 1407, John

‘ century, because of the

allure of its riches, it
: Songhay Empire that would
: eclipse the other two largest
ordered the assassination of
Louis, triggering civil war
p
antlaco @Atepehuacan; Atzacualco
became an eastern ' empires of the late Iron Age in between the Burgundians and the
, province of the Mali : West Africa - Ghana and Mali. Armagnacs (named for the count
Empire (see 1231-35). In 1398, Timur Leng (see of Armagnac, the father-in-law of
However, in the early 1356-65] had invaded northern Charles, the new duke of Orleans).
Altepetlac : India and destroyed the Delhi j The Burgundians, who favoured
aSS
a
Tlatelolco
: sultanate with astonishing speed peace with the English, were
noforjenyezjayy
akg
jo : and terrifying cruelty. Marching popular in Paris and the north,
~ Map of Tenochtitlan : 260km (160 miles) in two days, he while the Armagnacs, who were
es Causeways connected captured and massacred 100,000 ) anti-English and pro-war, had the
Chapultepec Tenochtitlan to other
: fugitives outside Delhi before support of Queen Isabeau of
settlements on the lake
~ Mixiucan and the mainland. The : sacking the city, supposedly Bavaria, the great nobles, and the
Macateco Acachinancog : city and its emperor : building a huge pyramid from the south of the country.
volsae Zacatlalman dominated the Valley ! skulls of his victims. In 1401, In 1404, Zheng He, {1371-1435}
Tepetlatzincoe,
y of Mexico.

KEY
: Timur massacred the population
: of Baghdad and launched an
: invasion of Syria. He then moved
| - a Muslim captured from Yunnan
in China as a boy, castrated, and
| pressed into military service - was
| — street : against the Ottomans (see named grand, or high-ranking,
i “T®Mexicatzincgo
— aqueduct : 1286-90], occupying Anatolia and eunuch at the imperial court. The
Coyoacan YouthIco
— causeway : restoring the old Turkoman following year he led the first of
Huitzilopochco
— dyke : principalities. seven epic voyages of discovery.
 f ; 1 we Hi 7)

This later depiction of the Battle of Agincourt shows cavalry engaged in This illustration from the Chronicle of Ulrich von Richental shows the papal
| conflict; around 10,000 French troops were killed or captured. | electors taking their leave from Emperor Sigismund at the Council of Constance.

: the forces of the Teutonic Knights | IN 1413, HENRY IV OF ENGLAND convene a general council - the THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE : (1361-1419], sparked a Hussite
: who were around 11,000 strong. DIED and his son, Henry V Council of Constance - to resolve ENDED THE GREAT SCHISM in 1417 : uprising in Bohemia. This
The Order was crushed, but (1386-1422], came to the throne. the split in the Catholic Church by trying and deposing the last : combined a religious tussle
: Jagiello was unable to keep the In 1415, Henry concluded an known as the Great Schism (see anti-pope, Benedict XIII, and between the papacy and
powerful Polish nobles in order alliance with Burgundy and 1373-80). In 1415, the Council electing Martin V (c.1348-1431] : anti-papists, with a nationalist
: and thus could not press home reasserted the English claim to deposed the existing claimants, as the sole true pope. : struggle between Czechs
: his advantage. The Peace of | the French crown as a pretext for and condemned the Bohemian The burning at the stake of : (Bohemians and Moravians) and
: Thorn, concluded the following renewing the Hundred Years War : priest, religious reformer, and Bohemian religious reformer Jan : Germans. The Hussites made up
: year, failed to secure Polish (see panel, right). In October, philosopher Jan Huss, who was Huss (see 1411-15), and the death : of moderate (Utraquist) and
access to the Baltic and enabled Henry inflicted a terrible defeat on executed the same year. of Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia : extreme (Taborite] factions, united
: the Teutonic Knights to regain a far superior French force at : to face a crusading alliance led by
: some of their advantage. | Agincourt, taking the Duke of Wenceslaus’ brother, the emperor
Andrei Rublev (c.1370-1430) | Orleans prisoner, and going on to © Sigismund. The Hussites defeated
: was a Russian monk and painter, conquer Normandy. : the alliance outside Prague.
: based at the St Sergius monastery In 1411, peace was concluded
: of the Holy Trinity in Moscow. He 3 between Portugal and Castile
: worked during a period of 44 THELIVING _: (see 1381-85]. Portugal now
: beganto look outwards, winning
: monastic revival in Russia, when
the Eastern Orthodox
| FELL ON TOP OF : a foothold on the north coast of
Church offered | THE DEAD, AND : Africa at Ceuta in 1415. Explorer
: Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)
comfort in the face of OTHERS FALLING : distinguished himself inthe
internecine war and
the hated Mongol ON TOP OF THE : expedition; his visit to Africa
Yoke - the tribute LIVING WERE q sparked an interest in exploration,
: and he may have set up the first
and service exacted
by the Golden Horde. | KILLED AS WELL.99 : school of navigation in Europe at
Though inspired by Sagres, in Portugal (see 1434).
From Gesta Henrici Quinti, c.1416
the great icon painter
Theophanes the
Greek, Rublev was
celebrated for During Chinese explorer Zheng : THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR
pioneering a new, | He's fourth and greatest
more serene and , expedition in 1413, he visited The series of conflicts from 1337 to 1453, later known as the
symmetrical style. Calicut in India, and reached Hundred Years War, was triggered by a combination of factors:
Hormuz on the Persian Gulf, tensions over the status of the duchy of Guienne, which belonged

THE NUMBER
sending ships to explore down the to the kings of England but owed sovereignty to the French crown;
African coast as far as Malindi in English claims to that crown, based on descent from the
The Holy Trinity Kenya. The fleet included 63 ships Capetians; anxieties of influence on both sides; and the need of
_OF SESSIONS
HELD AT THE
This detail from Andrei | of up to 80m (260ft) long. English kings to use foreign adventures to shore up support at
Rublev's greatest icon, In 1414, anti-pope John XXIII home. There should have been little contest between France, the
painted around 1410,
shows the three angels |
- one of three men claiming to be most powerful nation in Europe, and smaller, poorer England, but
the English used new tactics and weapons, especially the longbow, 42-MONTH-
LONG COUNCIL
pope - was expelled from Rome by
who visited Abraham.
King Ladislas of Naples. John to devastating effect. The war drained resources on both sides, but
Each angel represents
a different aspect of
the Trinity.
| sought refuge with the emperor,
| Sigismund, who forced him to
also forged a new degree of national identity for both countries.
OF CONSTANCE

129
 ‘Aa yy VW Pe
5 s 3 Pea
Fillipo Maria Visconti of Milan sits in state; having assassinated his brother to | The Doge's Palace, seat of the doge of Venice, is a masterpiece of 14th-century | Joan of Arc here leads troops into
become duke of Milan, he restored Visconti hegemony over northern Italy. - Gothic architecture, overlain with 15th, 16th, and 17th century additions. battle, wielding a crossbow.

SULTAN MEHMED | Sultan Murad Il _ IN THE 1420S, THE CULTURAL Although Florence was the
(1382-1421) had ame Murad defended and | MOVEMENT known later as the : heart of the Renaissance in the
successfully » extended the Ottoman ) Italian or High Renaissance © 15th century, the other great
restored the Empire, and was also ' gathered pace, particularly in the Italian power centres of Milan,
Ottoman state a patron of poetry
_ field of painting and the visual Rome, and Venice also fostered
and learning,
after the Timurid
making his court _ arts. In 1424, the sculptor : artistic and architectural
invasion (see Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) : achievement. In Venice, the
a cultural centre.
1401-03}, completed the gilded bronze : Doge’s Palace, which had been
although his navy _ doors for the Florence Baptistry © evolving since its origins in the
had come off between 1386 that he had been commissioned to : 9th century, embodied many of
worse ina conflict and 1400; and make in 1403; the following year : the architectural highpoints
with the Venetians threatened Florence he was commissioned for a : of the previous six centuries. The
at the Battle of until his death in further set. Working at the same _ Bodkin point
: current building began to take
Galipoli in 1416, forcing 1402. Strife between This type of arrowhead is an
time as Ghiberti were a host of : shape around 1340; work on the
the Ottomans to recognize uncomplicated, squared, metal
his sons Gian Maria and other artists, including : side overlooking the Piazzetta did | spike, extensively used during the
Venetian claims in Albania. In : Filippo Maria saw this empire Brunelleschi, Jacopo della : not begin until 1424, under doge | wars of the Middle Ages.
1421, Mehmed died and his son, : disintegrate, but when Filippo had Quercia, Masaccio, Donatello, : Francesco Foscari (1373-1457). |
Murad II (1404-51) became : Gian assassinated in 1412, he set | Gentile da Fabriano, Jan van Eyck, In 1424, Timur’s descendant, | THE DAUGHTER OF A FARMER,
sultan. Domestically, he restored : about restoring it, regaining and many more. - Ulugh Beg (1394-1449) - | JOAN OF ARC [1412-31]
was 16
the devshirme practice of training © Genoa in 1421. The Visconti astronomer and future Mongol when in 1429 voices in her head
Christian slaves for key roles in : patronized the arts and : leader - built a great observatory | commanded her to bear aid to the
government; externally, he _ The Tribute Money
: scholarship, helping to drive the : in Samarkand. It was equipped | French dauphin (see 1421-22).
Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone
pursued a policy of renewed : Renaissance (see pp.168-69). : with a 40m (130ft) sextant, and
| Masaccio died aged just 27, but | The English under John, duke of
expansion, beginning with the The French had suffered great created some of the most influential : Ulugh and his team of scholars Bedford (1389-1435], had made
first Ottoman siege of : losses at Agincourt (see 1411-15], artworks of the Renaissance. : catalogued over a thousand stars. ) further gains against the forces of
Constantinople. The siege was : and in 1420, at the prompting of
unsuccessful and Mehmed was : the pro-English Burgundians,
distracted by an uprising led by : Charles VI of France had accepted
the Sufi theologian and preacher, » the Treaty of Troyes and
Sheikh Bedreddin - it was : acknowledged Henry V of England
suppressed, and the sheikh : as his heir and immediate regent.
was executed. : The agreement ceded all the
The Visconti family had ruled ! conquered lands up to the Loire
Milan since Archbishop Otto : to the English and declared the
Visconti rose to power in 1277; : dauphin, Charles, to be
their domain had spread to "illegitimate. The English now
encompass much of northern : controlled northern France.
Italy, reaching its height under © In 1422, both Henry and Charles
Gian Galeazzo (1351-1402), sole : died, and under the terms of the
ruler from 1385. He had made | Treaty, the infant Henry VI was
marriage alliances with the chief : acclaimed king of both England
monarchs of Europe; was made » and France. The dauphin, based
hereditary duke in 1395; mastered : at Bourges, refused to accept this,
Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Pisa, : and the Hundred Years War (see
Siena, Assisi, and Perugia : 1411-15} continued,
 46 WE READ THAT WE OUGHT TO
FORGIVE OUR ENEMIES; BUT WE
DO NOT READ THAT WE OUGHT
TO FORGIVE OUR FRIENDS. 99
| Cosimo de Medici

The Arnolfini Marriage by Jan van Painting of the first Medici ruler
{ Eyck is noted for its detailed interior. of Florence, Cosimo.

: the dauphin and were besieging | FROM 1431 TO 1433, ZHENG HE SINCE THE 1380S, FLORENCE HAD : Compact, and civil war broke out : into the Atlantic had discovered
: Orleans, while the dauphin had (see 1404-07) made a seventh and BEEN DOMINATED by the Albizzi : between the factions, which the islands of Madeira and the
: still not managed to secure his final expedition, returning to the family, who extended the city’s : represented different classes as : Azores. Henry personally
: coronation. Joan succeeded in | Persian Gulf. Despite this last control of Tuscany. The attempts : wellas religious ideals. In 1434, at ' oversaw the colonization of these
: obtaining an interview with him at | trip, China’s period of exploration of Visconti Milan (see 1421-22] to : the Battle of Lipany the upper- : Atlantic outposts, successfully
: Chinon, won him over, and was had come to an end with the death | gain control over all of Tuscany : class Utraquists vanquished the : establishing them as centres of
: provided with troops and the title of Emperor Yongle in 1424, after forced Florence into a ruinously : Taborites, killing Prokops. ‘ agricultural production and
: chef de guerre (“war leader”). She which the Ming dynasty returned | expensive war, although alliance The rising power of the : forward bases for Portuguese
: successfully relieved Orleans, to its isolationist policy. with Venice saw Milan defeated. : Sukhothai kingdom of Thailand : exploration. Henry's next target
: going on to defeat the English Surrendering the lead in A leader of the peace party was : had increasingly threatened the : was to round Cape Bojador on the
: twice more, and stood next to the exploration to Portugal and the wool merchant and banker : Khmer Empire (see 1201-05) : coast of West Africa, the furthest
: dauphin at his coronation as Europeans would have profound Giovanni de Medici, possibly the : through the 14th century. Repeated : limit of Portuguese exploration;
: Charles VII at Reims in 1429. Joan | consequences for the Chinese, richest man in Europe. After his : Thai raids, particularly an : contemporary European sailors’
: failed to take Paris, however, and ) and world history. death in 1429 and a disastrous : incursion in 1431, may have helped : lore viewed the seas beyond as a
: the following year, she was war with Lucca in Tuscany, the
: captured by the Burgundians, Albizzi succeeded in having
: who ransomed her to their | SHIP LENGTHS Giovanni's son, Cosimo de Medici
: English allies (see 1431-33}. banished from Florence in 1433,
: In 1428, Le Loi, leader of but new elections saw him
: Vietnamese resistance to the ZHENG HE'S | recalled the following year,
: Chinese occupation, expelled the EE sup marking the start of Medici
: Chinese and founded the Le domination of the city. Cosimo
: dynasty of Dai Viet. On admitting combined business acumen with
Chinese authority, his dynasty was Not all the great Renaissance political shrewdness, winning
: recognized by the Ming. painters were Italian; Jan van popular support for his policies.
Eyck (c.1390-1441] was Flemish. All attempts by anti-Hussite
| Celebrated for his mastery of forces under the emperor
| realism and his perfection of oil Sigismund to dislodge the
painting, van Eyck produced some Hussites and regain control of the
| of his greatest masterpieces in Czech territories had failed The Windrose
the 1430s. In 1432, he and his (see 1416-20). The superior The Windrose mosaic at Sagres in : dangerous and terrifying
_ organization and tactics of the Portugal - possibly a sundial - was : otherworld. Cape Bojador was
brother Hubert completed their
: commissioned by Portuguese : finally rounded by Gil Eannes in
largest surviving work, the _ Hussites, first under Jan Zizka
: navigator, Prince Henry.
altarpiece of St Bavo's Cathedral and after his death in 1424 under : 1434. The experiences of his
in Ghent, Belgium. Later that year, Andrew Prokops, made them : sailors on these voyages of
| in London, van Eyck painted militarily powerful. In 1430, they : trigger the 1434 abandonment of : discovery convinced Henry that
the Portrait of anUnknown Man invaded Germany and raided as : Angkor (see 1146-50) and the : the traditional barca ships in use
| and the Man with the Red Turban; far as Franconia. Negotiations : transfer of the Khmer capital to : were unsuitable, and he worked
| possibly a self-portrait. with the ecumenical Council of Phnom Penh, further south, : with shipwrights to design a new
In 1431, Joan of Arc was turned Basel in 1413 led to the Compact : although it is also possible that : type of vessel, the caravel. This
over by the English to the French of Prague, or Compactacta, under : the new location offered better : was smaller, lighter, and swifter,
ecclesiastical authorities for trial. which moderate Hussites [the : connections for foreign trade. : with a shallow draft for near-
She was found guilty of heresy, Utraquists) agreed to go back to Sponsored by Prince Henry the : shore operations and more space
and was burned at the stake the Catholic Church. The extreme "Navigator (see 1416-20), : for stores to allow the ships to
| in Rouen. anti-papist Taborites rejected the : Portuguese explorers pushing out : stay at sea for longer.
 This manuscript illustration shows
be et
i Founded by King Henry VI of England, construction of Eton college was
Mass a

Fresco by Domenico di Bartolo, (c.1410-1461), of the Sienese school,

Charles VII entering Paris in triumph. , from Siena’s hospital of Santa Maria della Scala.

46 THE | IN 1438, PACHACUTEC (C.1438-

1472) BECAME THE NINTH INCA
| MACHU PICCHU (meaning “Old : attempted to entrust his crown. At
: Adrianople, Murad made a
KINGDOM OF | KING, or Sapa Inca. His reign
Peak” in Quechua, the language of
| the Incas) is a mountaintop citadel : 10-year truce with Albanian
FRANCE... | heralded the beginning of a great | about 70km (43 miles] northwest of military leader Hunyadi

WILL BE THUS
expansion of the Inca realm, Cuzco. Construction probably : Skandebeg and other resistors of
which had been confined to the | began in the 1440s, under the : Ottoman advance. However, with
RULED BY KING immediate area around Cuzco auspices of Pachacutec. The : the pope preaching crusade, the
CHARLES VII... since its foundation (see 1201-
| 1205). It began with invasion by
| maximum population of Machu
Picchu was possibly only around
: resistors were absolved of their
oaths of peace and they launched
HE WILL ENTER the rival Chancas, who besieged | 1,000, and it is thought that it : anewattack. Led by Hunyadi and
PARIS IN GOOD _ Cuzco, and were completely
| defeated. Inca expansion was |
served as a ceremonial centre,
as well as being an impregnable
Wladyslaw III of Poland and
! Hungary (1424-1444), the
COMPANY. 99 facilitated by the sophisticated stronghold for the Inca elite in : crusading army - the last major
nature of most of the kingdoms PACIFIC | case of attack.
Joan of Arc, Christian visionary and tribes they conquered; OCEAN Ge ae Resistance to Ottoman
| tight-knit, centralized occupation of the Balkans » Machu Picchu
: KEY
administration focused on the | increased, and in 1443, a : High above the Urubamba
: 1 Expansion by 1400 : Valley in the Peruvian
THOUGH ALLIED WITH THE emperor; a genius for crusading army defeated the
ENGLISH OCCUPATION OF FRANCE, | organization and record-keeping :_ Expansion in the reign of Pachacutec
Ottomans at Nis, in Bulgaria. The : Andes, onan
the Burgundians (see 1404-07} | (despite having no writing); and an_ : inaccessible ridge,
Ottoman sultan, Murad II (see
were increasingly concerned at : Inca expansion : lies Machu Picchu,
| imperial road-building | 1421-22), was forced out of
: The Inca Empire had expanded : sacred citadelof
English gains. With the Treaty of programme rivalled only by the | retirement to take over from his
: greatly between 1400 and the end of : the Inca
Arras, the Burgundians and the | Roman Empire. : Pachacutec’s reign. It would triple in | son, Mehmed II, to whom he had : kings.
French king, Charles VII, made In 1440, the young king of : size by the 16th century.
peace but the English, unwilling to | England founded a new
accept the terms, withdrew from college at Eton. The King’s to receive free education before
negotiations. The following year, | College of Our Lady of : going on to King’s College,
the French alliance took Paris Eton near Windsor, now : Cambridge.
from English control. | known as Eton College, With the Ottomans (see
The 1430s saw increasing was intended to be part of 1286-90) occupying
tension between the papacy and a large foundation territories on all sides of the
the conciliar movement, which _ including a massive tiny remnants of the
held that the Church ought to be | church,an almshouse, Byzantine Empire, and
governed by a Church council, | and 70 scholars who were + threatening Constantinople itself,
rather than an individual pope. the embattled Byzantine emperor
Pope Eugenius lV summoned a John VIII Palaeologus [see
General Council at Basel in 1448-49} arrived in Europe to
1431, but it was dominated by plead for help from the Council
anti-papal sentiment and, in of Ferrara in 1438.
1437, he tried to transfer the
Council to Ferrara, where it would
be more amenable to his influence. | Gold llama statuette
The Inca were so rich in gold that
Most of the delegates refused to
emperor Atahualpa was able to offer
leave Basel, resulting in two a ransom of 750 tonnes of it when
concurrent councils. captured by conquistadors in 1532.

ar a SreeTN Meera
 a) SS

» The rocky north coast between Paul and Ribeira Grande Illustration from a Muromachi period manuscript, the arts flourished in
_ in Santa Antao in the Cape Verde islands. Japan under Ashikaga patronage.

HENRY THE NAVIGATOR’S : (see 1421-22]. There were IN 1449, ASHIKAGA YOSHIMASA
EXPENSIVE PROJECT to open up : multiple claimants to the ducal (1435-90) BECAME SHOGUN, or
the coast of Africa [see 1434) was : throne, and eager to avoid military dictator, of Japan.
met with scepticism at home in : domination by a foreigner, the Although his reign marked a
Portugal, until in 1441, one of his : Milanese powers immediately cultural highpoint of the Ashikaga,
ships returned with gold dustand | constituted the Aurea Repubblica or Muromachi period 1336-1573]
slaves, prompting an acceleration Ambrosiana of Milan, or the it was also a period of increasing
Battle of Varna : Ambrosian Republic, but they civil strife. Repeated famines
of activity. Between 1444 and
| The Hungarian-led
1446, around 35 of Henry's vessels : faced insurmountable obstacles. triggered constant uprisings,
. crusader army, with a
' strength of 30,000, suffered heavy sailed for the West African coast. : Riven by internal dissension and while the Ashikaga practice of
: losses at the hands of the Ottoman | In 1445, sailing in one of Henry's : unwilling to lose control of the issuing tokuseirei or “acts of
; troops, who numbered 60,000. | new caravels, explorer Dinis Dias : other cities controlled by Milan, | grace” to cancel debts, damaged
| sighted the mouth of the Senegal : they were soon forced to turn the economy. Despite this,
| River, which offered a trade route military control over to a Yoshimasa presided over a S
attempt to expel the Ottomans
: from the Balkans and relieve deep into the African interior, and : condotierre, or mercenary soldier- cultural flowering at his -PALAEO3)LOGUS
: Constantinople - was decisively rounded Cape Verde, the : leader - the powerful Muzio Higashiyama estate. fiaon5
: crushed by Murad at the Battle of westernmost point of Africa. Dias : Attendolo, nicknamed Sforza The new pope, Nicholas V,
: Varna. Wladyslaw disappeared in returned the following year as : meaning “exert” or “force”. | elected in 1447, was intent on Constantine X! Palaeologus
: the battle and was presumed part of a fleet of caravels In the mid-15th century, the | bringing an end to the schism succeeded to the remnants of
dead, despite rumours of his intending to plant the Portuguese : Shona kingdom of Mwene Mutapa, caused by his predecessor's clash a once-great empire, left
miraculous Survival. flag and explore what Henry : also known as Great Zimbabwe with the Council of Basel (see without the resources to
believed might be the western : (see 1106-10], was nearing the end 1435-37], and on restoring peace defend itself. He was the last
branch of the Nile, while another : of its glory days. By this time, the to Italy and achieving harmonious emperor of Byzantium, a state
of Henry's captains, Nuno Tristao, : riches of the gold fields had funded relations with other rulers. At the that had lasted throughout the
sighted the Gambia River. : construction of the Great Concordat of Vienna in 1448, he medieval period, providing a
The marriage of Margaret of : Enclosure, an elliptical space | made concessions to Emperor unique bridge between east
Anjou (c.1430-82) to Henry VI of : enclosed by a giant wall 244m Frederick Ill and the other and west, ancient and
England in 1445 was negotiated by © (800ft) around, and up to 11m (36ft) German princes, who in return modern. He died on the walls
William de la Pole, chief advisor to high in places, built from almost a abandoned the Council of Basel of Constantinople, having
the king and power behind the : million granite blocks. and recognized some papal done everything in his power
| throne, whose aim was to stop the | powers. The following year, the to secure its defence.
war in France (see 1435-37). At Population | Council of Basel finally disbanded
| first, the match and the bride were of Great and the anti-pope, Felix V,
popular in England, but in 1448, the Zimbabwe abdicated in return for a them from the Balkans at the
territory of Maine in northern cardinalship. This marked the : second Battle of Kosovo in 1448,
/ France was lost to Charles VII and final victory of the papacy over regaining control of Albania. It
the queen was blamed for her the conciliar movement. was Clear that there would be no
influence over the weak king. Following the death of Byzantine European rescue for the
| Margaret would survive this, | emperor John VIII, his brother embattled Byzantines. The
| however, and become an important Constantine X! Palaeologus {see : Ottomans were closing in on
player in the Wars of the Roses panel, right] acceded to the throne : Constantinople.
: Golden age of Great Zimbabwe
(see 1454-55). in Constantinople —- he would be
: In the mid-15th century, the
The death of Filippo Maria : population of Great Zimbabwe was the last Byzantine emperor. The
| Visconti in 1447 signalled the end : just under half the size of the Ottomans had defeated another of
| of the Visconti ducal line of Milan : population of London. | Jan Hunyadi’s crusades to clear

&
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é
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Prsligiehssrae onde
~ scientific revolution laid.t
Adetail from Ghiberti’s Doors of Paradise for Florence Cathedral's Baptistry. The - This“éth-aefdury fieacd dicts the siege of Constantinople, which a on.
ty
second pair of doors he completed, they show scenes from the Old Testament. 2 April 1453 and ended when the Ottomans took the city on 29 May.

ity
THE GREAT ZIMBABWE : into competing regional powers : France. Bordeaux was
CIVILIZATION of southeast Africa : in the aftermath of Timur's : recaptured by the English, but
(see 1106-10) was in decline by : invasion of 1398. But in 1451, an attempt in July to relieve the

RARRAK
the mid-15th century. This _ the new Afghan Lodi dynasty : English stronghold of Castillon,
coincided with the rise of the : reasserted the sultanate’s former : which was besieged by a large
Mutapa Empire in the fertile, : dominance in the region, which ‘ French force, was a calamitous
copper-rich uplands between lasted until it was ousted by the failure. In the first major
the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers : Mughal Babur in 1526. : European conflict to be decided by
in present-day Zimbabwe and In Europe, Florentine goldsmith artillery, the English lost 4,000

1:12
Mozambique. Sustained by Lorenzo Ghiberti completed his Siege of
men; the French, scarcely 100.
Constantinople
lucrative trade in copper, cattle, second set of bronze doors for the : Three months later, in October, Mehmed led
ivory, slaves, and gold with : Baptistry in Florence in 1452. : Bordeaux itself fell again to the : 80,000 men against only 7,000
: French. This brought to an end : defenders during the siege of
the Hundred Years War and left : Constantinople, a disparity that
44 NO ART, HOWEVER MINOR, : Calais on the Channel coast as
: the only remaining English
: made the city’s fall almost inevitable.

DEMANDS LESS THAN : possession in France. For the no match for destructive force on

TOTAL DEDICATION. 99
: English, defeat provoked the first : this scale, and the city fell to the
j © of a series of descents into : Ottomans in May 1453.
: madness by the country’s hapless Conscious of their destiny as
Leon Battista Alberti, Italian polymath (1404-72) : king, Henry VI. For the French, : world conquerors in need of a
English defeat at Castillon
The Battle of Castillon decisively : victory brought closer the goal : suitably imposing capital, the
Muslim coastal settlements, the : The first door, begun in 1403, took ended the hopes of England's French of a properly united kingdom : Ottomans were careful to
Mutapa Empire remained the : him 21 years; the second, 27 Plantagenet kings to pursue their : under a single monarch. : preserve the city after they had
dominant regional power for more years. In the same year, Leon claim to the French throne. In Western Asia and on the : taken it: they needed it as a
than a century, when repeated Battista Alberti published De Re borders of Christendom, : symbol of their own, newly gained
Portuguese attempts to infiltrate : Aedificatoria, (Ten Books of THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR, a : Constantinople, capital of the : grandeur. Its imposing Christian
it finally succeeded (see 1629). Architecture). Both works were grimly drawn-out period of : beleaguered Byzantine Empire, : buildings were pressed into
On the Indian subcontinent, the : masterpieces in their fields and Anglo-French conflict (see : remained the centre of Orthodox : service for Muslim worship, and
Delhi sultanate had fractured : exemplified the self-confidence 1411-15), ended with absolute : Christian civilization. But it faced © the city itself remained a symbol
and intellectual French triumph in 1453. Any : an imminent threat from the : of Ottoman military might for
daring of the hopes England's French : Muslim Ottoman Empire. This : more than 450 years. The
Florentine Plantagenet kings had of : threat materialized when the : Ottoman conquest of
Renaissance. asserting their rights to the ' Ottoman sultan, Mehmed II : Constantinople - now renamed
French throne came to a final halt © ("The Conqueror’), who believed : Istanbul - was the clearest
at Castillon outside Bordeaux. : that only relentless conquest : possible signal that the Turkish
Mosque pavilion in Two years earlier, Bordeaux, : would guarantee continued : Ottomans were the most dynamic
Mehrauli which had been in English hands Ottoman supremacy, mustered : military and political force in the
The remains of a for 300 years, had fallen to the : an army of 80,000 to attack : region, and that they were an
mosque in Mehrauli, French. This prompted a last, : Constantinople; the defenders of : unmistakable threat, not only to
Delhi, built during
the reign of the Lodi
desperate attempt by the English © the city could call on fewer than : what remained of Christian claims
dynasty (1451-1526), to reassert themselves against : 7,000 troops. In addition, Mehmed : in Western Asia but also to Europe
who were the last the forces of the French king, : had the most formidable artillery : asa whole.
rulers of the Delhi Charles VII, which were massing : In the world. The ancient,
sultanate. in strength in the southwest of : crumbling walls of the city were
‘44 IT IS A PRESS, CERTAINLY, BUTA
PRESS FROM WHICH SHALL FLOW IN
-INEXHAUSTIBLE STREAMS...THROUGH
IT, GOD WILL SPREAD HIS WORD. 99
i

Johannes Gutenberg, German inventor and printer (c.1398-1468)

rkish miniature painting showing Mehmed II's forces attackin

which they tried unsuccessfully to take from Hungary in 1456.

THE COMPETING AMBITIONS OF : seemed to have been won by the OTTOMAN EXPANSION CONTINUED In 1458, Matthias Corvinus,
ITALY’S CITY-STATES, which had : Yorkists. The wars continued until IN THE BALKANS AND GREECE as second son of Janos Hunyadi, the
led to almost a century of war, : 1485, when Henry Tudor seized Mehmed II pressed ahead in his man who had led the successful
| was ended by the Treaty of Lodi : the throne {see 1483-85]. determination to conquer the : defence of Belgrade against
in 1454. Milan, Venice, Florence, : By the mid-15th century, world for Islam. Mehmed Mehmed II's Ottoman troops
the Papal States, and Naples were : Prussia (conquered by the attempted to take Belgrade in 1456, was elected king of
the signatories. The treaty had : Teutonic Knights two centuries in 1456 but was repulsed by Hungary. His reign promised
been given additional impetus by earlier] had become resentful of Hungary. However, by 1459 the much: not only to draw the
the fall of Constantinople to the : its lowly status within the Baltic rest of Serbia was under Ottoman Hungarians into the wider
Ottomans a year earlier, when it : territories of the Teutonic Order. control. Simultaneously, the European Renaissance, but also
became clear there was a need to : In 1454 the Prussian Estates Ottomans conquered the : to increase the reach and prestige
present a united Christian front. revolted, and asked for Polish Peloponnese in southern Greece, of his country.
In 1454 or 1455, Johannes : military support, beginning what with Athens falling in 1456. Over Corvinus was permanently
Gutenberg produced the first ! was to become the Thirteen the next two decades, Ottoman distracted by the need to defend
major book to be printed with a : Years War against the Teutonic control of the Balkans was Hungary against further Ottoman
movable type printing press: the
Gutenberg Bible. His method of
Sa : Knights. The war ended in 1466
: with the division of Prussia into
consolidated with the conquest of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and in
incursions, but he had territorial
: ambitions to the west. He was
King Henry VI the Aegean, remaining Christian- successful in substantially
printing meant that thousands : two territories: one in the east still
This anonymous portrait is of King
of copies of books could be made : controlled by the Order, and held islands — which were chiefly expanding Hungarian territory at
Henry VI, reputedly a peaceful, pious
relatively easily. The result was an man who suffered from prolonged : so-called Royal Prussia, now a Venetian and Genoan - were the expense of Bohemia, against
explosion in the spread of ideas : bouts of severe mental illness. : vassal state of the kings of Poland. clearly under threat. whose Hussite ruler, George of
and knowledge, above all Podebrady (r.1458-71), he
because works appeared in prRolo obtained papal sanction in 1468
vernacular languages rather than : to lead a crusade. During the

exclusively in Latin and Greek. pemuorautsqui eduton deique milla una bafilica cougregatos conralifle pellet Dini ac nodi:; Diuibeat Lurco : crusade, Corvinus gained control
fexbatnon ypherale. Alin é eeeee ) aceenebras. se otic &?cpelle bonis
In England, on 22 May 1455,
nigne ryeotenente niifeurt-atteutco et
belo ib etAllaeewre onmne opus warm: alind Cele ruceqpee. bi Gaieir? sefadti éuelpore cemame dice qrace?.
| Diuteianr deve , Producaut aque
of Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia.
Ditkinquecra Dur ante lluceCcecefacie yetruta pores rubato te oebord
armies belonging to the Duke que mine autefuretut:aut fuplua copia ta que ineelligue reandtere, PAG
| puleanime viumnes revotante hig
terran fixb firmantéra oti Cecoitgs However, in the longer run his
que urgulat eecomfort: ce nrammne forte puradue c&tcallus econged Deo core RANDIA-r Ontné antTAA BI
of Somerset and Duke of York que cuanigeiftart ct apoftolord au- soqofontio +platdnis pitagard ec By
mofteria_pryetifonean affiarue cin:
uum ang; morabilem qua produxes actions destabilized both Hungary
toritas promulgauit.gnquibs we ) vant aque imfprare fuae:s ante vo*
clashed in the Battle of St Albans,
taDever cefanecara legume quet
nofine codinbus von haber: ne
rico Spicatu traftudiffe . jut aliece dec+
itvem Libris peefepeuagira Ineieco~
tucqut Diem eteearbcas noden, Fadi
settucfpre +mane Dice ums. Dit J) (ane feamdii gerwe fini,Ecmbit Bee and Bohemia, and brought him
) qmogy Dre, Fratfamine iowee S uempeflte bouu: beneoramnmdrome,
the opening conflict of the Wars
eklub-t emipee wocamt finimcd: ¥
Quonid nazar vocabitur: ct ut
aline papattolos fpratus fandue te.
Reiewonia teewie > we cptilt cacuectr Gj Dio aquarE: rt Dinidat aquas aba. Covfcite ce rmultuplicainim-te replere a
| quas mar : ane(q mulaplonene
into conflict with the Holy Roman
DebuneinnquEcopUnsenic Munna Cooped cffenanan fine. Cand gues 5} quis. Refeeoeu0 fremaunenti :Bit:
of the Roses. These were a Series Dewentee cus flueacaque uiue:e que Damnane veer §Menmue-fed pott ‘finns aquae que crane firbfram:
10 ab bye que rant fuper fermanren-
} Sipe tecramn. stGarhi Cuctres mane
| pipe quicuo , Dict quogs Devs, Prax Emperor, Frederick III. His actions
nccorfue wibit ne aune audit nec priond fudiain Dome dit quod Ditrar reece anid uve tn freee
incorhominre aferndic que praca’ funura labora. Pile reenepean fat A runt: facto ef wea. BHocauitg; bua
also sparked suspicion among
of civil wars between the rival mmr diligqearibus fe: mutta ala que Areabunned xa1eegdnefoeric Dubyo Fermanncerned celts&fret ett uelpece
Mane Dirs(tuunduo, Hint werode-
refnozmmenta * repnilra-2 bettias tty
re (teuubii (roo ure, fact €tra.Er
Plantagenet houses of York and
propria fincagmna defiaecane . Freee
rogeutue erga cowb free Lerupeatiie:
protulcctt frarncyo: 1100 pok
notes non tant yphecd Gjhrftow
palltae
uo.Congergentur aque quefirh elo fecie Brus brttiao cere yuera fpcace fi Hungary's nobles, who feared
funtin lonun uni ee aparear orga. agzhumentay orue repnte teem ger

Lancaster, both of which had

MeumDicar uonporuran-de brs
hebeaitis protean’. Pevuni reftuna
aun fendi? Aletececiimaudits: alie
te nifa narrarmir. QU nach? utdlign s6rGatun eftta.Erwocnnt Deve act nore fue. Eeorbre Deus
opflee bow:
reait. Fada? tontiné adraging +
that their own positions would
yee | atu tearm seoIgUNgatignety; aqua
nidein aftefoot mi yLaia-cera quia me? ox .Plus
protein?
claims to the throne. Henry VI, a iiatasecen cere ee rumie: obmedtator auteulca,. lonba oypetlane macia. fr vidi Deusie
oat cee eon ea a
fiieudiné noftea-» phir prfabs mane
— wwolderfibs cela betty} wnutifeey; roo: be undermined.
tquemt yfaia
sepmula ignorarco apy mind nOU Mertens fepruagiara > 3
Lancastrian, was on the throne at mofo tlicamning (ntang:2 bibtras ne- fro confdrone nichole apotolos ) oreonenrn eefacieneen
») por iedEan ou
ut Lin
ta
rites ropnliqu cone ireoeaEe ere
uit Deus hormué ad magia ee fim Despite these initial territorial
niae brie aureaticio plcit. Laufas 06untchi pus fonat
fifeco.Preittoy seutne frunenin Crrmecapie fichyper heubiné fant: ad pean Oa eee
the outbreak of the wars, but with
Terorie ndeftnteuceponere. Juda prur quoe ane horas rater fprritualia i
>)reccamn . brfacturaett ica. Erproculie nit dbizmnafould ec feuuinid cocanit eos. gains engineered by Corvinus,
Dent facts Didi ellecoftlio : ne prolo~ rarifinata poficos Iegosi qunbsote

_ the victory and accession of

moue on? toculeor eedapud ieareoy
Duplict danmrtartcommpbhendecee: 40
penegraduinteres tmée, Caw inna
terauquecios Quid j aing aca
cs pea usenet reentfe
bran eta gecnro fed-hgattgs Facies
n
feria Sethu
E fragmaninh pleema
t tenatt
Cabinee caine Rontinarain pili
the net result was that most of
maente iDereco facietat quia wt pla medntae ¢Sicubi tteaflatone tibiwie feudeclyxbta untiqtig
0: Diiifard poevi, Eevidae Devoopelec nnd: maria nolantibus oft:auntuertta Hungary fell victim to Ottoman
Edward IV in 1461, the conflict tonie bogura cabere mitkaae. Dewigy
nbiciing frcraci
aliqa firtptitra eftat
Torerarri
urditi migeos otal. QUththaberde pe AA i aqnimanbus que moucneue fap teed.
Diary deus. Lecedrdr vobre emmne
Deporte Gio * fpirieu (arto autate aut
finnode ona beBieat
et depo Kreebae enffocerent free fup tera conquest in 1526, and Bohemia
ineeegitani fie aut outing cacuenie: ue eee
tora cere
frpoftea ab apie nee
wfuxpara eet: fineinfiqna t scuntitfa
liga quetatxer f fomecipio
sere fanikacent:
3aecyand Ge nd monic phaucit
>aeuentsiona hint S} cdrurvae= atineratert Ruane ectct feenieé geaects fitzucfinewobis teic - : and the remaining part of
wulganmt. Eructag quio pr? autor triplania lacina-cy grea yo ea Hhhee iMhuvmnde exe,seEnc et1a.frei tgs ‘Veitis atannbus ter-orin volar
Gutenberg Bible fepruagitas cdiulas alegandeic men: beta. Goa berotra nto. Rictebea Deve duo fanaa ace relizumiuedtio
§moutruc inoematti Hungary came under direct
Dado fun qeeverrit-quits
Dhakeadé eoubiitimn cartinme:uc
damerit op? mato utpeller Dickertunciare man? quibue Equma vinto :uc heteaean
| Johannes Gutenberg produced only rol antes athe, Or {Grefeci1a
genetmoet eape-n2G- untfeller nodica ftellag-2
paterea in vueferba
&rfart eftira.Wading us Habsburg control.
yorafpittrs-+ nd into porttepare itbsiuruco:ep
pollcote Spit ema quefeoratseereat valde bora,
180 copies of his Gutenberg Bible, jatpheatiple raster. St Sithbriilannu roenal crete}
Fema méto eelive luerent faptemastt

| but it marked the start of the age of

the printed book.

137
 e it = Pas ed ms oes
Tsar Ivan lll, “Ivan the Great”, declared Moscow free of Tartar domination by tearing up Malbork Castle was the headquarters of the Teutonic Knights. It was
__ the deed [money demand) of Tartar Khan. Europe’s largest medieval brick-built castle and is in what is now Poland. -

APTLY NAMED "THE SPIDER KING” ; France was effectively also : vast Novgorod Territory, which THE THIRTEEN YEARS WAR The underlying political fragility
Louis Xl acceded the French bankrupt. Yet by 1481, Louis had : although sparsely populated, between Poland-Lithuania and of Japan and the relative
throne in July 1461 marking a : not only seen off the last of the economically marginal, and the Teutonic Knights - a military : impotence of the Ashikaga
critical point in the evolution of : dukes of Burgundy, bringing imperfectly known, was rich in order founded in Palestine - : shoguns, rulers of Japan since
the French state. The medieval : Artois, Picardy, and Burgundy : natural resources. In 1478, lvan ended with the Second Treaty of : 1333, was made starkly clear by
monarchs of France, whatever : itself under his rule, but by a : simply annexed it. Torun in 1466. The Teutonic : the 11-year Onin War, which
their nominal power, were heavily combination of inheritance and However much it may have Knights, powerful since the early : broke out in 1467. It left Japan
limited in their influence. They : clever diplomacy had added : increased the stability and 13th century (see 1236-40}, were : devastated and led to more than
exercised direct rule over only a » Roussillon, Cerdagne, Maine, : prosperity of China, the Ming
limited area, chiefly in the north : Provence, and Anjou. This ' dynasty faced a series of
and centre, with the rest of the
country controlled by a series of
: extension of centralizing, royal
authority was a crucial step in
substantial internal threats to its
: authority as well as continuing
44 THE CAPITAL WHICH WE
mostly hostile magnates, of whom
the Duke of Burgundy (Charles
: the subsequent emergence of a
: unified, much more powerful
: conflict with the Mongols to the
north. If most revolts were the
BELIEVED WOULD FLOURISH
the Bold] in 1461 was the most French state. In reality, relations : product of famine, a number were FOR TEN THOUSAND YEARS
obviously threatening (see : between the French monarchy
HAS NOW BECOME A LAIR
: also the result of the increasingly
1472-76). By the end of the : and its most powerful subjects : autocratic and rigid nature of

FOR THE WOLVES. 99

Hundred Years War in 1453, would remain fraught well into Ming rule. In every case, they
: the 17th century. As elsewhere, it : were harshly suppressed. In
| | proved necessary both to assert | 1464, the same year that the
: authority and to negotiate with : 16-year-old Emperor Chenghua Onin Ki, ate 15th—mid 16th century account of the Onin War
: provincial and noble elites. This came to the throne, such a revolt
: dual process, central to the : broke out among the native Miao obliged to cede much of the : acentury of turbulence - the
Ez making of early modern France, ; and Yao people in the provinces western half of their territory to : Sengoku jidai or Warring States
Rs ‘at ae ae ; led to friction and tension long ; of Huguang and then Guangxi in Prussia, and, in return for : Period - as a series of regional
: after the reign of Louis XI. : south-central China. The revolt Polish-Lithuania aid in the war, magnates or daimyo attempted
: Expansion on an even more : took two years to put down. In this territory became the property : to eradicate their rivals. The war
: dramatic scale also marked : addition to the 160,000 troops of the Polish crown. : began as a succession dispute
: developments in Muscovy - the : stationed in the south, a further : over who would replace the
» Grand Duchy of Moscow - with the : 30,000 were sent to the two : elderly and retiring Ashikaga
: accession of Ivan III “the Great” Samurai sword
: provinces. No accurate estimate : Yoshimasa as shogun, the
This 15th-century katana, with its
: in March 1462. The collapse of : of the death toll is possible. The : Hosokawa clan supporting the
scabbard, is typical of those used in
Mongol rule over the 14th and : revolt flared up again in 1467 and, the Onin war. It could deliver a : Claims of Yoshimasa’s brother,
: 15th centuries, and the fall of : ona larger scale, in 1475. sweeping cut in a single movement. : the Yamana clan those of his
: Constantinople (now Istanbul) in
silk binding
: 1453, had opened the way for
covers handle
Muscovy not merely to assert
: leadership of the Orthodox world,
: but to defy any last Mongol
: attempts at overlordship. In the
Louis XI
: pfocess, it sparked a burst of
Crowned king of France in 1461, : expansion that characterized
Louis X/ extended his rule over an : Russia well into the 19th century.
increasing numbers of territories : The most notable of these scabbard
during his 22-year reign. : extensions under lvan was in the

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138 4
 is
aaa ae.
44 THE LANDLOCKED SEA IS GREEK
OR ROMAN, THE BOUNDLESS SEA
IS PORTUGUESE. 99
_ Fernando Pessoa, Portuguese poet and writer, 1885-1935

: state in early 16th-century BY ABOUT 1470, PORTUGUESE

FRANCE
: Europe. Isabella was 17 years old exploration of the west coast of
? when she married Ferdinand. In Africa had reached as far as
KINGDOM OF : choosing to marry him, she risked modern-day Sierra Leone. It had
ARAGON
: the wrath of her older half- _ been a hesitant process, limited
: brother Henry IV who perceived by ship-types, principally galleys
PORTUG,
L
: her as a threat to his own power. and cogs, that were unsuited to THE EXTENT
=
GRANADA «(2°
e : But the marriage, in the Spanish
: city of Valladolid, was the
long-range exploration. Its goals
were uncertain beyond a general
OF THE INCA
yhe ot
beginning of an important phase hope to trace the trans-Saharan EMPIRE
: of Spanish history. Within eight gold trade to its source and to
Castile and Aragon
The two kingdoms of Aragon and ' years Ferdinand and Isabella exploit the West African slave 3,200km (2,000 miles) of coastline.
Castile became a composite _ - Los Reyes Catdlicos, the Catholic trade. The death in 1460 of Not only was Portugal able to lay
monarchy through the marriage of Monarchs - were jointly ruling Prince Henry, “the Navigator”, claim to a series of what would
Ferdinand and Isabella in 1469. : Castile and Aragon, although the the early champion of Portuguese prove immensely lucrative
: kingdoms were not formally exploration (see 1434], had made : trading stations (see 1480-82] on
infant son. In the process, not only : unified. Administratively, further progress unlikely. : the West African coast, Gomes
was Kyoto, the imperial capital, : politically, and financially, they However, in 1469 Portuguese king : opened the way to the Portuguese
entirely destroyed, the : remained separate and, as such, Afonso V agreed - in exchange for : penetration of the South Atlantic.
Hosokawa and Yamana were consistently bedevilled by an annual fee - to allow a Lisbon The Inca Empire, more short-
themselves became victims of the : competing priorities and rivalries. merchant, Fernao Gomes, to : lived even than its Aztec neighbour
conflict, their power and status Even at the height of Spanish continue to push Portuguese : to the north, was formed ina :
swept away as the increasingly : power in the 16th and early 17th efforts south along the West : surge of conquest after 1438 from
brutal fighting continued. : centuries, no Spanish monarch African coast. The results were : its Andean heartlands in central
The marriage in 1469 of : was able to resolve the problem spectacular. Within five years : Peru. Tupac Yupanqui (Topa Incal,
Isabella, heir to the Castilian : satisfactorily. Nonetheless, Gomes had explored a further : who came to the Inca throne in
throne (which she inherited in : Spain's potential to emerge as the 1471, had been Fernao Gomes [right] continued the
1474) and Ferdinand, heir to : dominant force in Renaissance made head of the : age of exploration began by Henry the
that of Aragon (which he : Europe was unmistakable under Inca armies in 1463 : Navigator (left) as depicted in the
inherited in 1479), led directly : Ferdinand and Isabella. It was a and had already Monument to the Discoveries, Lisbon.
to the emergence of a unified, : position that the tirelessly substantially
unbendingly Christian Spain. : hard-headed Isabella and the enlarged Inca (2,500 miles). Topa Inca’s principal
This resulted in the development politically astute Ferdinand were control to the north, contribution to Inca expansion
' of Spain as the most powerful : well placed to exploit. well into modern- : came with his conquest from
day Ecuador.The : about 1470 of the Peruvian
empire extended : kingdom of Chimor.
tempered point about 4,000km In southeast Asia, the kingdom
: of Champa [in modern-day
: Vietnam) had existed since the 7th
: century. But in 1471 it was
Inca ruler : effectively destroyed by Viet
This 18th-century
troops who laid waste the Champa
painting shows Tupac
Yupanqui (Topa Incal, : capital, Vijaya. What remained of
the fifth Inca of the : the kingdom would henceforth be
Hanan dynasty. : avassal state of the Vietnamese.
 es
‘ea om " ¥
A carving of what would become the central Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl The Battle of Nancy left thousands
in Teotihuacan located near present-day Mexico City. dead, including Charles the Bold.

FOLLOWING THE OTTOMAN : Christian powers, notably Venice, : Expansion of Burgundy North IN JANUARY 1477, CHARLES THE
CONQUEST of Constantinople in : inan attempt to enlist them in : This map shows the Sea BOLD’S Burgundian forces
1453, its conqueror, Mehmed II, Christian struggles against : territories held by Charles confronted the Swiss again, at
set out not merely to extend : Ottoman expansion. The result :E the Bold, who pursued DUCHY
r Calais BRABANT Nancy in Lorraine. They were
: an aggressive e. Brugese ue
Ottoman rule in the Balkans, but : of Uzun Hasan’s efforts was a comprehensively routed and the
to reassert it in Anatolia, where
: expansionist policy. ean eee Ds
: comprehensive defeat in 1473 at body of the duke was discovered
: The duchies of ;
Ottoman strength had been : the Battle of Otlukbeli, the light : Bar and Lorraine COUNTY OF eCologne face down in a frozen pond. While
significantly reduced in the wake cavalry of the Turcoman forces : gave Charles pepiy HOLY Louis XI (see 1461) seized the
of Timur’s early 15th-century swept aside by the Ottomans’ i COUNTY OF =~ __
Burgundians’ French territories,
pan oes VERMANDOIS = HUEY OF Seciee
invasion [see 1401-03). It was now » overwhelming firepower. : a erie of <_LUXEMBOURG those in the Low Countries
most obviously opposed in the By the mid-1470s, the territories stretch of lan :
i by 1475 S Paris e@Luxembourg passed to the Habsburgs with the
region by a Turcoman people, the : of Burgundy were at their height. marriage of Charles's only child,
White Sheep Turcomans, under : Their heartlands were the Duchy FRANCE Margaret, to the future Holy
the rule of Uzun Hasan. They had : and County of Burgundy, Roman Emperor, Maximilian |.
been actively, if not particularly awarded to the first duke of William Caxton (c.1420-92)
successfully, wooed by various : Burgundy, Philip the Bold, brother was an English merchant whose
of King Charles V KEY
continental travels introduced him
of France, in Territories suRGUNDY
held 1467 COUNTY
oe to printing. He established the
1363. In 1369, BURGUNDY first printing press in England in
: (1) Territories COUNTY OF ®Zurich
with his marriage added by 1475 ae ete 1476, printing the first book a year
to Margaret, the y COUNTY
- Border of Holy OF MACON later. He published 87 books,
countess of Roman Empire f many also translated by him.
Flanders, Philip also
acquired Flanders : being a single, continuous : conquest — but to assert its
and Artois - in : territory. Furthermore, as many : independence as a separate
effect a significant " of them were within the Holy : kingdom. The Burgundians were
portion of modern- : Roman Empire, these were at inevitably opposed by the infinitely
day Belgium.
To this least theoretically subject to the = more calculating French king,
constellation of : Holy Roman Emperor, just as Louis XI. In little more than four
territories, Philip's: : Burgundy’s French lands were : months in1476, they suffered two
grandson, Philip the : nominally subject to the king : calamitous defeats by Swiss
Good, then added of France. But their size and, : mercenary armies in the pay of
parts of northeast crucially, the fact that they held : Louis - at Grandson and at Morat
France and much of | many of the richest of the : in modern northwest Switzerland.
modern Holland. : burgeoning trading centres of : The rigidly hierarchical Aztec
These holdings, : the Low Countries made the : Empire (1428-1521) became
however imposing, : Burgundians a formidable : a formidable military force,
were still far from ' power. Philip the Good’s heir, : imposing itself with brutal finality
: Charles the Bold, inherited this : on its neighbours in central
: state within states in 1467 and ' Mexico from Tenochtitlan, its
Ottoman drums
The Janissaries of the | determined not just to make it capital. Axayacatl, who came to
Ottoman army parade : acontinuous territory - which by the Aztec throne in 1469, added Caxton’s printing press
: 1472 he had succeeded in doing The first printing press in England,
with the drums that :substantially to the empire, mainly
established by William Caxton in
were used to urge the : through an audacious :with the conquest of the state of
soldiers into battle. Westminster, London, produced its
© combination of purchase and : Tlatelolco in 1473. first book in 1477.

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 Built in 1482 as Sao Jorge da Mina, Elmina Castle was one of the first
Portuguese trading forts on the west coast of Africa (now Ghana).

44 IT IS NOT NECESSARY TO BY ABOUT 1440, THREE SEPARATE

MOSSI KINGDOMS had become
: sub-Saharan Africa, designed to
: secure a Portuguese monopoly
HOPE IN ORDER TO UNDERTAKE, established in West Africa, roughly : of the West African gold trade.
NOR TO SUCCEED IN ORDER TO in present-day Burkina Faso.
These were Tengkodogo, Yatenga,
: It proved immensely lucrative.
: By the early 16th century, 680kg
PERSEVERE. 99 and Wogodogo. Making use of : (1,500\b) of gold a year were
formidable cavalry, from about | passing through Elmina.
Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1433-77) 1480 they exploited the gradual The second development was a
decline of Mali in the face of further series of voyages, led by
Songhay expansion by raiding : Diogo Cao, southwards along the
The Ottomans continued their : Joan, wife of King Afonso V of deep into Mali territories. They : West African coast. The voyages
expansion with the Treaty of Portugal, in part to disrupt would remain an important : were sponsored by the new king
Constantinople of 1479, which Castilian claims in the exploration presence until colonization by : of Portugal, John Il, who came
ended the intermittent Ottoman- of the West African coast. At its France some 400 years later. : to the throne in 1481 and who
Venetian war that had begun in heart was a dispute as to which The year 1482 saw two crucial = committed his country to a
1463. It confirmed the Ottomans country could lay claim to the developments in the continuing : deliberately aggressive policy of
as anaval power of growing : Atlantic island groups - the Portuguese exploration and : Portuguese expansion. On Cao’s
- importance. It also brought with it Canaries, the Azores, and Madeira settlement of West Africa. : first voyage, in 1482, he reached
Ottoman control of the Greek | - successively colonized by Spain The first was the construction of : — and claimed for Portugal - the
island Negroponte (Euobea) and : and Portugal since the early 15th Sao Jorge da Mina, now called : mouth of the Congo. On his
of Lemnos in the north Aegean. : century. The outcome was the Elmina Castle, on what was later : second voyage, in 1484-86, he ! Cao's cross
Venice remained a major power : 1479 Treaty of Alcacovas, which known as the Gold Coast and is : penetrated almost a further : Portuguese explorer Diogo Cao
in much of the region but it was : confirmed Castile’s claims to the today Ghana. It was a strongly © 1,600km (1,000 miles) south to : marked his discoveries of the west
anxious not to jeopardize its : Canaries and Portugal's claims to fortified trading post, built on royal : Walvis Bay (now in Namibia}, once : coast of Africa with a series of
lucrative Ottoman trading links. : the Azores and Madeira, as well as authority and the first permanent ! again imperiously claiming the : Imposing stone crosses.
The accession of Isabella I to : Portuguese rights in West Africa. European settlement in : coast in the name of the
the throne of Castile in 1474 was : Portuguese throne. Both
challenged by her step-niece, | BTHE SPANISH INQUISITION | eases ' voyages were epics of tenacity,
: made in the face of consistently
Founded by Ferdinand and ! unfavourable winds and currents.
Isabella in 1478, the aim of the ' This was a discouraging discovery.
Inquisition was to impose an : Where sailing conditions around
overarching Christian Catholic : West Africa to the Gulf of Guinea
identity on all Spanish : were generally benign, aided by
territories. Tribunals were held : northeast trade winds and the
in which heretics — which at : Guinea Current, to the south they
this time meant Jews and : were much more arduous. Cao's
those who had converted to : achievement was impressive, but
THE NUMBER Christianity from Judaism - : it emphasized that if a practical
: route existed to the Indian Ocean
OF BOOKS were punished and expelled.
After the fall of Granada in : and the East, it would be left to
PUBLISHED BY 1492, it was also applied to later Portuguese navigators -
' notably Bartolomeu Dias in 1487
CAXTON’S Muslims. The Inquisition was
finally disbanded in 1820. : - to pioneer the new route, deep
PRESS » into the South Atlantic.
 Most of what remains of the Great Wall of China was rebuilt during the Ming dynasty.
Dotted with fortifications it extends over 6,400km (4,000 miles).

IN 1483, THE WARS OF THE ROSES : Gulf, reporting favourably on all

flared up again (see 1454-55). : these routes in 1492. The second
Fought between Lancastrians and : expedition, under Bartolomeu
Yorkists - rival Plantagenet _ The Renaissance [literally Dias, was specifically charged
claimants to the English throne - “rebirth”} grew out of the with finding a navigable passage
it had appeared to have been Italian Middle Ages and : around the presumed southern tip
settled for good in 1471. In 1470, _ marked a re-evaluation of of Africa. In January 1488, rather
the Yorkist Edward IV, who had _ European thought. At its heart than simply following the African
seized the throne from the was a reinterpretation of : coast southwards as Cao and
hapless Lancastrian Henry VI in Europe's Classical past. It gave : others before him had done, at
1461, had been forced from it by a rise, first in Florence (left), to : around 27°S [several hundred
group of vengeful magnates. In an artistic and architectural miles short of the tip of south
1471, with Burgundian support revolution, and later, toa : Africa) he headed southwest,
from Charles the Bold [see scientific one. Its early impact : away from the coast. By any
1472-76), Edward retook the was fitful but eventually spread : measure, that was remarkably
throne. Henry was murdered, to most of Europe in the : daring. Miles from land, he picked
probably on Edward's orders. following 200 years. : up the westerlies that blow in the
Edward, now grossly corpulent, : South Atlantic and was carried
died in 1483. Instantly, the : almost 500km (300 miles} to the
conflict reignited, albeit in a ! probability is that he ordered But there was a further FOLLOWING ON FROM EARLIER : east of the Cape of Good Hope
different form. The problem was © their killings; his hold on the : Lancastrian claimant, Henry PORTUGUESE VOYAGES (see : on the tip of southern Africa.
that the new king, Edward V, : throne was too shaky to permit : Tudor (1457-1509). His right to 1470-71), two further expeditions : Dias's voyage provided a better
was only 12 and that his mother’s : any rivals to survive if he could the throne was tenuous at best, were despatched in 1487 to understanding of the wind
family, the Woodvilles, saw : eliminate them. Richard Il was : but critically he had the support investigate routes to and across : systems that linked the Atlantic
the boy-king as an obvious : vilified in later Tudor propaganda. © of the French king, Charles VIII the Indian Ocean. Péro da Covilha : and Indian Oceans, and proved
opportunity to proclaim : But given the turbulent treachery : (r.1483-98]. In August 1485, Henry was charged with investigating : vital in calculating the route to the
themselves regents - in effect, : of late-medieval England, led an invasion from France. the East African coast as well as : Cape of Good Hope and beyond.
to seize the throne themselves, : Richard's actions seem fairly : By the end of the month, Richard the Indian Ocean. From Aden, : Later, Vasco da Gama and Pedro
undoing Edward IV's legacy. rational. Sooner or later the ' was dead, killed at the Battle reached via the Red Sea, he sailed : Cabral exploited this knowledge
This at least was the view of the : Woodvilles would have sought an : of Bosworth, his superiority in to Calicut in India, as far south as : in their own voyages.
dead king's most consistent : excuse for his death. : numbers undone by the ineptitude Sofala in East Africa and north to Human sacrifice is a feature
champion, his brother the Duke of : © of many of his commanders. the Strait of Hormuz in the Persian common to many early societies.
Gloucester, who was competent, Henry Tudor, in turn, crowned on
intelligent, and loyal. Gloucester : the field of the battle, had become
characteristically pre-empted the : Henry VII. The Tudor monarch’s
Woodvilles by seizing the throne : seizure of the throne might easily
himself, as Richard III, executing ' have provoked yet another round
the leading Woodvilles, and oy »
my '
» in this destabilizing infighting.
imprisoning Edward V with his : But Henry VII would prove among
younger brother in the Tower of : the most pragmatic, capable, and THE ESTIMATED NUMBER OF
London where both were then
murdered. If no definitive proof Battle of Bosworth
far-sighted of kings. Under the
Tudors, England was significantly
PEOPLE SACRIFICED AT THE
Henry's Tudor army of
has ever been offered that Richard
Ill was responsible for the deaths
i 5,000 troops overcame strengthened, its magnates
tamed, and its government
INAUGURATION OF THE
: Richard Ill’s much larger force, which
of his nephews, the overwhelming : was undermined by poor leadership. : comprehensively overhauled. TENOCHTITLAN PYRAMID
 This 19th-century painting shows the Fall of Granada in 1492, which ended
780 years of Muslim rule in Spain.

None is known to have practised it ;: ambitious rebuilding of the On 2 January 1492, Spanish : “crusading” taxes, previously paid
with the vigour of the Aztecs, : 6,400-km (4,000-mile] long Great » monarchs Ferdinand and before the fall of Granada. Success
however - or on the same : Wall. First built in 2008ce, the : Isabella (see 1469] presided over : depended on Columbus's
gargantuan scale. It is estimated : wall had presented a symbol of : the fall of the Kingdom of : undoubted navigational ability and
that the Aztecs ritually sacrificed ' superiority as well as a barrier : Granada, marking the end of a : omhis insistence that Asia lay
upwards of 20,000 victims a year : to incursions from barbarians in : 10-year campaign to claim the ' much further to the east than
- slaves, enemies captured in : the north. Under the Ming, its ! last Moorish territory in Iberia. : conventionally believed. On his
battle, and people simply offered : mountainous eastern length was : It was the end of a process begun : arrival in the New World on 12
in tribute. The aim was to placate : built mostly of brick and stone, its : inthe 8th century - the Christian : October, somewhere in the
their gods, above all the god of : western, desert-like length of clay : reconquest or reconquista. It : Bahamas, he immediately
war, Huitzilopochtil, whose daily : and earth, often reinforced with : underlined Spain's determination : despatched emissaries to the
battles with the sun could be : wood. It stood on average 8m (25ft) : to project itself as an aggressively : “Chinese” court. Columbus's
sustained only by blood. In 1487, © high and 5.5m (18ft) wide and was : expansionist Christian power. : self-belief blinded him to the
on the opening of the new great : studded with 25,000 towers and In 1492, the Spanish crown finally reality of what he had discovered.
temple in the Aztec capital, : upwards of 15,000 garrisons - a decided to back Christopher
Mamluk helmet
Tenochtitlan, up to 20,000 people :; monumental feat of construction. : Columbus's first Atlantic crossing.
This 15th-century iron Mamluk
were ritually executed, their helmet, as worn by Mamluk soldiers, : Columbus had made a series of
hearts sliced from their bodies, in is decorated with inlaid silver : extravagant claims about the
: Tenochtitlan : rewards his voyage to the Indies
a single ceremony that may have calligraphy.
: This mural of the 16th-century Aztec
lasted anything from 4 to 20 days. : capital imagined by 20th-century : (Asia) would generate. Spain
In China, the Ming dynasty : Mexican artist Diego Rivera shows THE OTTOMAN-MAMLUK peace : was anxious to match the spoils
{1368-1644} continued the : the city’s massive scale. treaty of May 1491 ended a war : flowing to Portugal from its West
OO ELLEN LEIS
that had begun in 1485 for control : African ventures. It also needed to
gre meeny
of the Western Asia and Red Sea replace the lost revenues from
trade routes. Neither side gained
much but the war exhausted the
Mamluks financially, making their (44 SAILED THIS
subsequent conquest by the DAY NINETEEN
Ottomans in 1516-17 inevitable.
By 1490, Vladislas II (1456- LEAGUES...
1516) ruled over a vast kingdom, (COUNTED) LESS Born in Genoa, Italy,

_THAN THE TRUE

including Poland-Lithuania, Christopher Columbus made
Bohemia, and Hungary, whose four transatlantic voyages
crown he accepted in 1490. Despite _NUMBER, THAT believing that the riches of
the size of these territories, they
had little influence on Europe as THE CREW the East could be reached by
sailing west from Spain. His
a whole. Poland-Lithuania - vast, MIGHT NOT BE | first journey (1492-93) was
desolate, and impoverished -
was on the margins of Europe.
_DISMAYED IF - | followed by
1498-1500,
others in 1493-96,
and 1502-04.
Hungary and Bohemia, although THE VOYAGE He was the first European to
more sophisticated, remained
not just separate kingdoms but
SHOULD PROVE sight South America, in 1498,
and charted most of the
uneasy rivals. The potential of LONG. 99 Caribbean. He died still
these sprawling lands would certain he had reached Asia.
never be realized. Christopher Columbus, 1492

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This map by Alberto Cantino was the first to show Portugal's discoveries in the West and East
and the division between Spanish and Portuguese territories agreed at Tordesillas.

IN 1494, POPE ALEXANDER VI drew : : with Venice, the papacy, and the THE SOUTHWARD PROBING : Calicut in southwest India. A
up the Treaty of Tordesillas, : Holy Roman Empire to oppose him | ALONG the African coast by the _ practical route to the East had
which effectively divided up ' ina Holy League, ending his Portuguese in the 15th century | been discovered. Da Gama's
existing and future New World : dreams of Italian conquest. had reached a climax when : crossing of the Indian Ocean -
discoveries between Spain and : By about 1496, an outbreak of Bartolomeu Dias rounded the tip = criss-crossed by Arab and other
Portugal. It drew a north-south : what was commonly called the of Africa in 1488. In May 1498, : trade routes since the 9th century
line 370 leagues [about 2,000km » | French pox (so-named as it was Vasco da Gama consolidated this = - depended on local Muslim
or 1,350 miles) west of the Cape ‘ : first recorded among French achievement when he continued : knowledge. His route to the
Verde Islands. Land to the west © troops there) occurred in Italy. It into the Indian Ocean and reached =: Indian Ocean, on the other
was assigned to Spain; that to the : was syphilis. By the middle of the : hand, was new. Where previous
east, to Portugal. : 16th century, about one million : Portuguese mariners had
Battle of Zonchi
The political crisis provokedin : people had contracted the disease schhba
This woodcutina
depicts ships in the : hugged the African coast,
Florence by the death of Lorenzo | ~ probably froma more virulent first battle of the Ottoman-Venetian ; da Gama made a vast sweep
(“the Magnificent”) de Medici in |} strain brought by sailors War. It was the first time cannons : westwards into the South
1492 was exploited by a Dominican : == --____ returning from the New World. had been used in a naval battle. : Atlantic. It was not only
monk, Girolamo Savonarola, who © Borninltaly,Leonardowasa © From about 1490, Genoese
imposed onthe citya “Christian | self-taught polymath -a : mariner John Cabot had lobbied
and religious republic”. In 1494, he | | painter, sculptor, inventor, : Portugal and Spain to sponsor a
denounced tyrants andinstituted | and scientific enquirer : westward voyage to Asia across
the Bonfire of the Vanities: the | | | —-whose restless genius |: the Atlantic, but was rebuffed. He
destruction of idolatrous goods. ' | drove him to embrace a _; turned his attentions to England,
He was overthrown, tortured, and =: limitless range of projects, : basing himself in Bristol. An early
executed four years later. : but to complete almost none. | : voyage failed, but in May 1497 -
The Italian Wars, nominally : |Among his masterpieces are with royal backing - he set out
sparked by the desire of Charles : MonaLisaand The Last | | again. He reached northern
VIII of France (1470-98) toasserta : Supper. He died in France in : Newfoundland, then sailed south
claim to the kingdom of Naples, |. the service of Francois |. |: along 650km (400 miles) of coast.
saw an intermittent 65-year i Sense : : Ae : He returned to England certain
struggle between France and : he had reached China. The
Spain for control of Italy. Its : near Parma in July 1495. However, : following year, he led a much
opening salvo, which ended in : having made his triumphant way to | larger expedition. All but one
1499, was both destructive and : Naples to claim its throne, Charles : ofits five ships were lost, Cabot
inconclusive. The first phase ended ; Vill found his former Italian allies, - with them. But his initial
with the Battle of Fornovo, fought : notably Milan, had joined forces ' success prompted five further
: voyages to Newfoundland from
1501 to 1505, which confirmed
: the new discoveries were clearly
: not Asian. Despite these
: disappointments, the English
: ventures were important in proving
Aba APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF the existence of a hitherto
: unsuspected continent - North
EUROPEANS WHO CONTRACTED |sie ee) re
: to later English primacy
in its
SYPHILIS IN 50 YEARS FROM 1496 exploration and settlement.
 This scene from a fresco
Safavid Emperor Shah Ismail | i ttle against Uzbek warrio|

_ the longest ocean crossing yet 300 > THE YEAR 1501 IS CONSIDERED : to the west by the military Michelangelo’s David
| 81 : might of the Ottomans, the Completed by Michelangelo in
made, it initiated the route used the date the Safavid Empire was
galleys and galliots 1504, this giant marble statue of
throughout the “Age of Sail”. 250 = founded. With the Ottoman : Safavids increasingly turned
biblical hero David stands at
The ongoing Ottoman naval ; 200 Empire to the west and the : their focus to the east. In
5.2m (17ft) tall.
threat to Christendom was other ships Mughal Empire to the east, it : the process the Safavid
E2004 : capital was moved
underlined by the Venetian- i 100 formed one of a bloc of
Ottoman War of 1499-1503. Both a
iw other ships sophisticated, centralized, highly : eastwards, finally establishment in 1504
sides enjoyed profitable trade 2 E50 bh cultured Muslim empires that : ending at Isfahan. of the Funj Sultanate
ered
links. But Venetian sea-power oe galleys dominated West Asia in the 16th The introduction of Sennar in the north of
represented an obstacle to 00 and : and 17th centuries. It began ina : of African slaves by Sudan, at the expense of
Ottoman designs in the eastern galliots ' burst of conquest launched by : European settlers to the previous Christian rulers
Mediterranean. The Venetian » Shah Ismail | whose troops : the New World began of Sennar. The sultanate
defeat at the Battle of Zonchio in surged westwards across Persia, : in 1502, hardly 10 , rapidly established itself as
August 1499 made Ottoman naval putting an end to the political : years after Columbus's | amajor power in the
: power strikingly clear. Ottomans Venetians vacuum and in-fighting that had : first Atlantic crossing. In region, threatening both
followed the death of Timur (see : part, this was a response to Ethiopia and the
Zonchio ship numbers
The disparity in numbers between
1386-90) in 1405. Proclaiming : the alarming death rates Ottomans in Egypt.
the Ottoman and Venetian fleets was himself Shah of Persia, Ismail | : of the native populations, In Europe, the role
compounded by the refusal of some was a Shiite Muslim and : who had been similarly of Florence in the
Venetian commanders to fight at all. vigorously promoted his faith as : enslaved. The Portuguese , early years of the
the official state religion. Checked ' rapidly followed suit. This ¥ High Renaissance
A further round in the Franco- : initial phase of the trade, was highlighted
: Spanish struggle for mastery of : known as the First by two
Safavid Empire
: Italy was launched in 1499, when From modest beginnings on the
: Atlantic system, lasted remarkable
: Louis XII of France (1462-1515] Caspian Sea, by 1501 the Safavid : until around 1580. : works: Michelangelo's statue of
: seized Milan. He then allied with Empire extended to occupy a swathe The spread of Islam in East : David, which he completed in
: Ferdinand of Aragon (1452-1516), _ of Western Asia. : Africa was reinforced by the : 1504; and Leonardo's painting
: agreeing to divide Naples between ! Mona Lisa, completed sometime
: them. With Naples secured, Louis KHANATE OF
: around 1505-07.
Black eB
: and Ferdinand fell out. Twice GEORGIA % PAANATE BUKHARA
Sea
: defeated by his former ally, Louis
: reluctantly made peace in 1504. : QARABAGH™ 25 |, ae
ee :
Ai
TRANSOXIANA
(46 .. ANYONE
The burst of European
: exploration sparked by Columbus
ARMENIA
AZERBAIJAN
SHIRWAN ©
_WHO HAS SEEN
: continued in 1500 when a Spanish Guanes —. _MICHELANGELO’S
: expedition under Vicente Pinzon AFGHANISTAN _DAVID HAS NO
and a Portuguese enterprise
: under Pedro Alvares Cabral bound %e, Baghdad
:
SAFAVID EMPIRE Kandahare _NEED TO SEE
» for India made the coast of Brazil.
“Op.
Phy
@
LURISTAN
eBasra
elsfahan
MUGHAL
MING,
SEISTAN EMPIRE _ANYTHING ELSE
2 : Cabral’ sighting of this new land
would prove important in
OTTOMAN : ? KERMAN BY ANY OTHER
» establishing Portuguese claims to EMEIRE e&

@,
eee BALUCHISTAN
SCULPTOR... 99
: Brazil. Of greater significance was “Gg UL
! the growing realization that this i Gulf of Arabian Giorgio Vasari, Italian author,
Oman Sea
: was indeed a New World. : from Lives of the Artists, 1568

- 145
 44 THE TRUE
WORK OF ART IS
BUT A SHADOW
OF THE DIVINE
PERFECTION. 99
Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian
artist (1475-1564)

: MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI
: (1475-1564) was one of the
: defining figures of the High
: Renaissance. In 1505, he was
: invited to Rome by Pope Julius ||
: to begin work on a monumental
: tomb, an association that would
: last for 40 years. In 1508, he began
: work painting a fresco on the
: Sistine Chapel ceiling, which he
: completed 4 years later.
: The pace of Portuguese
: expansion across the Indian
: Ocean in the early 16th century
: was remarkable. From 1505,
: the Portuguese established
themselves in a string of ports
: along the East African coast. The
: goal was simple and ruthlessly
pursued - the domination of the
: lucrative spice trade with India
: and East Asia. A key player in this
: campaign was Afonso de
: Albuquerque, who in 1509
: became viceroy of the fledgling
: Portuguese colony in India. By
: 1510, he had secured Goa as the
: principal Portuguese base in India;
: by 1511, he had overseen the
: foundation of the first Portuguese
: settlement in Southeast Asia,
: Malacca. He also sponsored the
: first Portuguese voyage to the
: Spice Islands, the Moluccas,
: which were reached in 1512 by
: Francisco Serrao, who had sailed
; In company with Antonio de
: Abreu and Francisco Rodrigues.

Sistine ceiling
Commissioned by Pope Julius II, the
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the
Vatican is one of the masterworks of
Michelangelo. It depicts scenes from
the Old Testament.

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 Depiction of the Battle'of Agnadello, one 6f the maj This detail:shows the coronation of Ottoman Sultan Selim I. The empire
Wars, from the'tomb
of Louis XI! and’Anne of Brittan _ almost trebled during his nine-year reign.

Where the latter two were forced

to turn back in the Banda Sea, (6 ARE THEY NOT MEN? NO LESS SIGNIFICANT than the
Spanish exploration of the
: artillery, were overpowered at
: the Battle of Caldiran. His Eastern
Serrao was able to continue to the
DO THEY NOT HAVE Caribbean in the immediate : flank secured, Selim swept
: into Syria and Mamluk Egypt,
RATIONAL SOULS? 99
Moluccas using native craft. aftermath of Columbus's 1492
However initially unpromising, it crossing was the discovery by : which instantly crumbled.
was a measure of the excitement Juan Ponce de Leon in April : Selim | not only dramatically
sparked by Columbus's Atlantic 1513 of the “island” of Florida. It : increased Ottoman territories
: Antonio de Montesinos, Dominican friar, delivering a sermon
crossings (see 1492) that within : to Spanish colonists, Hispaniola, 4 December 1511 was the first Spanish contact with : but, in securing almost all the
- 20 years a variety of Spanish the mainland of North America : Muslim holy places of the Near
expeditions had explored and and the basis for subsequent : East, added substantially to
- mapped almost the whole of the : Antonio de Montesinos, in which, : Pope Julius II established the Spanish claims to the region. In : Ottoman prestige.
Caribbean. This included, in : to predictable outrage, he : League of Cambrai in 1508. attempting to circumnavigate his
1508-09, the Yucatan Peninsula : denounced the “cruelty and : The Republic was quickly island, Ponce de Leon made a
on the east coast of Mexico, a : tyranny” of the settlers. ; plunged into crisis by its defeat further discovery almost as
discovery that led directly to the Similarly aggressive Spanish in May 1509 by Louis XII’s French important in the age of sail as
conquest of Mexico by Hernan and Portuguese attempts at army at the Battle of Agnadello, Columbus's discovery of the wind
Cortés (see 1519). The European : colonization in Morocco, where : one of the major battles of the systems of the central Atlantic -
conquest of the New World was : both seized coastal strongholds in : Italian Wars (1494-1559). The the Gulf Stream.
driven largely by greed and the 15th and early 16th centuries, : following year Julius II allied Niccolo Machiavelli was a
effected principally by violence. : partly helped the rise of a new : himself with Venice against diplomat in Florence when, in
It nonetheless laid claim to a : Moroccan dynasty after 1511 - the : France, anxious that Venetian 1513, he wrote the first modern
Christian imperative, given papal : Sa’dis - who filled the political : territorial designs in northern handbook of political science,
sanction as early as 1452, by : vacuum created by the crumbling : Italy had been replaced by The Prince (published in 1532).
which “saracens, pagans, and any : of Marinid rule in the 1480s. : identical French ambitions. This Its central theme - that the
other unbelievers” could be The Venetian Republic was : shuffling of alliances was typical exercise of political power requires:
enslaved. It was a view explosively diplomatically isolated and : of the period. It was given a violence and deceit - earned it
challenged in 1511 in a sermon by : opposed by almost every major : further twist with the formation lasting notoriety. It offers advice
a Spanish Dominican friar, : Western European power when : in 1511 of a new Holy League, about the most effective means
: including England, now directed of ruling: essentially a pragmatic Philosopher and writer,
ax zi =
-sseBangkok :
Philippine
Islandeee Mindanao
5) =
PAC [FIC
: against France. One outcome of determination to use all means Niccolo Machiavelli was a
i : South & OCEAN this was a subsequent Franco- to hand. functionary in Florence,
j Saigon e China
A Zi Sea = : Venetian alliance. Ottoman territorial expansion where he witnessed the
fi Gulfo Celebes
(9, Thailand Sea a Hemmed in to the west by the was renewed after the civil war of power of aggressive rulers at
io Moluccas’
(Spice
= New
Guinea : Ottomans and threatened to 1509-12 which saw Selim | first hand, including, in
See: Islands) : the south by the Portuguese, emerge as sultan at the expense of : 1502-03, that of the pope’s
Ceram
=>
ay “a
Belacca
Celébes : the Safavids were nonetheless both his father, Bayezid II,who was illegitimate son, the ruthless
eS z eo : successful in confronting the forced to abdicate, and Selim’s Cesare Borgia. He completed
ao a a Banda several diplomatic missions,
« a, ‘Makassar @ : loose Uzbek confederation of older brother, Ahmed, who was
INDIAN = Java Sea Flores Sea Sea
Sumbawa peoples of Central Asia to their killed in battle. Selim initiated this but in 1513 was arrested and
OCEAN
pe Flores fp
: north. In December 1510, with burst of growth - directed south tortured. He wrote The Prince
~ “Sumba
: victory over the Uzbeks outside and east against fellow Muslims in the same year. He died
: Spice Islands exploration _ the city of Mery, substantial rather than north against Christian aged of 58, impoverished,
: Portuguese explorer Francisco KEY
: territories, including Herat, Europe - in 1514 when the before his book enjoyed its
Serrao successfully reached the —> Antonio de Abreu /
Francisco Rodrigues 1512 : Bactria, and Kandahar, came Safavids, vastly outnumbered and later notoriety.
Moluccas (Spice Islands] after others
: had turned back. -—» Francisco Serrao 1512 : under Safavid rule. with no answer to the Ottoman
446 WHY DOES NOT THE POPE...
BUILD... ST PETER’S WITH HIS OWN
MONEY, RATHER THAN WITH THE
MONEY... OF POOR BELIEVERS. 99
Martin Luther, German priest, from 95 Theses, 1517

The fallof Tenochtitlan on 13 August 1521 was the result not just of Spanish
ferocity but of a 20,000-strong native army recruited by Hernan Cortés.

THE OTTOMAN CONQUESTS IN THE

MIDDLE EAST under Selim | -
: Church in Wittenberg, Saxony, as
part of what was a growing
THE ELECTION OF CHARLES V AS
HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR in 1519
464 HE KNEW
who in 1517 also brought Algeria i protest movement against appeared pivotal. Charles BETTER THAN
into the Ottoman orbit - meant
that the Ottoman Turkish state
religious practices and corruption
: in the Catholic Church. In 1521,
(1500-58) was already the
ruler of several territories across
_ANY OTHER THE
was now emphatically an empire. : after being excommunicated by Europe: in Italy, Austria, the Low TRUE ART OF
It was also rapidly developing as : the pope, his opposition to the Countries, and in Spain. Now, as NAVIGATION. 99
a major naval power. Control of : Church hardened. The ready Holy Roman Emperor, his status
Egypt both consolidated the response to Luther's teachings appeared unassailable. For the
Ottoman presence in the eastern © and the influence of the printing earnest Charles, the imperatives Antonio Pigafetta, Italian navigator,
: on Ferdinand Magellan, 1521
Mediterranean and, crucially, gave press in disseminating his ideas were Clear - to preside over a
them access to the Red Sea. : resulted in a major force for prosperous, pan-European
Already effectively masters of the : religious change known as Catholic entity which, properly : of the first circumnavigation of
overland trade routes with the : the Reformation. mobilized, would then rout the : the globe. The expedition leader,
East, the Ottomans were now The arrival of a Portuguese Ottoman menace. The reality was : : Ferdinand Magellan (b.1480) was
poised to dominate the lucrative : fleet under Tomé Pires in Canton, painfully different. The size of his : a Portuguese nobleman who,
: Emperor Charles V
“route of spices”. In doing so, : China, in August 1517 was the territories made effective control : Few rulers were more dutiful than : despite his nationality, succeeded
they found themselves in direct : climax of a campaign to open up impossible. Few of his subjects : Charles V or as conscious of their : in persuading Charles V to bankroll
conflict with the Portuguese, who : trading routes across the Indian were prepared to surrender : divine destiny. However, his best : his scheme to reach the Spice
had been actively probing the Red : Ocean, begun when Vasco da Gama traditional “liberties” to a distant, : efforts consistently proved in vain. : Islands in the Pacific by sailing
Sea since 1513. The stage was set : rounded the Cape of Good Hope in foreign ruler; almost none was
for another round of conflict : 1498. However, the early results prepared to finance him; and permanent warfare and dutiful
between the Muslim world and : of these encounters were not religious differences persistently : hopes consistently frustrated.
the Christian West. : promising as the Chinese regarded intruded. Simultaneously, the The daring, ruthlessness, and
In October 1517, the priest and : the newcomers as uncouth prospect of Habsburg domination : single-mindedness Spain brought
professor of theology Martin : barbarians. A Portuguese trade alarmed every other major : to overseas adventuring paid
Luther (1483-1546) nailed his : mission to Peking in 1520 was European power, above all France. : dividends with Hernan
95 Theses to the door of All Saints : treated with similar scorn. The result was a reign of near : Cortés’s march on
: Tenochitlan, capital of
the Mexican Aztec
: Empire. Beginning
The Reformation - the : in 1519, in less than
religious revolt against the : five years the
Catholic Church instigated by Spanish force,
Martin Luther (right) - tore the : aided by Tlaxaclan
Western Church apart. Politics : warriors, had
intruded from the start as the : subjugated an
revolt spread across Europe. : entire nation. A
The consequence was a legacy : minor noble and self-
of violent religious division financing adventurer,
and confrontation between : Cortés brought about Spanish
Catholics and Protestants that : domination of Central America.
led to a permanent divide in A further milestone in the
European Christendom. cementing of Spain’s global role
: was marked in 1519 — the launch

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At Pavia in 1525, the French army's siege lines were broken by a Spanish relief Babur's Mughal empire could only be
army, then the soldiers were cut to pieces by pikemen and gunfire. created - and sustained -— by force.

: west. Five ships set out; one

returned, three years later, and
THE BELIEF THAT THE LANDS IN
THE WEST discovered by European
: KEY
™ Habsburg
464 IF THERE IS
without Magellan, who had been explorers from Columbus onwards : possessions 1525 A PARADISE
killed by islanders in 1521. It was,
nonetheless, perhaps the most
were unknown Asian coasts, rather :— Border of Holy
Roman Empire ON EARTH, IT IS
THIS, IT IS THIS,
than a new continent, proved
ATLANTIC
remarkable enterprise of the age tenacious. It was likewise widely OCEAN
of sail, an epic which for the first held that a navigable passage ITISTHIS. 99
time revealed the immensity of to the East through these
the Pacific. landmasses must exist. It was Inscription on Babur’s tomb 1530
1521 saw another round in the only the voyages between 1524
Italian wars (1494-1559), this and 1528 from Florida to Nova ‘Barcelona

time sparked by French fears of Scotia by Giovanni da Verrazano IN HIS STRUGGLES AGAINST
a Habsburg-dominated Europe (1485-1528), a Florentine in the argxe KIN OF i CHARLESV (see 1521), Francois |
1A Naples
after the election of Charles V as service of Francois | of France, Vedas. had solicited the help of the
Holy Roman Emperor. France and, that revealed the existence of a a
SI gs
ean Sea Ottomans in 1525, in the process
se,
at least initially, Venice joined a continuous coastline. Yet ‘AFRICA initiating a Franco—Ottoman
forces to oppose Charles, England, Verrazano persisted in the belief alliance that lasted 250 years.
and the papacy. For the French, that the Pacific was within reach. : Habsburg Empire under Charles V The alliance also provided the
the war was as unsatisfactory as The German Peasants’ War of : The very size of Charles V's empire : such as Anabaptism, which were Ottomans with further justification
its predecessors, culminating ina 1524-25 was a sharp reminder : made it effectively ungovernable. : considered to challenge both social to renew their conflict with
: Whatever its potential power, it was : hierarchy and Protestant authority. Hungary and, in August 1526, they
series of defeats. of the way that the language of
: riven by religious and political strife.
Protestant reformation could be The Battle of Pavia in 1525 saw obliterated a combined Hungarian-
appropriated by groups who : Francois | captured and shipped Bohemian force at Mohacs.
Portuguese caravel usually lacked a voice in politics. : gathered ina variety of loose to Madrid, where he was obliged In 1526, the Mughal Empire was
Magellan's flagship Trinidad was founded in northern India. It was
The revolts were attempts by : groupings and hastily assembled : to surrender all claim to Italy. But

Wa
a caravel like this Portuguese
: vessel. Typically less than huge numbers of the politically : armies. The uprising was : it was an agreement the French the creation of Babur (1483-1530),
30m (100Ft} long, they disenfranchised in Germany and : savagely repressed, with : king had no intention of honouring. a descendant of Genghis Khan
4 were sturdily in Austria, by no means all of : thousands killed. Luther and (see 1201-05). Babur hailed from
: seaworthy ships. them peasants, to end what they : other leaders of the “official” Ferghana in central Asia, from
saw as abuses against them - : Reformation vehemently denied where he had been expelled. In

Wu
chiefly taxes and labour services : any connection with the rebels, 1522, however, he captured
- by the Church and the nobility. : and the revolt provoked a Kandahar, an important staging
At the war's height in the spring of | brutal clampdown on forms of point on the road to India and, in
1525, perhaps 300,000 people had : Protestant religious radicalism, 1526, defeated the Afghan Sultan
of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, and
declared himself emperor. At its
height at the beginning of the
18th century, the Mughal empire
(Mughal is Persian for Mongol)
covered almost the entire
Battle of Pavia
THE NUMBER OF REBELS al The French Army was
subcontinent. It was a byword
for sophisticated and courtly life,
L. virtually wiped out at
KILLED IN THE POPULAR - Pavia on 24 February 1525, with fattened by trade and conquest,
and, though Islamic, tolerant
: 8,000 casualties compared to 1,000
UPRISING IN GERMANY : Imperial casualties. of other religions.
The SackofRome in 1527 shocked Europe and devastated the Church. Although it also Atahualpa, the last Inca emperor,
deeply embarrassed Charles V, it meant his dominance in Italy was confirmed. leads his army at Caxamalca.

THE MOST SHOCKING EVENT OF : on his vast territories. As Holy : war with the papacy’s Holy League ; SPANISH EXPLORATION AND
THE ITALIAN WARS was the Sack Roman Emperor, Charles V was ' ~assembled to challenge his CONQUEST IN THE NEW WORLD,
of Rome in 1527 by Charles V's the natural ally of the Catholic © dominance in Italy - some of the so decisively reinforced by the
Imperial troops. It also highlighted Church just as he was the natural troops who laid waste to Rome subjection of Mexico in 1521, was
the contradictions facing Charles enemy of Lutheranism (see 1517]. : when his army ran out of control continued on an even more
V as he struggled to impose order : Yet not only was Charles now at in protest at their unpaid wages spectacular scale with the
: were openly sympathetic to the takeover of the Peruvian Inca
reformist doctrines of Luther. Empire by Francisco Pizarro
; = But, while Pope Clement VII (1476-1541) in 1532. in little more
: cowered in the Castel San’ Angelo than a year, a force of 188
: as churches and palaces were Spaniards defeated a highly
: ransacked and nuns raped and organized state of five million.
: priests murdered, it was clear Like Cortés's invasion of Mexico,
that Charles's control of Italy its success depended on internal
was now absolute. divisions within the Inca Empire,
Following their victory at Mohacs and a combination of religious
- in 1526 and the conquest of much zeal, greed, and superior military
: of Hungary in 1529, the Ottomans The 46-year rule of Suleiman means - steel, guns, and armour
feared the Habsburgs would try to was marked by a succession against the Incas’ weapons of
recapture the lost territories and of victories in the Balkans, sharpened stones and padded
: so laid siege to Vienna. It proved the Middle East, and North cotton armour - the whole driven
: too ambitious a task even for the Africa that left the Ottomans by Pizarro, a man of huge ambition.
formidable Ottoman army, for the as the most dynamic and On the other side of the continent,
weather proved as arduous a foe dominant presence in the further European penetration of
as the Austrians. A second attempt =:; western hemisphere. He is South America was also taking
on the city in 1532 also failed. known as “Suleiman the place, albeit on a far smaller scale.
After his victory at Panipat in Magnificent” in the West and In 1532, Portugal established its
1526, Babur consolidated his hold as Kanuri, The Lawgiver”, in first permanent settlement in
: over north India thefollowing year, the Islamic world, and his Brazil, at Sao Vicente. This was
: defeating a Rajput army under reign saw a flowering of the nucleus of what by the end of
: Rana Sanga at the Battle of Ottoman art and culture. the century would be a huge
1 Khanwa. The final establishment colonial enterprise based on
: of Mughal power came in 1529 slavery and sugar plantations.
with the destruction of an Afghan Hesse and Saxony in northern In 1532, hostilities between
army at Ghagra. Germany, under which each Germany's Schmalkaldic League
: In 1531, the Schmalkadic promised to aid the other if and Emperor Charles V ceased
: League was formed. This was a Charles V attempted, by force, to with the signing of a treaty at
: military alliance, made originally re-impose Catholicism. It rapidly Nuremberg. The concessions
: between the Lutheran rulers of : expanded to include other German made to the Protestants by
Protestant states and gained the Charles, which, most importantly,
support of Charles's external included freedom of worship,
Siege of Vienna
The Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1529 enemies, the Ottomans and were welcomed by Martin Luther
failed because of the bad weather - France. It was also an opportunity and enabled German Protestants
bitter autumn rains and early snow : for each territory to enrich itself to spread throughout the country
- and over-extended supply lines. : by taking over church property. in the following decade.

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 44 THE SCANDAL
OF CHRISTENDOM AND
A DISGRACE TO YOU. 99
:
Catherine of Aragon to Henry VIII about Anne Boleyn, 1533

(
: Charles V's seizure of Tunis in June 1935 was almost the only unequivocal success
i
of his reign. Briefly, the prospect of a resurgent Christendom loomed.

_ HENRY VIII OF ENGLAND had been : suppressed, yielding the crown an 1,175
awarded the title Fidei Defensor : additional income of around people burnt
_ - Defender of the Faith - by Pope : £200,000 per annum. However,
| Leo Xin 1521 in recognition of his The initial Catholic response to : within years the money was gone,
_ vehement defence of the Catholic the Reformation was hesitant : squandered bythe king.
_ Church against Protestant and uncoordinated, and was Henry VIII's divorce from
attacks. Henry would remain a led by a series of individuals ' Catherine of Aragon in 1533 had PORTUGUESE
INQUISITION
devout Catholic to the end of his rather than the Church itself. : been necessary to allow him to
| life, opposed to all attempts The Jesuits, the Society of : marry Anne Boleyn. When she,
to reform Catholic practice. Jesus, were established in : too, failed to produce a son, Henry
644
_ And yet by 1533 he had been 1534 by a Basque nobleman, : had her executed on charges of effigies burnt __€—
| excommunicated from the Ignatius of Loyola. Loyola’s : adultery in 1536. In the same
Roman Church. The following goal was to produce a new : year, tensions at the pace and
: Portuguese Inquisition
_ year, he completed the rupture, generation of highly educated extent of religious change, and the :: Between 1540 and 1794, tribunals
, establishing a national church, priests to spread a new sincere concerns of many that the : held in Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra, and
| wholly independent from Rome, militantly Catholic faith. Given break with Rome signalled larger : Evora led to the death by burning of
_ with himself as its “supreme papal sanction in 1540, the » : changes in the fabric of the 1,175 people, most of them Jews.
| head”. The reasons for this Jesuits spearheaded the : traditional Church, had reached
_ improbable split were simple. Catholic revival. : boiling point in the North of conceded to the movement's
| Initially, Henry wanted a divorce : England. The Pilgrimage of » demands. But when the crisis
| from his ageing Spanish wife, : Grace saw the largest uprisings was over, he had the rebellion’s
Catherine of Aragon, who after convinced himself this was divine HAVING BROKEN WITH ROME, : in England since the Peasants : leaders executed.
| 24 years of marriage had yet to : punishment for marrying his it followed that all the structures : Revolt in 1381. Those involved had : Distracted by events in Europe,
' give birth to a son. Henry had : brother's widow - in 1501, of the Catholic Church in England : shown little or no dissatisfaction : Charles V was rarely able to
: Catherine had married Henry's should be taken over by the state. : with the Catholic church and were : pursue his goal of driving the
: elder brother Arthur, who died This was not just a question of : unprepared to see centuries of Ottomans back to their Turkish
: the following year; Henry and wanting to eradicate papal » settled faith discarded. Faced with ' heartlands. In 1535, however, he
: Catherine married in 1509. authority in England. The Catholic : protest on this scale, the king : achieved a rare success with the
The pope, under pressure from Church in England was immensely : : conquest of Tunis in North Africa.
: Catherine's nephew, Charles V, wealthy, and this was money that : It proved to be a costly victory,
: refused to grant a divorce. Henry's Henry VIII, permanently strapped : provoking an Ottoman raid on
response, formulated over several for cash, was determined to have. : Majorca that captured 6,000
: years, was in effect to become his In 1535, the king’s secretary, : Christians and encouraged the
: own pope, able to authorize his Thomas Cromwell (c.1485-1540), : French monarch to co-operate
58% of eligible
: own divorce. Prompted in addition took charge of the two-part monasteries
: more closely with the Ottomans.
by the knowledge that, as dissolution of the country’s dissolved : While it never achieved the
: elsewhere in Europe, any ruler monasteries. Starting in 1536 : notoriety of its Spanish equivalent
: asserting control of the Church in and culminating with all the great : (see 1480), the Portuguese
: his own country would necessarily monasteries in 1539, the : Inquisition, founded in 1536, was
: increase his own authority, in 1534 dissolution involved systematic : nonetheless vigorous in rooting
: the Church of England was vandalism and saw the greatest
Dissolution of monasteries
: out heresy in Portugal and, from
_ Anne Boleyn
: brought into being under the Act transfer of land ownership in : Under the Dissolution of Lesser
: 1560, in its colonies, such as Goa.
Henry VIII married Anne Boleyn in
: of Supremacy. In pursuit of Henry's England since the Norman : Monasteries Act of 1536, 243 of : Its chief target was Jews, many
secret in January 1533, four months
before he divorced Catherine of : personal interests, Roman Conquest in 1066. Every one of the : the 419 eligible monasteries were : originally Spanish, who were
Aragon. She was crowned in June. : Catholicism was abolished. 560 monasteries in England was : suppressed or dissolved. ! forcibly converted to Catholicism.
 i) i ; te Pe Sa

is. illustration from the Vallard Atlas of 1547 depicts Jacques Cartier and
-members of the abortive French-Canadian colony of 1541-42. &

: suppression of the revolt and the : by nervousness of being beaten THE FIRST CONTACT BETWEEN

44 1AM INCLINED TO city’s notables were forced to

: parade barefoot. The underlying
© to it by Spain (just as Spain was
: anxious not to be outflanked by
EUROPE AND JAPAN WAS IN 1543.
According to the Portuguese

BELIEVE THAT THIS IS : tension, however, remained.

Despite concerted efforts, the
: France], proved no more fruitful.
: Initial efforts had been made in
writer and explorer Fernao
Mendes Pinto, it occurred on the

THE LAND GOD

Spanish exploration of North : 1534 and then in 1535-36 by island of Tanegashima, to the
: America in the 16th century © Jacques Cartier (1491-1557), in south of the main Japanese
: proved discouraging. The myths : the course of which the Gulf | archipelago. Not only did the

GAVE TO CAIN. 99 : that drove it - a waterway linking

: the Atlantic and Pacific, the
: of St Lawrence and then the
: St Lawrence River in present-day
| Portuguese introduce firearms
| to Japan, but they became
Jacques Cartier, French explorer, about Canada, 1536 : “Seven Cities of Gold” - proved to Canada were reached and claimed intermediaries between China
be just that. The reality was vast : for France. In 1541, by now | and Japan, whose merchants had
THE BATTLE OF PREVEZA, fought : In August 1539, Ghent, the territories that proved hostile and : thoroughly alarmed by Spanish | been forbidden to trade with the
off western Greece in September birthplace of Charles V, rose in : unrewarding. Nonetheless, from intentions, a more substantial | Chinese as a result of persistent
1538, further underlined the reach revolt against him. The issue was 1539, Hernando de Soto led a : French expedition was sent to raids by Japanese pirates.
of Ottoman naval power. It pitched : tax, demanded by Charles to : four-year expedition across much : Canada with the explicit goal In 1543, the Polish mathematician
the Ottomans against acombined : finance his Italian wars. It revealed : of the southern territories of : of establishing a permanent Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Papal, Venetian, Genoese, and the difficulties faced by Charles V : today’s US. Similarly, in 1540-42, : settlement. It was led by published On the Revolution ofthe
Spanish fleet brought together : in imposing authority over : Francisco Vazquez de Coronado : Jean-Francois de la Rocque de Heavenly Bodies. It was based not
by Pope Paul Ill. The Ottoman : autonomous cities determined : headed a still larger force north : Roberval, with Cartier his deputy, | on Copernicus’s own observations
victory highlighted the difficulty = to guard their “liberties” by : from Mexico, penetrating as far and was a dismal failure. Cartier | of the heavens so much as on
the Christians faced in welding : refusing to pay a distant ruler for : as Kansas. And in 1542-43, Juan : returned, unauthorized, to France | those of Greek and Arab
together disparate, uneasily : an equally distant campaign. : Rodriguez Cabrillo led a fleet : in 1542 with “gold and diamonds” | astronomers. Nonetheless, he
allied forces. : Charles personally oversaw the : north along the unknown Pacific : that proved worthless. Roberval j was able to demonstrate that
coast, discovering : abandoned the colony the | these much older observations
a San Diego harbour. : following year after a winter of | were more readily explained by
But none of these : near starvation. French efforts in | the Earth orbiting the Sun rather
ventures would : North America would not be
be followed up : renewed for half a century.
until the end of A consequence of the Catholic
the century. : response to the Reformation was
French attempts : the missionary work undertaken
at settlement in ! between 1541 and 1552 by Francis
North America, : Xavier (1506-52), a co-founder of
promoted in part i the Jesuits in 1534. Conceived on
; an heroic scale, its aim was to
: spread Christianity to East Asia.
Battle of Préveza : Xavier travelled via Mozambique
Despite the size of : to Goa, then to the Spice Islands
the Christian fleet at ' between 1545 and 1547, and then
the Battle of Préveza
: to Canton and Japan before
in September 1538, | Copernicus’s Universe
it proved no match : returning to China, where he died
| This painting by Andreas Cellarius
for the Ottoman fleet | in 1952. His Christian conversions | from 1660 shows “The system of the
led by Khair ed-Din : are said to have been exceeded | entire created Universe according
(Barbarossa). : only by St Paul. to Copernicus”.
 Fist
Native: and llamas were pressed into service to transport silver from Potosi,
Bolivia. The sprawling shanty town became the largestinthe New World.

185 Holy Roman Emperor. Persistently

tonnes of gold distracted by the French and the
Ottomans, he had had little option
but to appease the league [see
1532) and only in 1546, with
France temporarily sidelined after
the Treaty of Crépy of 1544, did
he feel able to confront it directly.
The result, decided at the Battle
of Muhlberg in April 1547, was
an overwhelming military success
: for Charles. The longer-term
consequences were mixed.
In 1545, Spanish colonists
discovered at Potosi, in present-
Gold and silver shipped to Seville
day Bolivia, the biggest single
The silver mountain at Potosi meant
it dominated the exports of precious concentration of silver ever found
metals shipped to Spain from Chile : - in effect an entire mountain of
and Mexico from 1503 to1660. : silver. Together with silver found
in northern Mexico, it would prove
than the other way round. It took to be the motor of the cash-hungry
others, notably the Danish Spanish Empire, for it was New
astronomer Tycho Brahe in the World silver from Potosi that drove
1570s, to show by direct : Spanish trade with China just as it
observation that Copernicus : financed Spain’s attempts at
was right. But a major breach in European dominance.
the geocentric universe theory In the same year, at Trent in the
had been made. Italian Alps, the Catholic Church
Also published in 1543 was set out to challenge the Protestant
Vesalius's On the Fabric of the Reformation by reforming and
Human Body. Like Copernicus, remodelling itself. The Council
Andreas Vesalius (1514-64) of Trent aimed to eradicate
looked to ancient Greek learning. corruption, make the Church's
Unlike him, he made his own teachings more coherent, and to
direct observations, based on project itself as a dynamic and
dissections of human bodies. If competitive religious force. It gave
any moment can be pinpointed as rise to a series of new Catholic
initiating a scientific revolution in orders and met twice more,
the West - the belief the world is between 1551-52 and 1559-63.
best understood by empirical
observation - it was perhaps this.
The Portuguese arrive in Japan
Ever since the formation of the Portuguese merchants display some
Protestant Schmalkaldic League of their wares to the intrigue of the
in 1531, Charles V had been forced locals on their arrival on Japanese
to skirt its threat to his authority as : shores in 1543.

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 44 ART OWES ITS ORIGIN TO
NATURE... THIS BEAUTIFUL CREATION...
SUPPLIED THE FIRST MODEL, WHILE
THE ORIGINAL TEACHER WAS THAT
DIVINE INTELLIGENCE... 99
Giorgio Vasari, from Lives of the Most Excellent Italian Painters... 1550

The only surviving child of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, Mary | was the This copper engraving depicts the
first queen of England to rule in her own right. Peace of Augsburg of 1555.

THE ACCESSION OF THE NINE- : of Cranmer’s Book of Common IN 1552, THE LAST CHAPTER of the : THE FINAL PHASE OF THE ITALIAN
YEAR-OLD EDWARD VI (1537-53) to : Prayer — its use was compulsory. 60-plus years of the Italian Wars WARS made plain that Charles V
the English throne in 1547 marked : When the first Portuguese (see 1505-12] was opened. It saw could never impose himself
a violent break with his father’s : Governor-General, Tomé de France allied with the Ottomans militarily on those of his nominal
religious settlement. Henry VIII's : Sousa, arrived in Brazil in 1549 he in the Mediterranean, and with subjects within the Holy Roman
Church of England {see 1534] was ! was accompanied by five Jesuits, a series of German Protestant Empire who had embraced
Protestant only in its rejection of : sent at the express wish of the princes, notably Maurice of Protestantism. Charles accordingly,
Heretics put to death
papal authority. Edward VI, guided : Portuguese king, Joao III, and led Saxony, in Germany. England and reluctantly, allowed his
During her five-year
by the actively Protestant Lord : by Manuel de Nobrega (1517-70). would make a late and disastrous rule, Mary | had 283
brother Archduke Ferdinand, Holy
: The Jesuits (see 1533-34), in contribution to the Spanish cause Protestants burnt at the stake for Roman Emperor designate, to
: other words, were central to the in 1557. This came about because : heresy - 227 of them were men negotiate a compromise, the
: Portuguese colonization of Brazil Henry VIII's daughter, Mary, : and 56 were women. Peace of Augsburg, agreed in
: from the beginning. Nobrega not became queen in 1953 and September 1555. At its heart was
only celebrated the first mass in married Charles V's son, the : space of less than a year, England a formula - cujus regio eius religio
of te comatont
‘= Brazil, at Salvador, first capital of future Philip II of Spain, in 1554. : was wrenched from one religious (“Whose realm, his religion”) -
Leetec anid abate
runracion of
ie
the new colony, he established the That the ruler of an England that extreme to another. From 1555, she that allowed each ruler to impose
re, ANID other
cceuponies 9 | first Jesuit College in the New had been Protestant since 1534 : began the systematic persecution his own religion on his territory.
World. He and his companions should be married to the son of : of leading Protestant figures, 283 Tolerance of this sort suggested
: proved energetic missionaries, the most militantly Catholic ruler : of whom she had burned alive a major breakthrough. But the
* establishing schools and chapels in Europe is easily explained. : — hence her later demonization choice was between Catholicism
and, importantly, concentrating Where her brother, Edward VI, had : as Bloody Mary. and Lutheranism only - Calvinism
their efforts among the natives’ been aggressively Protestant (see The execution in Geneva in (see 1552-54) was not included.
children. He was a consistent 1549-51], Mary | was no less : October 1553 of the Spanish The accession of the 14-year-old
_ champion of the Indians in the aggressively Catholic, determined ; theologian and radical humanist, Akbar to the Mughal throne in
_ face of routine brutality by the on the full restoration of Catholic : Michael Servetus, burned at the 1556 marked a decisive moment
Portuguese colonizers. — and papal - supremacy. In the : Stake at the express command of in the dynasty’s fortunes. His
Throughout the 16th century, © the French religious reformer father, Humayun, had seen a
the North African coast was one : John Calvin (1509-64), marked substantial erosion of Mughal
of the key battlegrounds between = | a critical moment in the power in the face of Afghan and
Book of Common Prayer
The Book of Common Prayer made
: the Christian West, chiefly Spain, : Reformation (see 1516-18}. Hindu advances. Having fought
English the language of the English : and the Ottomans for control of 3 : Servetus was a keen exponent, off a determined Hindu attempt on
Church for the first time. It also : the Mediterranean. Spain needed : guilty in Calvin's view of “execrable his throne at the Second Battle of
provoked bitter protests and uprisings. : to eradicate the devastating raids : blasphemies” because he rejected Panipat in November 1556, Akbar
: by Barbary pirates — actively : Calvin's belief in predestination - presided over an enormous
Protector, the Duke of Somerset, : encouraged by the Ottomans - that : that all events are “willed by God”, expansion of Mughal power.
acting head of the government, and : permanently threatened to disrupt : with eternal salvation available The claims of Russia’s tsars
Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556), : Habsburg communications with : only to those who submit to God's to be the sole legitimate heirs of
the Archbishop of Canterbury, : its Italian lands. The fall of Tripoli : will (largely as defined by Calvin). Rome and, therefore, the only
introduced a new, vehemently to the Ottomans in 1551, with : What was significant about the guardians of Christianity led
Protestant church, given legal force some assistance from French death of Servetus was that for naturally to a belief that the
in 1549 by the Act of Uniformity. : ships;was a striking blow to : the first time it made plain that expansion of Russia by conquest
Burned at the stake
Many of the outward forms of : Habsburg strategic hopes, just as : Protestantism was every bit was not just desirable but
Michael Servetus died in Geneva, a
Catholic worship, including it marked a significant victory for copy of his book chained to his leg, ‘ as intolerant of heresy as inevitable. Under Ivan IV, known
bell-ringing, were forbidden. It ' the Turks. The city withstood uttering the words: Jesus, Son of : Catholicism. The implications as “the Terrible” (1530-84),
was reinforced by the publication repeated efforts to retake it. the Eternal God, have mercy on me.” : were bleakly ominous. such ambitious assertions were
 This oil painting shows Henri II of France and Philip II of Spain
on 3 April 1559 to sign the peace treaty. In reality, it was signed by their ambassadors.

THE TENSE RELATIONS BETWEEN : KEY

the Portuguese, who had been Territory of
attempting to establish trading Moscow 1300-1505

posts in China since 1513, and the Expansion of

Moscow 1505-1584 aw
Chinese, always suspicious of of SJ =
x = e Arkhangelsk
Portuguese intentions, had = iez
: @ 3
thawed during the 1540s to the i A Pa « s
: Expansion of x ze
point that by 1552 China agreed to i Y ESTONIA eh
: Moscow’ <2’ Riga @ Pskov Nizhny 2
allow Portugal a trading postin ©i In 1547, g Ivan IV Bal ey LATVIA Moscow. Nevgorod
® ~~ Kazan =om SIBERIA
| Macau on the south coast of : transformed the LITHUANIA ‘¢ SRean
: Grand Duchy of Smolensk e@Samara
China. It was the key foothold the
; Moscow into the POLAND : e Saratov
Portuguese had been seeking. By
1557, this temporary settlement : Tsardom of Russia. a Ga. KineHi2
: In the 1550s, he Aral
had become permanent. It would, : A @ Rostov Sea
: began the expansion | HUNGARY @ Astcakhan
in turn, prove a crucial link in the : of its boundaries, 3
Portuguese, later Spanish, global : and its territory and Black Sea %
trading system. Macau remained : population doubled Constantinople D
Portuguese until 1999. : during his reign.
In 1557, Mary | of England (see
1552-54) was persuaded by her The Treaty of Cateau- : predictable consequence was the
husband Philip I to join Spain in its : Cambrésis of April 1559 marked : death of the French king, Henry
renewed war with France. This : the definitive end of the Italian - I (b.1519) three months later in a
proved disastrous, leading directly : Wars. It proved a short-lived : tournament held to celebrate the
to the loss of Calais to the : success. Habsburg Spain was the © treaty. The succession of boy-kings
French in January 1958; Calais © clear victor, its dominance in Italy ' that followed led France to 40
had been English since 1360 and : absolute (at the expense of the ' years of bitter civil war (see 1572).
was the country’s last foothold in : papacy as much as of France). For In 1558, Tsar Ivan IV continued
continental Europe. Mary had : its part, France kept Calais as well : his policy of Russian expansion
been unable to have children and : as Metz, Toul, and Verdun. By the : with the beginning of the
when she died in November terms of the treaty, Philip II : settlement of the Khanate of Sibir
1558, she was succeeded was tacitly making plain : (western Siberia). lvan’s conquest
by her Protestant that the military : of Kazan in 1552 had opened up
half-sister Elizabeth |, and financial : the way to the Urals and Siberia to
the daughter of contributions of : the east. Colonization was led by
Boy ee f Anne Boleyn. the Netherlands : rich merchants, such as the
Akbar the Great in procession to the conflict : Stroganovs, who had been
significantly boosted. Although his : During the 46-year reign of Akbar, had been : granted estates and tax privileges
efforts in the west were thwarted : Mughal India enjoyed expansion Capture of Calais principally to | by Ivan in the lands they took.
: of territory, prosperity, religious This enamel plaque advance Spain's : Protected by Cossacks, large-
by Lithuanian arms, those to the
: tolerance, and cultural richness. by French artist
south were strikingly successful. Italian goals. : scale migration into Siberia
Leonard Limosin Future conflict : followed in the 1570s, establishing
He had already conquered the
celebrates the
Khanate of Kazan in 1552. In 1556, : Russia now found itself not only in in the Spanish : trade links with local tribes. The
capture of Calais by
he achieved an even more notable : control of the trade routes to | French forces led by Netherlands was : Khanate of Sibir was eventually
breakthrough, destroying the : Central Asia, it was also poised Francis, Duke of Guise more or less : conquered in 1582, greatly
: enfeebled Khanate of Astrakhan. : to sweep eastwards across Siberia. on 7 January 1558. guaranteed. A less : increasing the size of Russia.
44 WITHOUT DESTRUCTION,
THERE IS NO CREATION...
THERE IS NO CHANGE. 99
Oda Nobunaga (1534-82)

ws: Pal gi tie i ie it = i

Oda Nobunaga ruthlessly broke the military power of Japan's leading regional ' Construction of the austere yet vast royal residence, El Escorial, began in 1563.
warlords in a drive for control that eventually united Japan. | It was intended to underline the piety as well as the majesty of Spain’s rulers.

BY ABOUT 1560, ODA NOBUNAGA, IN 1563, SWEDEN AND DENMARK Escaping persecution at home,
LEADER OF THE ODA CLAN in CLASHED FOR SUPREMACY in the : in1564a group of Huguenot
central Japan, was emerging as Baltic. The first modern naval ' settlers established a colony in
the greatest of the country’s war ensued - that is, with sailing : Florida on the banks of the St
regional warlords, or daimyo. | ships, rather than galleys {as was : John’s River on the site of what
Since the calamitous Onin War, ‘still common in the Mediterranean], today is Jacksonville. Called Fort
which began in 1466, Japan had heavily armed with cannon. Both : Caroline, it was the first French
been effectively ungovernable | countries were competing for : colony in what would become the
- the daimyo brutally vying for / control of the maritime invasion : US. It lasted little more than a
supremacy. The arrival of the routes, the Danes supported by : year before it was destroyed bya
Portuguese in the mid-15th the semi-independent German : Spanish force determined not to
century, bringing with them city of Libeck. Seven major naval : allow French settlers, especially
firearms, added to the chaos - battles were fought between 1563: Protestant ones, to encroach on
the Japanese proved to be ready | and 1570, by which point both : a territory where they enjoyed
students of the possibilities | sides were effectively bankrupt. : superiority. All the settlers and
of Western-style artillery As other countries would discover, : the relieving force, bar a number
bombardments {see 1574-77]. | custom-built men-of-war may : of women and children, were
From 1561, the substantial have been the most formidably : killed. In revenge, in 1568,
Baltic territories of the Livonian Massacre of Huguenots powerful weapons of the period : a French force destroyed a
Order (see 1236-40), which had : 1562 and dragged on until 1598.

y
: The killing of 80 Huguenots at Vassy | but the ships were prodigiously : Spanish colony, Fort Matanzas,
already lost East Prussia in 1525 : There were, technically, eight in northeast France in March 1562 expensive. The war ended with no : built after the destruction
f
when the Teutonic Grand Master, ! separate wars; in reality, it was a p Was tne spark then beganiihe French) vecritoral gain for either side. : of Fort Caroline.
Wars of Religion.
Albrecht von Hohenzollern, : single, long-drawn-out struggle.
converted to Protestantism, were : On one level, it was a purely
Battle of Oland
progressively dismembered by : religious conflict - was France to : crown or the nobles, whether The Danes were victorious at the Battle of Oland
Russia, Sweden, Poland, and : be Catholic or Protestant? : Catholic or Huguenot. The French | on 30-31 May 1564, during which the Swedes
Denmark. Originally a Crusading : Inevitably, this meant that the Protestants were known as | lost their new royal flagship, Mars.
(that is, Christian) frontier entity, : principal Catholic and Protestant - Huguenots, from the Swiss-
Livonia was a victim in part of the : rulers of Europe were periodically : German Eidgenossen or “oath
Reformation, but more of Polish- ' dragged into the conflict, neither : Companions”. The Catholics were
Russian rivalries - neither willing : the pope nor Philip II of Spain : in the majority, but the Huguenots
to see the other strengthened in : wanting a Protestant triumph any ; were exceptionally well organized.
the region at its own expense. : more than the Protestant rulers : Both parties had powerful
Few conflicts were more : wanted a Catholic one. Yet it was : aristocratic leaders for whom the
destablizing than the French : also a matter of determining who : struggle was also political. A royal
Wars of Religion, which began in : exercised authority in France - the | minority always brought political
instability in its wake (see 1557-59), |
: but from 1560 it was compounded
THE NUMBER OF : by three successive kings who had |
: very limited ability to manage the
KNIGHTS WHO _ nobles. As none produced an heir
_ SERVED AS GRAND : and civil war intensified, what was
: at stake by the end was not just
MASTER OF THE : the country’s religious destiny but
LIVONIAN ORDER : royal authority itself.
 otis .
) s ooo
Breugel’s Massacre of the Innocents notionally has a Biblical subject, but in | A priest blesses two of 1569, the last sustained —
reality it is acommentary on Spanish brutality during the Dutch Revolt. | attempt by Catholics in England to protest against the Reformation.

| IN ESTABLISHING HIS OWN BRAND : the Philippines and the Spice IN 1568, OMURA SUMIDATA , a : constitutional arrangement,
| of divinely sanctioned Orthodox : Islands on the western extremity Japanese daimyo who in 1563 had : anxious it should not be to their
| absolutism, Ivan IV (see panel, © of the Pacific, which, in 1564, converted to Christianity, gave : disadvantage. For the Poles, the
| right) never had to contend with : Spain determined to colonize. | permission for Portuguese : clinching factor was the transfer
the substantial vested interests — : Awestward route across the | traders and missionaries to : to them of immense territories,
mercantile, aristocratic, or clerical : Pacific had been pioneered in | establish a port at a fishing village : among them the Ukraine.
_ - that frustrated his counterparts : 1527, but no return route was / at the southern tip of Japan - The Northern Rising of
in Western Europe. His principal : known. Between June and _ Nagasaki. Until the suppression November 1569 was the most
opponents were the Cossacks - : October 1565, Spanish navigator of Christianity in Japan in 1614, : serious threat to Elizabeth I's
_ free-ranging frontiersmen - and : Andrés de Urdaneta made the | Nagasaki, effectively a Jesuit pragmatic Protestantism. Led by
the boyars, the hereditary nobility. : critical breakthrough, sailing colony, was not only almost : the Catholic earls of Westmorland
farto the north to find | entirely Catholic - or “kirishitan” : and Northumberland, it swept
favourable winds in - it was Portugal's most important : across northern England before
the longest non-stop ' | trading centre in East Asia. : being savagely repressed.
voyage yet made The most urgent task facing In 1569, the Flemish cartographer
- 18,700km (11,600 | Akbar in his consolidation of : Gerardus Mercator (1512-94)
miles]. It completed a Though capable of bouts of Mughal power in India (see : devised a world map that for the
vital trade network. remorse — as when, in 1581, | | 1555-56)was the defeat of the first time showed the true compass
In much the same way he killed his eldest son and Hindu Rajputs of the northwest. bearing of every landmass. The
that religious conflict and heir by staving in his head | | This was a decade-long campaign, : Mercator projection remains the
power politics in the with a staff - Ivan IV applied a which climaxed in 1569 with the most familiar map of the world.
French Wars of Religion ruthless brutality to his rule. fall of the fortresses of Mewar
produced a savage Hence Ivan “the Terrible”. and Ranthambore. Having
conflict, so the Dutch One key consequence was | secured the submission of the
Revolt - which began in that vast numbers fled principal Rajput rulers, Akbar

|
1566 and lasted until 1648 : | Russia during his reign from || married a series of Hindu
Spanish settlement
: —was the product of a toxic mix of : | 1547 to 1584, depopulating | fi princesses (he had 36 wives in
St Augustine in Florida, founded by
: religious intolerance and a drive the country to the point | all), tying his defeated enemies to
Spain in August 1565, is the oldest
continuously inhabited European : for political domination. In 1566, that serfdom (bonded | him in matrimonial alliances. :
settlement in North America. : Philip II of Spain, Catholic ruler peasantry] was the only | In 1659, the failure of Sigismund :
: of the Netherlands, asserted: means of retaining an Il, last of the Jagiellonian rulers of
The Cossacks were co-opted as : “| do not propose nor desire to be agricultural workforce. | the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and
allies by the obvious strategy of the ruler of heretics.” Given that of Poland, to produce an heir led
bribing them, while, from 1565, the there was considerable support ' to a formal union between the
boyars were dispossessed, and : for a growing Protestant minority :; while acknowledging Philip as its ' two states. This new Polish-
in most cases slaughtered. Their : in the Netherlands, his divine ; overall ruler. More particularly, Lithuanian Commonwealth
former estates now became lvan's : obligation to eradicate these : it saw no reason why it should ' became the largest territorial
| “private domain”, the oprichina -
INESECC
NTIS
IIOP
IIE
RO
OE
S RTI
PEO : heresies was inescapable. But : be forced to pay taxes to finance | state in Europe. The move was
a vast area of central Russia there was a further complication. © the Spanish king’s campaigns | prompted by Sigismund’s desire
| parcelled out among a new nobility, : The Netherlands, whether : elsewhere. While this was a to ensure that his dynasty’s
the dvoriane, loyal to the tsar. : Protestant or Catholic, had no : problem that could never be territories were preserved, and
: Gerardus Mercator
' The key maritime challenge : desire to submit to Philip’s rule : resolved peacefully, even by the need to protect Lithuania from i Mercator was an engraver and a
| confronting Spain after its : given that this would mean : the standards of the period, the the Ottomans and the Russians. : mathematician as well as a skilled
| conquests in Mexico and Peru : surrendering its own “liberties” : resulting conflict was shocking The nobles of both territories : cartographer. He devised his world
| (see 1532) was to link them with : —its right to govern itself even | in its violence (see 1572-73). quarrelled over the new map of 1569 for marine navigation.

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 44 BEAUTY WILL RESULT
FROM THE FORM AND THE
CORRESPONDENCE OF
THE WHOLE... 99
Andrea Palladio, from Four Books of Architecture, 1570

Andrea Palladio, the most influential

Pict y_ Ge ie =

In the background of his painting of the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre by

architect of the later Renaissance. the Huguenot Francois Dubois, Catherine de Medici inspects a pile of corpses.

THE MANILA GALLEON was one of In 1571, the Portuguese : 251 Ottoman. The Christian fleet, DESPITE THE SPANISH CONQUEST : significant figure in the Revolt,
the most distinctive elements attempted to colonize Angola, : commanded by Don Juan of of Inca Peru (see 1532), aremnant : agreed to take command of them.
of Spain's New World trading : but the Kimbundu people proved : Austria, illegitimate son of Inca state was set up in the Upper : Rebellion had turned to open war.
system. From the 1570s, three : impossible to subdue, the soil of Charles V, triumphed, largely Amazon in 1539 under a minor The massacre of Huguenots
galleons (two after 1593) made : the coast was too poor to cultivate, : through its artillery. Although the Inca noble, Manco Inca Yupanqui, : in Paris on 24 August 1572,
an annual round-trip between : and the salt trade could not be : Christians failed in the wider goal in asmall settlement, Vilcabamba. : St Bartholomew's Day, was the
Acapulco in Mexico and Manila in : wrested from African control. : to retake Cyprus, the threat of From here, he and his descendants : worst atrocity of the French Wars
the Philippines. In return for New : They did establish trading forts at : Ottoman expansion in the western waged an intermittent, generally of Religion. It stemmed from an
World silver, Spain imported silks, : Luanda and Benguela in 1575 and Mediterranean was ended. ineffective campaign against the attempt to resolve the wars by a
spices, porcelain, lacquer ware, i 1587, boosting their slave trade. Spanish. In 1572, Vilcabamba was = marriage. Henry of Navarre, a
and Ivory. It is estimated that by The Battle of Lepanto, fought overrun and the last Inca leader, : leading Huguenot close to the
1600 the value of a single cargo : Battle of Lepanto
: off the coast of western Greece in Tupac Amaru, was executed. : succession of the French throne,
: An estimated 20,000 Ottomans and
of these ships - the largest in the : October 1571, was the last major In 1566, a delegation of Dutch : was to wed Marguerite of Valois,
: 7,500 Christians died at the Battle of
world - exceeded the entire annual : engagement between galleys - : Lepanto. The ramming tactics ofthe nobles appeared before Margaret : sister of the young French king,
revenue of the English crown. : with 208 Christian galleys against : Ottoman galleys proved ineffective. of Parma (1522-86), half-sister of Charles IX. This was largely
Philip Il and governor-general of : brokered by the king's mother,
the Netherlands, objecting to : Catherine de Medici (see panel,
Philip's drive against heresy in the i right) who, as fearful for her son’s
Netherlands. They were referred : throne as she was alarmed by
to contemptuously by one of : growing Huguenot power, had
Margaret's counsellors as “gueux” : nonetheless persistently sought
- “beggars”. The name was to bring the warring factions to
enthusiastically taken up by the : terms. In this over-heated
protesting Dutch, particularly the : atmosphere, Catholics and
Sea Beggars, privateers (or Huguenots descended on Paris
pirates} whose raids on Spanish : for the marriage. However, there
shipping from 1568 significantly was a plot to assassinate the
hampered Spain's military efforts. : Huguenot’s dominant figure,
The Sea Beggars depended to a » Gaspard de Coligny. Who was
considerable extent on support : behind it remains uncertain. In
from England, discreetly doing
what it could to disrupt the
Spanish. But in the spring of 1572,
Elizabeth | (see 1586-89], anxious :
not to offend Spain too obviously,
closed English harbours to them. 12-15
In response, ina more or less MILLION
1.5
desperate gamble, on 1 April 1572
MILLION
the Sea Beggars seized Brill in
Holland. Within three months they: 1492 1572
had taken practically every town |
P y vices : Inca population
in Zeeland and Holland, purging
The European conquest of the Incas
them of royalists and Catholics.
was devastating. Imported European
William of Orange (1533-84), : diseases rather than deliberate
politically and military the most : genocide was the chief culprit.

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 3

44 SOVEREIGNTY IS THE ABSOLUTE °

AND PERPETUAL POWER OF A

Jean Bodin, French political philosopher, 1576

e ~ te

VA ae A NA
Hopelessly outnumbered, the Portuguese we re in effect exterminated at the
' Battle of Alcacer Quibir. Portugal lost not only its king but most of its nobles.

_ THE NORTH AFRICAN COAST of the : JUST AS PHILIP II’S ATTEMPTS TO : stormed the city of Namur; in
western Mediterranean was a key REASSERT HIS AUTHORITY over : retaliation, Calvinist dissenters
focus of Ottoman-Christian the heretical Netherlands were : established themselves in cities
_ rivalry, with Spain, in particular, derailed by his simultaneous need : across the south. In January 1579,
| seeking to prevent Muslim raids to confront the Ottomans in the ' the Catholic nobility of the south
_ onits shipping. Yet, gradually, the Mediterranean, so the Ottomans’ : reaffirmed their loyalty to Philip,
| handful of North African cities in attempts to confront the heretical : forming the Union of Arras. The
) Spanish hands were lost - Algiers Safavids in Persia were distracted : northern provinces formed the
| in 1529, Tripoli in 1551, and Bugia by their conflicts with Spain. The : Union of Utrecht. To the miseries
in 1555. By 1574, only Tunis pause in the conflict after the fall : of the Netherlands were added
remained. Its final fall in August of Tunis in 1574, confirmed by a : the horrors of civil war.
1574 to an overwhelming Ottoman : peace treaty in 1580, freed both
| fleet marked the end of Habsburg | states to pursue their goals
; Chichak helmet
ambitions in North Africa, which elsewhere. The benefits for the
: The Ottoman rawhide
from now was to remain firmly Ottomans were immediate - a : helmet with copper
The Italian-born Catherine within the Ottoman orbit. string of conquests in Georgia : gilt was so effective it
: Selimiye Mosque
and Azerbaijan that, by the fall : was widely imitated
married Henry II of France in The Battle of Nagashino, fought gyii¢ by Mimar Sinan for Selim II in of Tabriz in 1585, saw both :_ in Europe in the
1533. On his death in 1559, in June 1575 between the forces : Edirne and completed in 1575, this
of Takeda Katsuyori (1546-82) | incorporated within their empire. : 17th century.
she became monarch in all : mosque Is the supreme statement
but name as France fell into and an alliance led by the warlord : of Ottoman Islamic architecture. In August 1578, the king of i
turmoil with her first two Oda Nobunaga (see 1560-62), Portugal, Sebastian, was killed at
sons Francis Il and Charles IX marked a decisive moment in the : the Portuguese in the 1540s had the Battle of Alcacer Quibir in
proving too young and evolution of warfare in Japan — the : been eagerly imitated by the northern Morocco. The battle had
inexperienced, and Henry Ill first effective use of firearms. The : Japanese despite being very slow | two consequences. One was to
facing a deteriorating political | arquebus muskets introduced by : to load. Nobunaga's solution was confirm Ahmad al-Mansur
situation. Her goal to preserve ' to have three guns for each man | (1549-1603) as the new sultan of
the Valois monarchy proved a : firing them, supported by teams an Ottoman-backed Morocco. The |
50)
spectacular failure. | 6,000 : of loaders. The result was a near other was asuccessioncrisisin
i casualties : continuous fire against which the Portugal. Sebastian's heir was
40~ his 66-year-old great-uncle,
: Takeda clan’s conventional cavalry
any case, the plot failed — Coligny, : and infantry were helpless. Henry, a cardinal. He died,
3044 Spain's efforts to suppress the childless, 17 months later.
though wounded, survived — but ' 10,000
the mood in Paris became | casualties : Dutch Revolt (see 1572-73) _ Among the claimants to the
explosive. Catherine may then 20- : foundered in 1575. Unable to levy throne was Philip II (see 1580).
have persuaded the king that a taxes in the Netherlands, Philip II After the Pacification of
Huguenot takeover was in the 10 : could not pay his troops and they Ghent (see 1576), Philip II
(IN
TROOPS
THOUSANDS)
offing and could be forestalled : mutinied, looting and murdering was forced to agree not just
only by killing all the principal © indiscriminately. Philip's authority to pull out his troops but to
Huguenots in the city. Equally, the Nobunaga Takeda ' in the Netherlands disintegrated. restore traditional privileges
subsequent bloodletting may have forces forces : The vacuum was filled by the across the provinces. But,
been spontaneous. At all events, : Dutch themselves - Catholics and on the question of religion,
Battle of Nagashino he remained adamant -
not only was Coligny murdered, but : royalists as well as the rebellious
Nobunaga‘s men outnumbered the
more than 3,000 Huguenots were : Protestants. Their agreement was Catholicism must be restored
| Takeda troops by more than 2:1, but
killed. Across France, 20,000 may it was Nobunaga's skilful use of : sealed by the Pacification of everywhere. The violence flared
have died in the following weeks. _ firearms that won the day for them. ' Ghent, signed in November 1576. again. Philip's envoy, Don Juan,
 a
‘a oP Zs out 4

Resistance to Philip II's claim on the Portuguese crown in 1580 was weak — Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s victory at Shizugatake in May 1583 was typical of his
while an army advanced on Lisbon, the Spanish fleet assaulted it from the sea. © ruthless deployment of overwhelming force against his enemies.

THE PUBLICATION IN DRESDEN | THE RITUAL SUICIDE OF ODA : Songhay Empire

of the Book of Concord in 1580 _ NOBUNAGA (see 1560-62] in 1582 : The death of Askia
was a pivotal moment in the brought to power his most able : Daud in 1582
: followed by the
development of Lutheranism (see _ general, Toyotomi Hideyoshi
: Moroccan invasion
1516-18]. While reaffirming the (c.1536/37-98}. Within a decade,
: (see 1591] were Koumbi Saleh Timbi
supreme importance of the Holy _ he had succeeded in unifying : key factors in
Scriptures - the Bible - itset outa : _ almost the whole of Japan under : the Songhay
strict interpretation of them “as _ his rule. It was a remarkable : Empire's decline.
the unanimous consensus and » achievement for one borna
exposition of our Christian faith”. peasant. All non-samurai were
= KEY,
It remains the basis of Lutheran disarmed to ensure that
: @® Songhayterritory ~~.
beliefs today. commoners could not challenge in 1500
in os
oy
Philip Il of Spain’s claim to his authority, while his Songhay territory Ty “oO
the Portuguese crown after the | reorganization of the tax system in 1625
throne became vacant {see and redistribution of land
1578-79] was made good in | guaranteed the revenues needed : Easter was calculated, fell on Sir Francis Drake (1540-96)
August 1580 by a combination to complete his conquests. : 11 March rather than 21 March. : became the first English captain
of military force and bribery. On 24 February 1582, Pope : Thus, for doctrinal reasons, the : to circumnavigate the globe in
Francis, Duke of Anjou
: Foreign support - English or French Gregory XIII (1502-85) decreed a : pope’s modest adjustment was 1577-80, renewing English
| revision to the Julian Calendar, : made. The change was introduced : interest in the New World. Sir
44 NOTHING - was essential to defeat the Spanish,
so the Dutch Protestants made the ' introduced in 46BcE, which : in October - Thursday 4th being : Humphrey Gilbert had already
IS SO FIRMLY : Duke of Anjou their ruler in 1581. | underestimated the length of
_ every year by 11 minutes. By the
: followed by Friday 15th - but only
: in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and
: voyaged to Newfoundland in
1578-79. In 1583, he returned,
BELIEVED : assertion that a legal king could late 16th century, the Julian date : Poland-Lithuania. The rest : with Elizabeth I's backing, and
AS THAT be legally overthrown would
: have significant consequences.
| was 10 days adrift from the actual : of Europe, especially Protestant : claimed it for England. In 1584,
| date, meaning that the spring : Europe, scenting a popish plot, : again with royal approval, Sir
WHICH LEAST The impact of the Single Whip - equinox, from which the date of ! was much slower to follow suit. : Walter Raleigh (c.1552-1618)
IS KNOWN. 99 Reform, or ‘simple rule”, in 1581 : sent an expedition to found the
: in Ming China was immense. The : Virginia Colony, named for the
Michel de Montaigne, French : reform meant that not only would : “Virgin Queen”. It was established
Renaissance writer, Essais Book I : all taxes be based on property — : the following year at Roanoke
: itself recorded in a universal Island, today in North Carolina,
In July 1581, the northern : census - but they would be paid but, by 1590, it had disappeared.
provinces of the Netherlands - the : in silver. It was introduced to The surrender of Antwerp on
United Provinces - declared their - simplify China's tax system and to : 17 August 1585 to the Duke of
independence by the Act of : avoid problems of inflation created | : Parma was not merely a striking
Abjuration, renouncing their : bya paper currency and debased : military triumph for Spain, it
oaths of loyalty to Philip Il. With : coinage. It was made possible by : brought the city’s commercial
the Spanish king now technically © the inflow of Spanish and Japanese : pre-eminence to an abrupt end.
deposed, a new throne, that of the : silver. The new tax system created
Netherlands, was created and even greater demand for bullion,
: raised the price of silver still Siege of Antwerp
accepted by the Duke of Anjou
The 13-month siege reduced the
(1555-84), brother of Henry Ill : further, and in the long term
city’s population from 100,000 to
of France. The south remained : contributed to destabilizing the 40,000, but it returned the southern
broadly loyal to Philip, but the Act’s : entire Ming economy. Netherlands to Spanish control.
 46 | HAVE THE BODY BUT OF A WEAK AND
FEEBLE WOMAN, BUTIHAVETHE HEART
AND STOMACH OF A KING... 99
Elizabeth I, Queen of England, addressing the troops at Tilbury, 19 August 1588

After keeping her in custody for 19 years, Elizabeth | finally had Mary, Qu
of Scots tried and executed for treason in February 1587.

ENGLAND’S INTERVENTION IN THE

DUTCH REVOLT (see 1572-73] was
: abandon. The highlight was a
: three-day assault on Cadiz in
THE SPANISH ARMADA was Philip
II's most obvious military gamble
ELIZABETH I (1533-1603]
characterized by the Battle of : southern Spain, in which 23 — a massive deployment of
Zutphen in September 1586 - it : Spanish ships were sunk Spanish naval might meant first to Elizabeth faced many
was a comprehensive defeat of : (according to Spanish sources; overthrow England, then to crush problems on her accession
the combined Anglo-Dutch forces : Drake claimed 33) and four were _ the Protestant provinces of the to the English throne in 1558
by the Spanish. Elizabeth | had » captured. The raid delayed Philip Netherlands. It failed entirely. — religious division, economic
better luck with her attempts to : II's Armada by over a year. It showed how outright military hardship, and threats from
destabilize Spain. In a series of Plots and rebellions plagued success was elusive, and that Scotland, France, and Spain.
plundering voyages to the : Elizabeth's reign and she had her ' logistical difficulties confronted She overcame them with a
Caribbean, Drake had highlighted : Catholic cousin, Mary, Queen of any long-range military operation. combination of guile and
how Spain's lucrative New World : Scots, executed in 1587 as a Launched on 30 May 1588, the intelligence and presided
trade could be disrupted. In April : dangerous claimant to her throne. | Armada was the victim of English over a reinvention of England
1587, Elizabeth despatched him Christianity in Japan thrived seamanship, of lengthening lines as a defiantly self-confident
on a mission to Spain with a goal when first introduced by the of supply, and of the weather - the | Protestant nation.
of further raiding and destruction. : Portuguese in the mid-16th ' gale-wracked Spanish fleet was
Characteristically, she almost : century. By about 1580, there forced home in disarray. Spanish
immediately changed her mind : were an estimated 130,000 hopes of exterminating Protestant : The death in 1589 of Henry Ill of : of France, and to Philip II in Spain,
but her message recalling Drake : Japanese Christians, most in and heresies were decisively checked. : France, stabbed by a Dominican _ the prospect of a Protestant
“never reached him. It was a : around Nagasaki. For Toyotomi ' monk, brought Henry of Navarre : king of France was unthinkable.
spectacular success - Spanish : Hideyoshi (see 1582-85) they : (1533-1610}
tothe throne and : Henry IV's eventual acclamation
Spanish Armada
and Portuguese vessels and ports represented an organized and " plunged France into crisis. Henry : as king came only in 1593, after
Severe storms and the English fleet
were attacked with audacious : armed force around which caused heavy losses to the Armada, : IV's claims to the crown were : aseries of debilitating wars, when
! opposition to him could be rallied. which numbered around 150 ships : clear, yet he was a Protestant. : he - conveniently - converted
: Aprime motive for the conversion when it left Lisbon. : To the powerful Catholic League : to Catholicism.
4,500 : of many warlords had been that it
casualties : would make it easier for them to
: obtain gunpowder as its trade was
6,000 : still largely controlled by the
casualties : Portuguese. At the same time,
: Hideyoshi was anxious not to
jeopardize the trading links the
: Portuguese had established.
His response was typically
THOUSANDS)
(IN
ARMY : hard-headed - trade was still to
: be encouraged but Christianity
: would be banned. In July 1587,
: a Purge Directive Order to the
| Anglo-Dutch Spanish
: Jesuits was issued. In addition,
army army : Nagasaki was brought under his
- direct rule. Though the Order
| Battle of Zutphen
was not fully enforced for a
The Anglo-Dutch forces suffered
huge losses in the Battle of Zutphen : decade or more, Christianity
in 1586, which resulted in the city : in Japan would in future be
_ being handed over to the Spanish. : forced underground.

161
 (’ THE GREATEST EVER PRIZE
‘TAKEN BY ENGLISH PRIVATEERS,
ye:
FROM THE MADRE DE DEUS
4 fi.
An estimated 40,000-50,000 people died in Paris in 1590 until the Spanish } In this Portuguese map of Mombasa,
army led by the Duke of Parma broke the four-month siege in September. | Fort Jesus is depicted bottom right.

BY 1590, TOYOTOMI HIDEYOSHI : 1578-79), launched an invasion of _ THE OTTOMAN-HABSBURG

(see 1582-87) had effectively : the troubled Songhay Empire | FRONTIER, generally stable after
completed the unification of : (see 1582-85). Al-Mansur’s goal | the renewed Ottoman attempt on
Japan, and the distinctive ' was the trans-Saharan gold q
Vienna in 1529, was a key focus
character of the regime that was | trade. The invasion involved a | of Ottoman-Christian conflict. It
to dominate the country for over : perilous four-month crossing of | came centre-stage again in 1593
250 years was established. : the Sahara by a fighting force with the Long War. A series of
Though it was not the capital, from of 4,000 men sustained by 8,000 | inconclusive campaigns followed
1590 Hideyoshi based himself at : camels. In March 1592, a Songhay | in Hungary and the Balkans, with
Edo, where the feudal nobility, : army over 40,000 strong was | the nominal Ottoman vassals of
a
now entirely subservient to him, : routed at the Battle of Tondibi by §
Transylvania, Wallachia, and
were required to spend every other : the Moroccans’ vastly superior § Moldavia supporting the

year. It proved a highly effective : firepower, which included Habsburgs. The net result of the
means of preventing rebellion. This numerous arquebuses and eight i eventual peace settlement — the
elaborate social structure was : English cannons. Rialto Bridge | Treaty of Zsitvatorok of 1606 -
largely supported by the peasantry, | THE SEVEN YEAR WAR began : The Rialto Bridge over the Grand | was to leave the frontier in a state
who had to pay heavy taxes. in the spring of 1592 when : Canal in Venice was completed in of simmering uncertainty.
Attempting to impose himself on aa pauls Faret” Castles Japanese forces mounted a : 1592. It was the fifth bridge builtat
On 10 June 1594, in the Spanish
! the site, the first to be ofstone.
France as king, Henry of Navarre © one of 200 massive castles built on sustained invasion of Korea. settlement of St Augustine in
(see 1588-89] besieged Paris in : the orders of Toyotomi Hideyoshi to Partly an attempt by Toyotomi Florida, Father Diego Escobar
May 1590. The siege was broken : ensure his power across Japan. | Hideyoshi to unite the Japanese = end until 1608, by 1599 it was | de Zambrana baptized Maria,
in September by Spanish troops a | ina common cause, it was more : effectively over. Paradoxically, it | daughter of Juan Jimenez de la
under the Duke of Parma. | particularly the fulfilment of his : was Japan that benefitted most. Cueva and Maria Melendez. The
In 1591, the Sultan of Morocco, predecessor Oda Nobunaga's : The defeat had a significant event was recorded in the oldest
Ahmad al-Mansur, (see ambitious goal of a conquest of : influence on its subsequent, if | public document in what would
Ming China itself. The campaign : never absolute, isolation from the become the US and is the first
_ met with mixed results. Japanese ' wider world. Korea, by contrast, ' authentic record of a child born
' land victories in Korea were : took years to recover, while the to European settlers there.
matched by Korean naval victories » immense cost of the war to Ming Fort Jesus in Mombasa, East
- the heavily armed and protected : China not only provoked riots | Africa was built at the command of
_ Korean turtle ships proving : against the extra taxes levied but Philip Il and completed in 1593. It
decisive against Japan's : weakened its military capacity on | proved to be crucial to Portuguese
progressively weakened fleets. its vulnerable northeastern frontier. | endeavours in the Indian Ocean
Chinese intervention iate in the From 1592, Akbar (see 1555-56) | throughout the 17th century.
_ year tipped the balance against : launched a further round of
| Japan. By the spring of 1593, the : conquests that saw the Mughal
| Japanese were forced to sue for
peace. By the middle of the year,
- Empire's frontiers reach their
: greatest extent during his reign. (46 PARIS
ISWORTHA
| they had begun to pull out. In 1597, | In the east, Orissa was annexed. In
the ageing Hideyoshi renewed the _ 1594, Baluchistan and the coastal
campaign, sending larger forces. : strip of Makran on the Safavid

|
The result was a further defeat
for Japan in 1598, but the savage
| fighting devastated Korea.
: Persian border were conquered.
: And in 1596, the key Afghan city
: of Kandahar, lost by Akbar's
‘MASS. 99
| Though the war did not formally : father Humayun, was retaken. | Henry IV of France, 1593

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vow 9 a Qe 8
on “& Wor WS
Ss <2
<
9
162 ~ a
 gt. 3 \n, ell
Despite the perils of the venture, all four Dutch ships that set out for the East ) ceiling fresco at Chehel Sotoun PalaceinIsfaha n, Iran , shows Shah Abbas |,
This
Indies in 1595 made it back safely to Amsterdam in 1599 along with their cargo. seated on the right, playing host to Vali Muhammad Khan of Bukara.

THE FINAL CONVULSIONS OF THE Qygischen ga “Si Hollender oa | ALTHOUGH THE BANNING OF
FRENCH WARS OF RELIGION | CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN had been
(1562-98) were played out after _ enforced only partially since 1587,
1595. Henry IV (see 1588-89), by _ in December 1596, certain that
his conversion to Catholicism in a aN
on ee Bayes i : Spain and Portugal were using
1593, succeeded in winning broad ge | Christian penetration as a prelude
ear,
acceptance as king. Yet his wee
gaa) ve
_ to conquest, Toyotomi ordered the
conversion aroused the suspicions : . deaths of 26 Christians - six
of the Huguenots - fearful he now : ~~ | Franciscan missionaries and 20
intended to turn against them _ | Japanese. On 5 February 1597 in
— and did nothing to appease the _ Nagasaki, they were strapped to
:~-Occritentalis
ambitions of the leaders of the crosses and speared to death. The
SS
ERC
SSP
EE
EE
PETES
SSOP « Oceant
| Catholic League, whose goal was | significance of their deaths was
not merely the extermination of _ less that Christianity would not be
Protestantism in France but the | tolerated in Japan, more that any William Shakespeare exerted
seizure of the throne. Henry's challenge to the central authority more influence on English
response, in January 1595, was to » would not be allowed. literature and European
declare war on Spain. His aim The uneasy compromise drama than any other writer.
was both to eradicate the Catholic Anglo-Dutch fleet attacks Cadiz _ brokered by Henry IV in France | The son of a Stratford-upon-
League, supported by Spain, while - 1595 against a combined : Nominally a joint Anglo-Dutch | after 1597 was symbolized by the Avon wool dealer, he was an
demonstrating to the Huguenots : Spanish-Catholic League force : operation, in reality, of the 150 ships Edict of Nantes of April 1598. actor turned author, and
: in Burgundy was followed the : in the fleet that attacked Cadiz in Under it, Protestants in France wrote at least 37 plays and
that, Catholic or not, he was no
1596, 130 were English.
puppet of the Spanish monarchy. : following spring by a renewed were granted the right to organize 154 sonnets. He is believed
An early French victory in June : Spanish offensive that saw the a quasi-independent state within to have written the tragedy
: capture of Calais and Amiens. : East Indies. The crews endured France. Not only could they Hamlet around 1599-1602.
Anglo-Dutch ships : The inevitable sieges by Henry ; scurvy and repeated clashes with practise their religion freely — He also excelled at comedy.
: followed, and the capitulation local rulers and the Portuguese, other than in Paris - the Crown
Spanish ships
: of Amiens in September 1597 : and Van Houten was killed in guaranteed their security, paying
: marked his final triumph. ' Sumatra. When, in 1599, the them to garrison their towns. : rival factions within the Qizilbash
Until the beginning of the Dutch : beleaguered fleet returned to Nothing if not pragmatic - and : army and had lost substantial
: Revolt in 1566, the Netherlands : Amsterdam, it brought with it an effective enough in the short term ; territories to the Ottomans and
: largely dominated the lucrative : apparently meagre quantity of in ending the French Wars of ' Uzbeks. Abbas set about a major
: maritime trade between Spain : spices, yet this was enough to Religion - inevitably it satisfied : reform of his rebellious army,
: and Portugal and northern Europe | secure a huge profit. The stage for no one. The Huguenots still felt : drafting in new troops, principally
: - it was Dutch ships that carried : Dutch domination of the East India themselves unequally treated from the Caucasus, who were
: spices and other New World ' trade was set {see 1602-03). compared to the Catholics, while : directly loyal to him. He rearmed
10 32 : goods from Iberia to the north. One of England's few successes the latter were horrified that the them with muskets supplied by
: Thereafter, forbidden to trade with : in its participation in the Dutch Huguenots should be tolerated at : an English diplomat, Sir Anthony
Lareetes bee © |berian ports and conscious of the : Revolt was a raid on Cadiz in all, let alone protected. ' Shirley, who was negotiating an
ships lost ships lost - failings of Spain's maritime reach : southern Spain in July 1596. The accession in 1587 of the Anglo-Persian anti-Ottoman
: highlighted by the Armada, the : Much like Drake's raid in 1587, it 16-year-old Abbas | as the shah : treaty. Between April and August
Raid on Cadiz : caused enormous devastation, of Safavid Persia rejuvenated its : 1598, Abbas launched a major
_ Dutch determined to break into
| The Spanish lost 80 per cent of the
| : the spice trade. In 1595, four : with most of the city destroyed, fortunes. Under his father Shah : Campaign against the Uzbeks,
4 fleet anchored at Cadiz. They set
it many of their ships on fire to deny : Dutch ships under Cornelius van : and contributed to the bankruptcy Mohammed, Persia had been ina : driving them from the northwest
| the Anglo-Dutch raiders their prize. : Houten accordingly sailed for the : of the Spanish crown in 1597. state of near civil war created by » of Persia.
ata
AUOUUUN terra
TTT

SELL RIES. 4 Heese ~ “4

The English East India Company began trading with Surat, a key centre of Tokugawa leyasu was 60 years old when he received the title of shogun from Guy Fawkes (third from the right) and
Indian Ocean trade, in 1608. By 1615, it had ousted the Portuguese. Emperor Go-Yozei. He remained the effective ruler of Japan until his death. his fellow Catholic conspirators.

BY ABOUT 1600, THE POLYNESIAN : Maori weapon

: The wahaika, a short
FOR AROUND 100 YEARS, THE French exploration in the New
: World was resumed by Samuel 44 THE SPANISH
ASSAILED THE
PEOPLES OF NEW ZEALAND, the DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY,
Maori, had become progressively : wooden club held bya established in 1602 and exact : de Champlain in 1603. Over the
better established in their new : dog-skin thong looped
: around the thumb
equivalent of its English rival, was : following 12 years, he made
: a series of pioneering journeys
UNASSAILABLE;
THE DUTCH
lands (see 1276-85}. Although : and wrist, was
the most successful commercial
theirs was still a Stone Age : used for close venture in the world. Its : along the St Lawrence River
society - and would remain so : combat. navigators not only outflanked : towards the Great Lakes. In 1605,
DEFENDED THE
INDEFENSIBLE. 99
until the arrival of Europeans and the Portuguese in the Indian he also established a short-lived
the introduction of metal - it was Ocean - pioneering new French colony, Port Royal, in Novia
one remarkably well adapted to routes deep into the Southern : Scotia and, in 1608, a permanent
the new environment. Known as Ocean as a means of access to : French base at Québec. Though Anonymous, Siege of Ostend
the Classic Maori the East Indies - but, having : partly motivated by a search for
phase, the culture reached their lucrative goals, a river passage to the Pacific, WHEN SPANISH FORCES UNDER
was distinguished by they exploited them with a : Champlain recognized that this GENERAL SPINOLA TOOK OSTEND
elaborate wood single-mindedness that left : rugged land was valuable in from a combined Anglo-Dutch
carving, precisely their predecessors floundering. itself, above all for its furs. He force on 16 September 1604, it
patterned bone tools In 1602, the Dutch had laid claim subsequently sponsored a series ended a siege that had lasted
and weapons, and to Guiana in South America. More : of westward explorations beyond three years, two months, and 17
substantial earthwork : Asia. That said, from the start importantly, by 1605 they had : the Great Lakes, championing the days. Even by the standards of
settlements. » the East India Company was a ousted the Portuguese from the : potential of Nouvelle France. 17th-century Europe - a century
The establishment, with royal : speculative venture at best. It Moluccas (Spice Islands). The that saw only four years of peace
approval, on 31 December 1600 of : depended not merely on an foundations of a Dutch East Asian Ships of Dutch trade - it was an extraordinarily brutal
the English East India Company : uncertain ability to reach these trading empire had been laid. Dutch East goods in business. Siege warfare
was a clear statement of English : distant lands but, once there, to When James I (1566-1625) India Company million tonnes developed in response to artillery,
intent that Spain and Portugal : present itself - militarily and became King of England in 1603 to which the medieval castle, with
could not expect exclusive : diplomatically - as a credible on the death of Elizabeth |, he had high, thin walls, was vulnerable.
domination of trade with East : alternative to its European rivals. already been King of Scotland, as : Instead, fortifications became
: It called for a combination of James VI, for 36 years. Although lower, thicker, and very much
: seamanship, commercial they remained two quite clearly larger. So much so that many
intuition, and force — the last a separate countries, sharing only fortified towns were beyond the
: permanent necessity. Eventually, a common monarch, James did range of contemporary guns, and
: it would establish itself almost as manage to drive through the a blockade was the only practical
! an arm of the English, later the repeal of mutually hostile laws. means of taking them.
: British, state. But it was never Otherwise, the closest he came The death of Tsar Boris
: intended as a means of conquest to the union he sought was an Godunov in 1605 brought to a
: or colonization - enrichment for Anglo-Scots flag, the Union Jack, head a political crisis rapidly
: its shareholders was its sole known for his preferred French Ships of English engulfing Russia, one heightened
: goal. Ironically, its penetration of name, Jacques. English trade goods by a terrible famine that between
THE VOLUME OF : these new markets coincided with On the very same day as James's East India in million 1601-03 killed two million people
that of another latecomer, the accession, Tokugawa leyasu Company tonnes —a third of the population.
MATERIAL : Dutch. European domination for (1543-1616] became shogun of Hoping to exploit Russia's
: Trade in East Asia
EJECTED FROM : the riches of the East Indies would the Tokugawa shogunate of
: The Dutch East India Company was divisions to its own advantage, and
: be contested not between England Japan. He presided over a rigidly
HUAYNAPUTINA : and Iberia but between England stratified, inward-looking society
| five times as successfulas its supported by disaffected Russian
nobles, an unofficial Polish-
: English equivalent throughout the
VOLCANO, PERU : and the Dutch. that endured for 250 years. 17th and 18th centuries. Lithuanian force had already
 ———S
A reconstruction of Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in North
America, established in 1607 on the James River in what is now Virginia.

: invaded the country, its aim in part : their king, Sigismund Ill, asserted
to claim Orthodox Russia for the : his own right to the Russian 46 THE FIFTEENTH DAY OF JUNE,
Catholic church. With Godunov's : throne. Alarmed at the prospect WE HAD BUILT AND FINISHED
death, the interlopers placed on : of Poland-Lithuania taking over
the Russian throne a man : Russia, the Swedes invaded and OUR FORT... THIS COUNTRY
claiming to be Ivan the Terrible's | captured Novgorod. In 1612, IS A FRUITFUL SOIL, BEARING
youngest son. After less than
a year, this False Dimitri was
: Russia was saved when a
: patriotic rising under Prince
MANY GOODLY AND
overthrown by Vasili IV (1552- : Pozharsky forced the Poles out of FRUITFUL TREES... 99
1612), who slaughtered the : Moscow and elected the first
Poles in Moscow, perhaps 2,000. : Romanov tsar, Mikhail (1596- George Percy, English colonist, from Jamestown Narratives
Seeking to strengthen himself : 1645). Though unable to oust the
against continuing Polish » Swedes, Russia came to terms IN DECEMBER 1605, PORTUGUESE : partly to forestall
agitation, in 1609 Vasili allied with : with Sweden in 1617 at the cost of NAVIGATOR Pedro Fernandez de : Spanish, French, and
Sweden, provoking an official : giving up its access to the Baltic. Quiros received royal approval for : Dutch attempts at
Polish declaration of war against : In 1619, the Polish-Russian a second voyage across the Pacific : settlement, and more
Russia. The following year, the : conflict was ended by Russia in search of the presumed : particularly to locate a
Poles had taken Moscow and :; ceding substantial territories on southern continent, Jerra sea passage to East
- its western border. Australis Incognita. After sailing : Asia, as well
as to
In Strasbourg in 1605, Johann through the Tuamotu Archipelago : prospect for gold and
- Carolus (1575-1634) published in February 1606, he reached the : other precious
: what is generally acknowledged New Hebrides in May, but was : metals. Its early
; as the world’s first newspaper, swept out to sea by the trade : years were
Relation aller Furnemmen winds and forced to return to New : unpromising.
und gedenckwuirdigen Spain. The expedition had a : The site, chosen
Historien - “Collection second ship, under the command : principally

fe yl of all Distinguished and of Luis Vaez de Torres. Continuing : because it was

rea
Commemorable News’. to the west, he discovered the : easily defended,
Carolus already produced strait that bears his name : was swampy,
a hand-written news- between New Guinea and malarial, and had
> sheet. He realized, Australia, sighting the continent : little arable land. The
however, that a printed in the process. In the event, his : colonists succumbed to
: version, sold more cheaply and to discoveries, meticulously noted : disease and starvation, and
a wider audience, would be more but never published, would not be : relations with the Powhatan
: profitable. By 1617, there were a followed up by Spain. It was left to - Indians were tense as well. It
: further four German newspapers. the Dutch to confirm the existence : was only in 1612, when the first
The hopes of James | of England of Australia. : tobacco crop was exported, that
for religious toleration were dashed On 4 May 1607, the first : the colony looked to have any
with the discovery on 5 November permanent English settlement : prospects of survival.
: 1605 of a Catholic plot to blow was established in North
: up the Houses of Parliament. America. Jamestown, in
First newspaper on sale : Torres Strait Islanders mask
The appearance of the Relation in
: It is possible that the plotters present-day Virginia, was a highly
: The sea-faring Torres Strait
Europe in 1605 was early evidence of :: were encouraged by Robert Cecil, speculative venture, financed by : Islanders had a range of masks for
a growing demand for information : chief minister of James |, in order the London Company (later the : ritualoccasions, many of the most
: ina fast-changing world. : to stoke anti-Catholic opinion. Virginia Company). It was intended ! elaborate made from turtle shells.

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165
44 SO LONG AS THE MOTHER,
IGNORANCE, LIVES, IT 1S NOT
SAFE FOR SCIENCE, THE
OFFSPRING, TO DIVULGE THE
HIDDEN CAUSE OF THINGS. 99
Johannes Kepler, German astronomer
Ts i

copper engraving depicts the assas: sination of Henry IV, King of | This painting shows the Battle of
France, in Paris. Henry IV had survived 18 previous attempts on his life. _ Kalmar on the Baltic Sea.

ON 2 OCTOBER 1608, HANS minority Morisco population THE ASSASSINATION OF HENRY IV IN 1604, KING JAMES | OF
LIPPERSHEY (1570-1619), a : remained on the margins of in Paris on 14 May 1610, stabbed ENGLAND authorized a new
lens-maker in Zeeland in the : Spanish society - valued for their by a one-time monk and teacher, | English translation of the Bible.
Dutch Netherlands, applied for cheap labour, but suspected for Francois Ravaillac, promised a | Since the Reformation there
a patent for a device for “seeing their religious affiliation. In 1609, reawakening of the brutal had been two previous English
things far away as if they were : Philip Ill agreed to expel them religious divisions Henry had translations: the Great Bible of
nearby”. This was soon known : from Spain entirely. The decision worked so hard - and killed so 1539 and the Bishops’ Bible
as a telescope. Lippershey’s : caused whole communities to be many - to avoid. The reality was of 1568. However, it was felt
device was crude, only magnifying : summarily expelled and their quite the opposite. Not only was | that both contained minor
by three times, and was soon : possessions forfeited. It also Henry's nine-year-old son | inaccuracies and neither fully
exceeded by others. But it was still: created economic dislocation immediately accepted as the new reflected the doctrinal authority
a milestone in the development : in many parts of the country monarch, Louis XIll, but the | and structure of the Church of
of scientific observation in 17th- : asa valuable source of labour threat of renewed conflict between | GALILEO (1564-1642) | England. The new translation,
century Europe. : disappeared. Muslim resentment France and Spain was averted. published in 1611 as The Holy
Since 1606, the Dutch had been : toward Spain predictably increased. Both had been sparring for Galileo Galilei, born in Pisa, Bible, was the work of 47
trying to broker a truce with Spain In 1609, the Dutch East India control of the duchy of Julich- was an Italian scientist who, | scholars under the direction of
to halt the ongoing wars of the : Company had sent Henry Hudson Cleves in Germany, threatening a despite obstruction from | the Archbishop of Canterbury,
Dutch Revolt. Forty years of war ' to investigate North America’s renewed pan-European religious religious orthodoxy, revealed Richard Bancroft. Though
had left both sides spent, yet each : east coast. He explored the Hudson conflict. With Henry's death, both an entirely new, scientific accepted relatively slowly by the
feared the other would use a : River to present-day Albany, could now legitimately retire with understanding of the world. Anglicans, by the 18th century
ceasefire to regroup — as each : claiming the region for the Dutch. no loss of face. Henry IV, first of The Church regarded his it was widely regarded by all
intended to do. Despite this, in April: the Bourbon kings, was among revelations as heresy but, English-speaking Protestant
1609, a 12-year truce was agreed. : the most remarkable of France's reluctant to condemn the churches as the definitive
Hudson River
In 1526, Charles V had decreed : New York state's river is named for kings: his reconstruction of the scientific pioneer outright, did English-language Bible. It was
that all Muslims in Spain convert : Englishman Henry Hudson, who pestilential medieval shambles of its best to accommodate him. | only when the revised edition was
to Catholicism. The resulting : explored the river's course. Paris echoed his far-sighted Heretic or not, Galileo died issued in the late 18th century
«reconstruction of France itself. with his reputation not just that it became commonly referred
Less than a year after Hans growing but assured.
Lippershey’s claim to have
| invented a telescope, Galileo
' {see panel, right], working from : bodies could orbit only one fixed
| no more than descriptions of : point in the skies: the Earth. 15
Lippershey’s device, had devised : This explosive revelation was OXFORD
his own. It took him, he claimed, : reinforced later the same year UNIVERSITY
SCHOLARS
less than one day to put together. : when Galileo began a systematic
It was 10 times more powerful. It : series of observations of the
was with this basic instrument : planet Venus. Its phases -
that, in January 1610, Galileo crescent, partial, and full - could
began to observe the ‘three fixed : be explained only if it, too, was
_ stars”, invisible to the naked eye, : orbiting another body, the Sun.
that were next to the planet : Observations made possible by
King James Bible
Jupiter. They were, he realized, : the telescope were poised to
| Several scholars from each
| orbiting the planet. This was a - revolutionize humanity's institution translated the Bible
discovery that challenged the - understanding of its relationship _ from Greek, Hebrew, and Latin
accepted notion of how heavenly : with a vast, impersonal universe. | into English in 1604-08.
 a fae »
Tully Castle in County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland, was built in 1619 for The title page of Don Quixote, part one of which was published in 1605, and
Sir John Hume, a Scottish “planter”, or settler. part two in 1615, It remains a cornerstone of European literature.

_ to as the “King James Bible”. And : OVER THE WINTER OF 1609-10, : cruel Wei Zhongxian. With the
_ it was only in the early 19th : : the fledging English colony at : semi-retirement of the Wanli
century that it came tobe known | : Jamestown in Virginia endured : emperor, Wei Zhongxian had
as the Authorized Version.
In June 1611, English explorer
: what was known as the Starving
: Time, a systematic attempt by the
THE : assumed personal control of the
: government. The Donglin
Henry Hudson, then in the pay of : Powhatan Indians to starve the ESTIMATED : scholars, adherents of the moral
a group of English merchants, : colony into submission. All but
was abandoned by his crew after 60 of the 500 colonists died. NUMBER OF : imperatives of Confucianism,
» objected to the self-glorification
spending an arduous winter on What transformed its EUNUCHS : and extravagance of the eunuchs.
the southern shore of the great prospects was tobacco. The : By 1624, Wei Zhongxian had
bay in northwest Canada that Indians themselves cultivated EMPLOYED ensured the execution of the
bears his name. He was never
seen again. Hudson was
one of 37
: tobacco but the native strain,
: Nicotiana rustica, was so harsh as
BY THE MING : leading Donglin academics.
Meanwhile, the Dutch started to
searching for a northwest
pearls
: to be unsmokeable. John Rolfe, DYNASTY » settle North America. In 1615,
passage to Asia. Just as Magellan
had discovered a route to the
: who arrived at Jamestown in
1610, had with him seeds of the
IN CHINA : the Dutch cemented their 1609
: claim to the region of present-day
Pacific around the tip of South : much sweeter Nicotiana tabacum. : Albany by building Fort Nassau
America, so it was believed that a sapphires __ : His first crop, in 1612, found an INSTARK CONTRAST TO ENGLAND, : at the same site. In 1625, they
comparable northern passage and : instant market in London. where parliamentary authority ‘ would build a further settlement
must exist. The search forithad | emeralds : By 1627, the trade was worth would progressively increase : at the mouth of the Hudson
sparked one of the most heroically t : £500,000 a year. throughout the 17th century, the : River, New Amsterdam. Dutch
futile episodes in global : Meanwhile, in Ireland the influence of France's legislative : colonial settlement would,
Old
exploration, a series of mostly : deliberate settlement of assembly, the Estates-General : however, dwindle by the end
Testament
English endeavours from 1576 scenes : Protestants, many from Scotland, withered almost entirely. During © of the 17th century.
that revealed only unnavigable, : started in 1613. It was intended to the crises of the French Wars of
ice-choked, dead-ends. : reassure James I's Scottish Religion and their aftermath, the
Control of the Sound - the subjects that he had not Estates-General met regularly, if
bones
narrow waterway between forgotten their interests ineffectually: six times between
in box,
Denmark and Sweden at the and to “pacify” and 1560 and 1614. But it would shown
mouth of the Baltic - was a convert the rebellious not meet again until 1789, end on
central preoccupation in the Catholic population by which point France
continuing Scandinavian of Ireland. Its , would be on the verge
struggle for supremacy in results were | of revolution.
the Baltic. In 1611, Sweden, generally only to By 1615, China numbered
- determined to end inflame religious was grappling with rod or bone
~ Denmark's stranglehold on passions and, by financial crisis and
this vital waterway, began creating a Catholic social breakdown.
what became known as the underclass, to There were tensions in
Kalmar War. The result, in create tensions that the Chinese government
1613, was inconclusive, the still slumber today. over conflict between the
Dutch and England in particular scholars of the Donglin Academy
: Napier’s Bones
supporting the Swedes once (literally, “the Eastern Grove
Tsar's orb : This is an abacus created by John
a Danish victory threatened. This jewel-encrusted orb was | Academy’) in eastern China, and : Napier around 1615, which used
Future conflict was, in effect, used at the coronation of Mikhail the court eunuchs - particularly : numbered rods in order to simplify
merely postponed. Romanov on 22 July 1613. the notoriously capricious and : multiplication.
44 | HOPE IT WILL BE HARD
FOR THE RUSSIANS TO
JUMP ACROSS THAT
CREEK. 99
Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, Treaty of Stolbovo, 1617

' An illustration depicts the defenestration of two regents by Protestants in "The work of the English philosopher Fra
Prague Castle, Bohemia, an event that sparked the Thirty Years War. | Bacon was to have a lasting impact.

THE SEEDS OF THE LATER FALL of

China’s Ming dynasty (see 1644)
: difficult to navigate. In 1616, a
: Dutch expedition under Jakob le 44 THIS ISA SHARP | THE DUTCH, IN AGGRESSIVELY
| SEEKINGto supplant the
were sown in 1616 when Manchu
tribal leader, Nurhaci (1559-1626),
: Maire and Willem Schouten found
- a new route through open water MEDICINE, BUT IT ISA | Portuguese in the East Indies,
| had first attempted to establish
pronounced himself Great Jin,
establishing the Qing dynasty.
© to the south, naming its
: southernmost island, Cape Horn.
PHYSICIAN FOR ALL | atrading post in Java in 1596.
From 1602, they also had to
One of Islam's finest buildings DISEASES AND MISERIES. a | contend with English efforts to
was completed after seven years infiltrate themselves in the East
: in 1616. The Sultan Ahmed Sir Walter Raleigh, last words before execution, 29 October 1618
Indies. In 1619, the Dutch struck
: Mosque, in Constantinople {now back decisively, ousting the
_ Istanbul), is known as the Blue | English and their Javanese allies,
: Mosque because of the many _ ON 23 MAY 1618,
THE PROTESTANT English privateers (state-
: | and establishing themselves in

THE NUMBER : ceramic tiles of its interior.

Gorée Island, to the south of
| Count Thurn had the two regents: : sponsored raiders) had bought
_ of the Catholic king of Bohemia, : and sold African slaves since the
Jayakarta, which they renamed
Batavia. It would become not
OF BLUE Africa’s Cape Verde, was and future Holy Roman Emperor, late 16th century, but in 1618 merely the capital of the Dutch
: purchased by the Dutch from its Ferdinand II (1578-1637), thrown ; England's involvement in the | East Indies but the focal point of
CEILING TILES : Portuguese owners in 1617. They from an upper window of Prague : Atlantic slave trade became the Dutch colonial empire,
THAT GIVE THE |: trading
turned it into a major slave
base, a role continued by
Castle, in Bohemia. The ' deeper when the first slave | dismembered only by its conquest
Defenestration of Prague shipmentto its North American | by Japan in 1942.
BLUE MOSQUE : the French, who took it in 1677. sparked the brutal Thirty Years : colonies arrived from West Africa
ITS NAME The 1617 Treaty of Stolbovo
: ended the war between Russia
War. It was mostly confined to
Germany, which by 1648 was a
: at Jamestown, Virginia.

and Sweden that had lasted seven scene of wholesale destruction eon
Sei

Since 1599, he had united other years. It drew a new, more secure and slaughter. Initially a religious
Manchu tribes in the Eight : boundary for Sweden that made conflict, Ferdinand’s quest to Although it was in the 18th
Banners military system. War ; use of lakes Ladoga and Peipus. erase Protestantism from all his century that the Atlantic
with the Ming followed in 1618. dominions became a Europe-wide slave trade reached its peak,
: Dutch slave base
Although the Magellan Strait, ' fight for supremacy involving, at in the early 17th century it
: This coloured engraving shows the
linking the Atlantic and Pacific in : fort at Gorée Island when it was different points, every major was developing rapidly.
southern South America, had : controlled by the Dutch. It proved a European power. Slaves were transported ‘EK
been discovered in 1519, it was i highly profitable venture for them. On 29 October 1618, the English from a series of slave forts :
soldier and explorer Sir Walter on the west coast of Africato | |
Raleigh (1552-1618) was the burgeoning European i
executed by beheading at the colonial lands of the New 1|
Tower of London. He had World. Male
been one of the early English slaves were i
_ colonizers of Virginia, North branded with
America, but his failure to irons (pictured) F
| find the legendary South on the Atlantic |
American city of El Dorado, Ocean crossing, j
as wellas his attacking —.. in which
nia Spanish settlement about 25
| against the expressed per cent
| wishes of King James |, died.
had sealed his fate.
 4 MANY WILL TRAVEL
ND KNOWLEDGE
LL BE INCREASED. 99
‘ancis Bacon, English philosopher, from Novum Organum, 1620

{6
American Indians of th farm in the English colony of
| Virginia in 1622, massacring all of its inhabitants,

! Novum Organum, one of the : have expected. It galvanized : hostility. Yet the subsequent : relations with the Powhatan they
: great books of philosophy, was : Protestant opposition to him, : fighting was less an attempt by : meant it exclusively on their own
: written by English philosopher importantly including Denmark. : Spain at the reconquest of the : terms, rose against them. The
: and scientist Francis Bacon The founding of Jamestown in Dutch so much as an effort to : predictable consequence was a
© (1561-1626) in 1620. It was a 1607 as the first permanent : destabilize them politically and : violent English backlash, which
: major work in the development : English colony in the New World POPULATION / economically by attempts to ban : by the middle of the century had
: of scientific method. } was overshadowed by the arrival Dutch mercantile activities and to : all but eliminated the Powhatan
: The initial phase of the Thirty ' near modern Boston in November 1620 1621 blockade their principal ports. The : American Indians.
: Years War climaxed in the Battle : 1620 of the Mayflower. The 102 : Spanish were successful in Determined to end the power of
Population of Plymouth
: of White Mountain in November : passengers on board were The population of Plymouth Colony besieging Julich and Steenbergen | the Janissaries - the elite
: 1620, when the forces of Holy : Puritan pilgrims, Protestant dropped dramatically in the first, : in 1622 but an attempted siege of : military group that formed the
» Roman Emperor Ferdinand II : self-exiles staking all on a new difficult year of its founding. : Bergen-op-Zoom had to be : household troops and bodyguard
decisively routed those of the : life in a new world. : abandoned at huge cost. © of the Ottornan sultan - Osman II
: Calvinist Frederick V (1596-1632), THE PURITAN PILGRIMS of the The Banda Islands, in the East : (1604-22) had made a dangerous
Mayflower had arrived in the New : Indies, were the only known : enemy for himself since becoming
: ruler of what was called the
: Palatinate, in southwest Germany.
-Battle of White Mountain World in 1620 not only late in the : sources of nutmeg and mace, : sultan in 1618. His attempts to
This major engagement - a Catholic - assert himself as an independent
: Ferdinand’s victory over year, with the New England winter : Spices that commanded a huge
: victory - took place near Prague,
: Frederick had almost exactly the ! and ended the first, or Bohemian, , settling in, but in the wrong place: } premium in Europe. They were ' ruler provoked a Jannissary
: opposite effect from that he might : period in the Thirty Years War. their original goal was the Hudson | accordingly the focus of bitter, ' uprising that saw him imprisoned
| River, several hundred kilometres : often violent rivalry, first : in his own palace. On 20 May
| to the south. Their early survival : between the Portuguese and the : 1622, the 17-year-old sultan was
| at what they named Plymouth : Dutch, and by the early 17th : murdered, probably strangled, by
Colony was almost entirely a : century between the English and - one of his captors.
matter of luck, a harsh winter : the Dutch. In 1621, having ousted
survived largely through American the English from the islands, the
_ Indian aid. Thereafter, they : Dutch, actively encouraged by the
| scraped a desperate existence, Governor-General of the East
dependent on uncertain Indies, Jan Pieterszoon Coen, set
| reinforcement from England and about the extermination ofthe — :
their own, meagre efforts. : islanders. It is estimated that ofa :
The expiration in 1621 of the population of 15,000, all but 1,000
Twelve-Year Truce between were killed or expelled.
Spain and the Dutch Republic in On 22 March 1622, the
' 1609 was, perhaps predictably, the Powhatan American Indians in
| signal for a further round of : what was now the English colony
| Spanish-Dutch conflict. Both of Virginia, killed 347 of the
| sides had increased their armies | settlers - men, women, and
and navies in expectation of a : children - approximately 25 per
resumption of the war. In addition, : cent of the total number of
Dutch financial if not military help : colonists. As early as 1610,
| to Frederick V - now in exile in the ' tensions between the settlers and :» Sultan Osman Il
| Dutch Republic after his crushing : the American Indians had flared : This equestrian portrait of gouache
| defeat at White Mountain the year : into open conflict. By 1622, the : on paper shows the Ottoman sultan
| before - provided an obvious Indians, realizing that when the : Osman Il. His short, but brave, reign
| motive for renewed Spanish : settlers claimed to want peaceful ‘ended in violent tragedy.

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44 WAR IS ONE OF THE SCOURGES
WITH WHICH [T HAS PLEASED
GOD TO AFFLICT MEN. 99
Cardinal Richelieu. chief minister of France, 1620s

This illustration shows Peter Minuit purchasing the island of Manhattan from
the local American Indians, most likely the Lenape people, in 1626.

taking Breda after an 11-month ONE OF THE MOST FAMOUS EVER

siege, while France, whose policy TRANSACTIONS occurred on
was now being directed by the 26 May 1624 when Peter Minuit,
hawkish Richelieu, became director-general of the Dutch
covertly involved in supporting West India Company's New
an anti-Habsburg struggle in Netherlands settlement, bought
northern Italy. This was an Manhattan island - site of Fort
attempt by Richelieu to sever the Amsterdam since 1625 - from
Spanish Road, the tenuous bu ts American Indian inhabitants.
vital link between Habsburg Italy The fee was 60 Dutch guilders,
n of Protestant and the Netherlands. At almost estimated since to be around $24.
to last-ditch precisely the same moment, Neither side felt the deal to be
and imperil Christian IV of Denmark (1577- overly unreasonable.
with foreign 1648) entered the war, in part The Thirty Years War was a
on which its seeking to bolster the Protestant brutal watershed in 17th-century Gathering pace in the early
sburg strategy rested. cause, but more particularly to Europe, but its cruelty was not 17th century, the Roman
the already tangled forestall Swedish ambitions to merely a grim consequence of High Baroque was a strong
unfolding Thirty control northern Germany and the battle. Always strapped for money, Catholic response to the
more complex Baltic. In August 1626, his army armies took funding into their own Protestant Reformation,
lve-Year Truce was defeated at the Battle of hands and imposed taxes and reasserted classical
ed the Dutch, Lutter (see right) by a Bavarian directly on the peasants and the Renaissance architecture. Its
Catholic army led by towns. Faced by the collection of church building, in particular
Count Tilly and in St Peter's Basilica in Rome
alliance with the (pictured), sought to
254
Habsburg emperor. 200 8,500 advertise and glorify the
It seemed for the casualties casualties Catholic Church, and
moment that produced numerous new
French scheming and grandiose buildings.
and Dutch fighting
could not prevent
a comprehensive overly heavy taxes by soldiers,
victory for the peasants and poor townspeople
Habsburgs. became even more vulnerable to
~ fluctuations in food supply
[IN
ARMIES
THOUSANDS)
: through bad harvests, military
activity, and looting. Across much
The Surrender of Europe, but notably in France,
of Breda
- the Austrian Habsburg lands, and
Justin von Nassau is
Imperial Danish Spanish southern Italy, peasant
shown surrendering
army army revolts and urban riots
Breda in 1625 to
Ambrosio Spinola, the Battle of Lutter threatened to take whole areas
Spanish commander, In 1626, a Danish army, with a huge : out of the control of governmeni.
after an 11-month- loss of about 8,500 men, failed to : With the onset of the Little Ice Age
long siege. Breda was hold ground against a similar-sized in the mid-17th century (see
retaken in 1637. Holy Roman Empire force. 1645}, the problem multiplied.
 A hand-coloured woodcut depicting the siege of Magdeburg
FAN
This 17th-century ink and watercolour miniature of Shah Jahan shows the
fifth Mughal emperor with a holy nimbus around his turbaned head. Empire. The city was later burned and 20,000 people massacred.

Battle of Breitenfeld
aa 5,500 At Breitenfeld in 1631, a strong
casualties Swedish-Saxon army inflicted huge
50 | 20,000

|
numbers of casualties on an army of
casualties
the Holy Roman Empire.
i
40

4
:
: have led to nothing, however, had
: Imperial troops besieging the
: Lutheran stronghold of
20 - Magdeburg in 1631 not then
THOUSANDS)
(IN
FORCES : massacred the population. This
}
: provoked outrage among the
: Lutheran princes. With their
' political support, in addition to : Queen of France
Swedish-Saxon Imperial : substantial French funding, ! Portrait of Marie de Medici, the
army army : second wife of King Henry IV of
: Gustavus Adolphus inflicted a
: France, who attempted to displace
Siege of La Rochelle THE ENTRY OF SWEDEN INTO THE : crushing defeat over an Imperial
: Chief minister of France, Cardinal THIRTY YEARS WAR in 1630 added : army at Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, Cardinal Richelieu in 1630.
AFTER MORE THAN A YEAR, THE
| Richelieu, inspects the formidable a new dimension to the conflict. : in September 1631. At this stage,
SIEGE OF LA ROCHELLE, the
; sea wall defences of La Rochelle, It was still essentially a religious : his army marching triumphantly _ Medici (1575-1642), the mother of
strongest Protestant enclave in : during the siege of 1628. war - one that the Catholic Holy : south, Gustavus Adolphus seems : the king, and when he retired to
France, ended in October 1628
Roman Emperor Ferdinand I| was : to have conceived a vision of an : ponder his decison they believed
with defeat for the Huguenots.
> emperor in 1628. His 30-year clearly winning. Exploiting this, ' empire that included both Sweden : they had been successful. Yet
The siege was Richelieu’s
: reign would be a golden age for Sweden's Lutheran king, : and Germany. Yet the events of the : powerful friends saved Cardinal
response to lingering hopes of
Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1632), : following year would destroy this : Richelieu, and the king’s mother
Huguenot opposition to the | Mughal India, hugely increasing
presented himself as the saviour : hope (see 1632). : was exiled to Compiégne.
French Crown, and was designed the size of its territory as well as
initiating a great flowering of of the Lutheran princes of north Ona day in November 1630,
to both crush Huguenot
: Mughal architecture and culture. Germany. Yet he was potentially : forever known as the Day of
resistance and dismantle its still
In the 17th century, rulers as much a threat to them as to : Dupes, the enemies of Cardinal
formidable military. Though
: across Europe embraced the idea Ferdinand. Having spent the : Richelieu attempted to overthrow
Richelieu acknowledged their
: of strong central authority as previous 19 years fighting the : him. They demanded Louis XIII
right to religious toleration, he
the only guarantee of stability. In Russians, Poles, and Danes for » replace Richelieu with Marie de
made sure they could mount no
further threat to the Crown. : England, for Charles | (1600-49), control of the Baltic, he now
hoped to dominate its German
copper alloy
THE
APPROXIMATE
The publication in 1628 of On the : absolute monarchy was barrel

Motion of the Heart and Blood, by : legitimized by his conviction that coast too. His intervention might
royal physician William Harvey : he had been divinely sanctioned
» by God to rule. In 1629, irritated by NUMBER OF
PEOPLE BURNT
(1578-1657), marked one of the
major discoveries of the 17th © its checks on his authority, he
century. It explained both the : dismissed Parliament, provoking
: a growing resentment among AT THE STAKE
AFTER THE
circulation of the blood and the
functioning of the heart, by using those seeking to share Swedish field cannon
observation and experimentation.
One of the great leaders of : seen as attempts to
: power at what were This cannon was used by the army
of Gustavus Adolphus. The barrel WURZBURG
India’s Mughal Empire, Shah : impose illegal
Jahan (1592-1666), was crowned ° taxes.
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 An oil painting depicting the trial of Galileo shows the Italian physicist and The assassination of Field Marshal Albrecht Wallenstein took place at the
astronomer sitting before the assembled ranks of the Inquisition, in Rome. Pachelbel House, at Eger, Bohemia. He was awoken and killed by his own men.

THE DEFEAT AT LUTZEN WAS one : forces, who crushed the Swedes : gradually reversing their previous
of the last times that Albrecht : at the Battle of Nordlingen in - losses, so Germany was
Wallenstein (1583-1634) led an : November 1634. The subsequent : devastated. The fighting spilled
Imperial army. Although generally : Treaty of Prague, in 1635, made : into France when, in 1636,
successful, he was distrusted by : clear the extent of the Habsburg : a Spanish army invaded the
THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE almost everyone and was believed triumph and the Swedish defeat. : northeast, briefly threatening
WHO DIED IN THE DECCAN to be negotiating a separate
peace. He was charged with
Germany's Protestant princes
now backed Ferdinand II. It
: Paris, and again, in 1637, when
: Spain launched an attack on
FAMINE, 1630-32 treason by Holy Roman Emperor
Ferdinand II, but in February 1634
provoked the final and most brutal. : Languedoc in the south. In 1639,
: phase of the Thirty Years War, and : France retaliated by invading
was murdered by some of his : direct French intervention. : Catalonia in the northeast of
ANXIOUS TO MAKE GOOD ITS : the Imperial armies in April 1632 own officers, with the tacit As in the 16th century, France : Spain. In this wave of violence, all
LOSSES TO POLAND-LITHUANIA ' at the Battle of Rain, in Bavaria. A approval of Ferdinand. Yet, with : feared Habsburg encirclement. : the participants were by now
under the Treaty of Deulino of minor triumph in November at the the Swedes having failed to follow :; Up to now, it had sought to secure : effectively bankrupt. It was Spain
1619, and exploiting the death of : Battle of Lutzen, near Leipzig, up their victory at Lutzen, the itself by financing those states that suffered the most, with
the Polish king, Sigismund III = might then have confirmed initiative returned to the Imperial : most likely to defeat the Habsburg : attempts at raising revenue
Vasa, Russia besieged Smolensk : Swedish territorial ambitions in : forces, Sweden above all. With the ' provoking bitter resentment, even
in October 1632. Polish forces : Germany had King Gustavus Swedes on the verge of pulling out
Battle of Nordlingen : in Spain itself. In 1640, outright
were unable to attempt a lifting of : Adolphus not been killed in the : of Germany, the French now took
Fought in southern Germany, this : revolt against the Spanish Crown
the siege for almost a year. Their : battle. At a stroke, the impetus : the field themselves. As Franco-
battle resulted in a crushing victory : broke out in Catalonia and
ultimate defeat of the Russians : went out of the Protestant for the Habsburgs - but it was not a : Swedish armies progressively : Portugal, both uprisings openly
in 1634, however, was absolute. » Campaign. Habsburg supremacy conclusive end to the war. : ravaged Germany, the Swedes : encouraged by France. In the
Sweden's success of the : seemed to have been assured.
previous year in the Thirty Years In 1633, Italian astronomer
War continued with a defeat of Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was
: called before the Roman
: Inquisition of the Catholic
a ' 6,000 6,800 : Church. His crime was to support
oh | casualties casualties the heliocentric view of the Solar
i : System that placed the Sun, and
| : not the Earth, at its centre. He
iS - was found guilty of heresy,
: forced to recant, and spent the
: rest of his life under house arrest.
Under Japan’s Tokugawa
(IN
FORCES
THOUSANDS)
: shogunate, a policy of kaikin (sea
: restriction”) was declared in 1633.
: Contact with the outside world
Swedish Imperial : was Strictly controlled, though
army army : trade with Korea and China was
Battle of Litzen
; altowed, and the Dutch kept a
Similar-sized forces suffered similar : trading post. The idea was to
casualties at the Battle of Lutzen. prevent possible territorial
Critically, though, the Swedes lost ! incursions into Japan. It remained
their leader, Gustavus Adolphus. : official policy until 1853.

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This engraving depicts the Ottoman sultan, Murad IV, sitting on a horse. His
reign restored internal authority and brought secure borders with Persia.

: same year, there was no Spanish Gondar Castle THE INTERMITTENT CONFLICT
New World treasure fleet. By now, Part of the Fasil between the Ottoman Empire and
the original causes of the Thirty Ghebbi, founded by the Safavid Persian Empire, which Portuguese
Years War had been superseded. Fasilides, in Ethiopia, had begun in 1623, climaxed soldiers
this 17th-century in 1638. Baghdad fell to the
Habsburg weakness, in Spain
castle shows Arab, canoes
as much as in Germany, was Ottomans under Sultan Murad IV
Nubian, and Baroque
increasingly apparent. design influences. (1612-40], the last Ottoman ruler
When not conspiring against his to lead his troops in battle. This
enemies, chief minister Cardinal was followed in 1639 by the
: Pedro Teixeira’s
Richelieu schemed to promote ETHIOPIAN EMPEROR Treaty of Qasr-i-Shirin, which
: Amazon expedition
French prestige, or gloire. He since 1632, Fasilides definitively settled the long- : Teixeira’s expedition was immense
championed colonial expansion, (c.1603-67) founded a disputed Ottoman-Safavid border, : and expensive. Of some political
and promoted French arts and permanent imperial largely to the benefit of the : interest, it was financed by the
learning. Among his lasting capitalatGondar in Ottomans. It granted the whole of : governor of Maranhao, in Brazil.
achievements was the Académie 1636. The buildings Mesopotamia (modern Iraq} to
Francaise, set up in 1635. Part he constructed there included the One of the founders of modern the Ottomans, while handing the : 1639 by the invasion of England
of a pan-European move toward Fasil Ghebbi, a fortress complex : philosophy, French writer René city of Yerevan (in present-day : bya “Covenanter” army from
officially sanctioned institutes of that became home to Ethiopia’s : Descartes (1596-1650), an Armenia] to the Safavid Persians. : Scotland. The king's options
learning, it was also designed to emperors until the 18th century. : advocate of rationalism, produced The problems that would : were narrowing.
consolidate what France saw as An early speculative bubble : Discours de la Méthode in 1637. eventually lead to the execution In 1638, Portuguese explorer
one of its chief claims to gloire: its burst in February 1637, when the : It was one of the most influential of Charles | of England in 1649 : Pedro Teixeira (d.1641] achieved
language. The Académie's 40 Dutch price of tulip bulbs peaked : works of Western philosophy. stemmed from the king's : aremarkable double first in
members continue to pronounce high-handed conviction that he : becoming the first person to make
on language usage today. could always impose himself on : the return journey of the entire
In 1635, the system of sankin his kingdoms. This was not : length of the River Amazon,
kotai (“alternate attendance’), exclusively a matter of royal : reaching Belem, at the river's
introduced to Japan by Toyotomi versus parliamentary authority. : mouth, more than two years after
Hideyoshi in the 1590s, was made A significant element of religious : he had set out. The previous year
compulsory. The daimyo [feudal THE RELATIVE PRICE OF TULIP controversy was involved, too.
In 1637, Charles, encouraged by
: Teixeira had been the first person
: to make thejourney upstream,
lords) were forced to spend every
other year at the shogun’s court at BULBS COMPARED TO THE William Laud, the archbishop of
Canterbury, had made the use of
: aventure partly inspired by the
: need to know how far east
Edo to participate in lavish rituals.
The cost of such submission, plus ANNUAL INCOME OF A SKILLED the Church of England's Book of : Spanish colonists had advanced
Common Prayer compulsory in beyond the Andes and into the
the time spent at court, made
rebellion less likely. When they
DUTCH CRAFTSMAN Scotland. Both Charles and Laud : Amazon Basin.
returned to their estates, which cordially despised the Calvinist © On 24 November 1639, English
they held from the shogun, each and then suddenly nosedived, A major new encyclopedia, he Scottish Kirk (Church). For their : astronomer Jeremiah Horrocks
daimyo’s wife and heir remained allegedly ruining many investors. : Exploitation of the Works of Nature, part, Scotland’s Kirk elders, much : (1618-41) became
the first person
behind. Exacting demands were A luxury item, they were seen as : by minor provincial bureaucrat, like their Puritan counterparts in : to both predict and observe a
enforced as to dress, types of a safe haven for investment in an © Song Yingxing, was published in England, considered any attempt : transit of Venus. This rare event
weapons carried, soldier numbers uncertain time. Although Tulip : China in May 1637. Its wide range to impose Anglican religious : sees Venus pass directly between
accompanying each daimyo, and Mania prices are difficult to be : of information regarding Chinese uniformity little better than : the Sun and the Earth. Observing
the contributions - military and certain about, and have been : technology distinguished it from papism. Their virulent protests in : the transit provided information
financial - the daimyo were disputed, anecdotal evidence : earlier traditions, and provided an the following year, known as the : vital to calculating the distance
: expected to provide. suggests significant highs. : obvious and extensive resource. Great Covenant, were followed in : from the Earth to the Sun.

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An illustration of Malacca, which was taken from the Portu guese by the Dutch A depiction of the Battle of Rocroi, fought on 19 May 1643. It resulted in the
in 1641. An earlier attack by the Dutch in 1605 had failed. crushing victory of a French army over a Spanish force.

FOLLOWING A SCOTTISH INVASION : By 1640, French painter Nicolas THE COURSE, NOT TO MENTION 40 : domination for that of control by
OF ENGLAND IN 1639, in April 1640 ' Poussin (1594-1665] completed A THE CAUSES, of the English Civil 10,000 : the French. In the longer term,
casualties
Charles | (1600-49) recalled the Dance to the Music of Time, a key War that began in August 1642 : Spanish decline seemed
parliament he had dismissed 11 : work of the era. Poussin stressed was never clear cut. It pitted a i 4,000 " inevitable.
ee
years earlier. He needed approval i clarity and order rather than the king bent on absolutism against casualties In 1643, Italian physicist and
to raise taxes for an army. emotion and colour of the then a Parliament determined not so mathematician Evangelista
Determined not to submit to its :; dominant Baroque style. much to overthrow the monarchy » Torricelli (1608-47) made a
lists of grievances, he dismissed From 1641, a devastating plague as to reassert its claim to shared : major contribution to scientific
it, but a second invasion in August : struck China, further weakening sovereignty in the government method in Europe with his
forced a recall. In December 1641, : a Ming China threatened by both of the kingdom. As the opening (IN
THOUSANDS)
FORCES invention of the mercury
Parliament presented a Grand : the Manchu military to the north battles were fought, Charles | : barometer. He had not intended
Remonstrance, an accusation of : and increasingly lawless bands of proved himself a surprisingly peeecrameroiinesarimmedesssecormmines
IS > to make this invention, but while
royal abuses of power. The king peasants roaming the country, obstinate and able war leader. Swedish Imperial : working on a water pump for the
responded, in January 1642, : victims of repeated famines. An However, he was soon to become Duke of Tuscany, and substituting
: Second Battle of Breitenfeld
with an attempt to arrest his : almost complete breakdown of undone, not just by his compulsive : » the much heavier mercury for
: The imperial army of the Holy
parliamentary opponents. By : central control in China followed. deviousness but by the fact that : Roman Empire suffered heavy : water, he realized that the rising
August, the country was at war. Continuing Dutch encroachment he found himself confronting : losses at the hands of the Swedish : and falling of a column of
> onthe territory and trade of the increasingly assertive and better : army at Breitenfeld, in Saxony. : mercury in a tube sealed at one
Portuguese in Asia saw the organized Parliamentarian forces. : end was due to changes in
Life dancing to music
Poussin’s A Dance to the Music of » capture of the key trading base These would be largely dominated : and making the Catholics of the : atmospheric pressure.
Time shows four dancing figures ‘of Malacca in 1641. It would prove by the formidably imposing figure Holy Roman Empire more
representing poverty, labour, wealth, a valuable cornerstone of the vast of Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), : amenable to negotiation.
and pleasure in a perpetual cycle. Dutch Empire in the East Indies. a Puritan, East-Anglian country : The overwhelming French
squire and Member of Parliament. : defeat of Spain at the Battle of
The war's significance, at least in ; Rocroi in northeast France in May
English terms, was to be that : 1643 put to an end to hopes of a
Parliament could claim greater ' Spanish triumph against either
legitimacy than that of any king: in © of the Dutch Republic or France in
short, that Parliament could » the Thirty Years War. Spain was
restrain a king, divinely ' already on the defensive against
sanctioned or not, held to have : both countries. Rocroi marked the
broken his trust with his people. : end of its dreams of European
Eleven years after the village of : imperial dominance. The Spanish
Breitenfeld, in Saxony, had seen : army in Flanders was destroyed,
King Gustavus Adolphus of : losing almost all its most
Sweden defeat a Holy Roman : experienced infantry in the
Empire army {see 1631], the : battle. Combined with its internal
Second Battle of Breitenfeld in ; struggles against the Catalonians
October 1642 saw another : and the Portuguese, and its
decisive victory for Sweden in the : chronic shortage of money, Spain
BES Tconis mu
Thirty Years War. Sweden was : risked permanent eclipse. In the
Torricelli’s barometer
subsequently free to occupy - short term, defeat reduced the
In this engraving, Torricelli
Leipzig and the rest of Saxony, » threat from the Dutch, who were demonstrates the existence of
further strengthening : anxious that they had potentially ; atmospheric pressure through the
Protestantism in Central Europe, : swopped the prospect of Spanish : use of mercury-filled tubes.

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: 44 WE STUDY THE GLORY OF GOD, AND THE
HONOUR AND LIBERTY OF PARLIAMENT,
FOR WHICH WE... FIGHT, WITHOUT
SEEKING OUR OWN INTERESTS... 99
“4
Oliver Cromwell, English Parliamentarian general, Battle of Marston Moor, 1644
: ‘ : te P. ine

Carisbrooke Castle, on the Isle of Wight, England, was where Cha rles |was ae
_ imprisoned for 14 months, from. 1647, after his defeatin the English CivilWar

ON 24 APRIL 1644, AS A REBEL In the English Civil POWER IN THE EARLY YEARS OF now made this compulsory for
MING ARMY under Li Zicheng War, the Battle of THE QING DYNASTY was exercised all male Han Chinese (the Queue
| prepared to take Beijing, the : Marston Moor in by the child-emperor’s uncle, Order). Clashing with Confucian
: Chongzhen Emperor, the last : July 1644 sawa Prince Dorgon (1612-50). A : contention that hair, as a gift from
Ming ruler, committed suicide. : decisive victory for distinctive feature of the Qing was your parents, should never be cut,
| In February, Li had proclaimed the : Parliament. The _ their hair, shaved at the front, ; to wear a Manchu pigtail was seen
| Shun dynasty, but it was not to last : following summer, at plaited into a pigtail at the back, ! asa mark of servility, as Dorgon
long. In May, the Manchus, allying : NasebyinJune 1645, and known as a queue’. Dorgon : intended. Thousands who refused
_ with a remnant Ming force, © ultimate victory was
attachment for
» to adopt it were put to death.
_ crushed Li’s army at the Battle of : virtually guaranteed On 26 May 1647, the
holding strap
| Shanhai Pass. By the autumn, the : when the main army Massachusetts Bay Colony
| first Manchu Qing emperor of : of Charles
| was Potala Palace in Tibet banned Jesuit priests from the
| China, the six-year-old Shunzhi : annihilated by Parliament's newly : The Potala Palace, seen atop the colony. Founded as a staunchly
| Emperor (1638-61), had been : formed New Model Army. Led by : Marpo Ri hillin this view from the Puritan enclave, the colonists
: south, rises more than 300m loathed the Jesuits as a sinister
' installed in Beijing. Ming : Oliver Cromwell and Sir Thomas
: (1,000ft) above the valley floor. manifestation of popery. Also,
| resistance in the south continued : Fairfax, the New Model Army
_ until 1681. The Qing themselves : brought a greater professionalism increasingly alarmed by the
| ruled until their collapse in 1911. : and mobility into the conflict, and : emphasized the ultimately French Jesuit missionaries in
:; superior resources of the Canada, who had converted
: Parliamentary cause. many Huron and Algonquin
KEY RUSSIAN EMPIRE
From about 1645, the northern American Indians, they
Under Manchu
control by 1644 ' hemisphere saw crop failures were determined that a
Under Qing : brought about by abnormally cold movement “subversive to
control by 1660 : winters. The result was famine on society” should have no
_ Under Qing : a massive scale, leading to both place in the new colony.
control
_ war and the collapse of state After escaping
by 1770.
: structures across the globe. Parliament's siege of
: These climatic changes, Oxford in April 1646,
: known since 1976 as the King Charles |
: Maunder Minimum, were surrendered to a
the result of reduced Scottish army. The
: sunspot activity, the next year they
” PACIFIC : direct consequence of delivered him to
OCEAN Parliament. He
:; which was the Little Ice
© Age in which global was imprisoned
temperatures fell by at Carisbrooke
: several degrees. Castle, on the
In 1645, the 5th Dalai Isle of White.
Having secured control of China proper in 1644, the Qing Empire Lama, Lozang Gyatso From there, he
continued to expand throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, : (1617-82), began the continued to try to bargain
provoked in part by the threat of Russian, British, and French : construction of the modern : with the various parties, but his
English Civil War armour
moves into Asia. Only some areas of the vast empire were : Potala Palace, in Lhasa, Tibet. secret negotiations with the
Metal breastplates with appended
governed directly by the Manchu or settled by the Chinese. Much : Construction finally ended in tassets (to protect the legs and lower : Scottish Presbyterians to invade
was secured, at huge expense, through military garrisons. 1694, and it remained the seat of body] were used by foot soldiers on : England led to a renewal of the
' the Dalai Lama up to 1959. both sides during the civil war. : civil war.

175
 ee 3 Le bs

Cannon and gunners are seen in this 17th-ce ntury painting commemorating This depiction of the execution of King Charles | of England outside the
the actions of the royalist forces in defeating the Fronde uprising in France. Banqueting House, in London, was painted by English artist John Weesop.

THE DEATH OF LOUIS XIII in May

1643 had brought to the French
44 DO YOU NOT KNOW, MY ON 30 JANUARY 1649, Charles |
of England was beheaded. He
throne the four-year old
Louis XIV, under the regency of
SON, WITH WHAT LITTLE remains the only king of England
to have been legally executed.
his mother, Anne of Austria [in
direct defiance of Louis XIII’s will).
WISDOM THE WORLD His conviction by the High Court
of Justice as ‘tyrant, traitor, and
Whatever France's successes in
the Thirty Years War (see 1635}
IS GOVERNED? 99 murderer” was carried by a vote
of 68 to 67. Throughout his trial,
and its emerging supremacy over Axel Oxenstierna, Swedish chancellor, Westphalia, 1648
Charles consistently rejected any
Spain, the country was not only idea that any court could legally
strapped for cash, it had to try a king. “| would know by what
confront continuing peasant : manage factional rivalries while twice forced into exile. When it power | am called hither...
uprisings brought about by : maintaining a costly war were to fizzled out in 1652, the way lay Remember | am your King, your
harvest failures and punitive : lead to government breakdown in : open to a better management of lawful King.” In reality, there is
demands for tax. In addition, 1648 with the Fronde - initially a : aristocratic loyalties that was to little doubt that since the triumph
those nobles that Cardinal : parliamentary protest, but later an : come with the personal rule of of the parliamentary New Model
Richelieu {see 1624) had excluded aristocratic uprising. Four years Louis XIV from 1661. Army, dominated by Oliver
from government were invited : of turmoil followed: Paris was In October 1648, after four years Cromwell, his death became a
back to counter those supporters taken, the royal family fled, and : of negotiations, the Thirty Years possible outcome to the crisis.
of Richelieu who were hostile to : Mazarin was : War in Germany was brought to The awkward question was
Anne and her new chief minister, a close with a series of treaties whether one form of tyranny was
Cardinal Mazarin (1602-61). collectively known as the Treaty being swapped for another.
Bungled attempts to _ of Westphalia. France was still Nonetheless, what counted was
: at war with Spain [as it would be the assertion that a body of law : Dahomey panther mask
until 1659), but Germany's horrors
: This bronze pendant in the shape of
at least had been ended. France : a stylized head ofapanther, dating
: secured rather vaguely defined : from 17th-century Dahomey, shows

®
; gains on its eastern border; : the country’s cultural sophistication.
: Sweden was confirmed in its
§ possession of Pomerania on the : separate from the person of the
®~ : Baltic coast, as well as receiving a : king existed that no one, legal

i
: huge cash payment from the Holy : ruler or not, could disregard:

ede
2 he
: Roman Emperor, Ferdinand lll, to
withdraw its troops. Among the
Parliament, not the king, was
the law’s rightful custodian.
g Bee
German states, Brandenburg- At the end of the 1640s, the
Prussia gained the most. Kingdom of Dahomey began to
Crucially, Spain also recognized emerge as a powerful force
the independence of the Dutch under King Wegbeja (d.1685).
Republic, and Germany's local . After uniting the lands of the Aja
: rulers were given the right to : and the Fon, he introduced new
: make alliances with foreign : laws, reformed government and
Treaty of Westphalia Oliver Cromwell
This document was agreed over
: powers, in effect confirming them This portrait of Oliver Cromwell, the : bureaucracy, and initiated a
several months and signed by the as sovereign states. The authority chief instigator of the trial and ‘ religion and culture that would
sealof one of Holy Roman Emperor and the king : of the Holy Roman Emperor execution of the king, was painted by : characterize this West African
109 parties of France, ending 30 years of war. : appeared fatally undermined. English artist Robert Walker. : State for more than two centuries.

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44 IT IS NOT WISDOM
| BUT AUTHORITY THAT
|MAKES A LAW. 99
| Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher, from Leviathan, 1651

- court artist to Louis XIV, shows the young Louis about to receive his crown.

CHARLES I’S EXECUTION did not POLISH-LITHUANIAN | ONE OF THE WORLD'S ICONIC : inevitable that the vacuum could : merely Poland’s loss of the
mark the final collapse of the FORCES
40,000 structures, the Taj Mahal, in Agra, : be filled only by the restoration of : Ukraine to Russia under the
royalist cause in England. A rump cavalry India, was completed in 1653 after : the actual king-in-waiting, the : Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667;
army, much of it Scottish, was still 19 years. A mausoleum built by : future Charles II. : rather, that Orthodox Russia was
active. The royalists had an 700 Mughal emperor Shah Jahan Weakened by its struggle with immensely boosted, and its tsars’
obvious figure to rally round, casualties _ (1592-1666) in memory of his » the Cossacks during the : claims to rule “all the Russias”
Charles's elder son, also called third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, it : Khmetnytsky Uprising, the partial : made tangible.
Charles. Yet his defeat at combined Indian, Persian, and : dismemberment of the Polish- On 7 June 1654, the 15-year-old
Worcester in September 1651 Islamic styles of architecture. : Lithuanian Commonwealth by : Louis XIV was crowned king of
marked the final battle of the In December 1653, Oliver : neighbours eager forterritorial : France. Since acceding to the
English Civil War, and saw Charles : 40,000 Cromwell was made Lord : gains became inevitable. The throne when aged four, first his
forced into a nine-year exile. cavalry _ Protector of England. Various : resulting devastation - its : mother and then Cardinal Mazarin
One of the foundations of | types of government forthe new: : population almost halved, its : acted as regent. His subsequent
Western political philosophy ' republic had previously been tried, | economy all but destroyed - is ; reign, of 72 years and 110 days,
appeared in 1651 when Thomas _ including military rule, while : known as The Deluge. Not only : remains one of history’s longest.
Hobbes (1588-1679) published _ parliaments were formed and : did Poland endure a Russian
Leviathan. It argued for the 40,000 _ dissolved, generally by the : invasion in June 1654, in what
absolutism of a sovereign casualties | jrascible Cromwell, with great : became known as the Thirteen
authority. Though recognizing the _ rapidity. Cromwell resisted the : Years War, the following year
"Taj Mahal
COSSACK-CRIMEAN This view of the white domed marble
liberty of the individual, Hobbes TARTAR FORCES idea that he be made king. In the : Sweden, too, invaded the country. of the Taj Mahal, in India, has made
_ believed that anarchy could only end, after his death in September : The most enduring consequence ; It one of the most recognizable and
: Battle of Berestechko, 1651
| be averted through a strong : The Cossack-Crimean Tartar forces
_ 1658, it appeared desirable and : of this calamitous period was not : admired buildings in the world.
_ central government. It was an : suffered 40,000 casualties at are
early example of social contract : Berestechko, far more than their
theory (individuals in society are : Polish-Lithuanian adversaries.
united by mutual consent) and
was profoundly influential. The first of three wars between
In 1648, the Khmelnytsky England and the Netherlands
: began in 1652 (two followed in
at
Uprising saw a Cossack revolt
against the rule of the Polish- 1665-67 and 1672-74). All were
Lithuanian Commonwealth in the naval wars fought for command of
Ukraine, which had been awarded : the sea and ship-borne
to Poland under the Treaty of commerce. For the Dutch, a
Lublin of 1589. The uprising : small nation with few natural
climaxed in 1651 with the Battle : resources, but still the leading
of Berestechko, the largest : mercantile power of Europe, they
single battle of the 17th century. ! assumed vast importance. For the
The result was a victory of sorts : English, they marked the
for the Polish-Lithuanians. » emergence of anew bullish
However, the ultimate effect of the : confidence. England's eventual
struggle was a weakening of the : victory signalled the decline of
Commonwealth, which was : Dutch commercial pre-eminence,
already wracked by numerous :and launched a new Anglo-
internal disputes among its : French rivalry for commercial
querulous nobles. : and colonial supremacy.

Lay
 ANY Leas \ xD {
SS SP AG 1S TA EES ow (\
This engraving on wood depicts Brandenburg forces storming Polis h positions A manuscript showing Ottoman
at the Battle of Warsaw in 1656 during the First Northern War. troops on the island of Lemnos.

: Las Meninas, an enigmatic work ON 2 MARCH 1657, the Great Fire IN JUNE 1658, AURANGZEB
: that has been hugely influential. of Meireki began in Edo [Tokyo]. (1618-1707), or Alamgir
A renewed phase of Ottoman In two days, fed by relentless (“Conqueror of the World”) as he
: confidence began when Koprulu winds, it destroyed almost 70 per called himself, was crowned
: Mehmed (1575-1661) became cent of the city, consuming the Mughal emperor. It ended two
: grand vizier in 1656, Sultan paper and wooden buildings and years of in-fighting between him
: Mehmed IV handing him control killing around 100,000 people. and his brothers for their father,

THE APPROXIMATE SIZE OF THE of the empire. He ruthlessly Although an offshoot of the First Shah Jahan’s, throne - this
despite Shah Jahan still being
stamped out opposition and Northern War, the Swedish-
EMPIRE CLAIMED BY PORTUGAL embarked on a series of military Danish Wars of 1657-58 and alive. All three brothers were
: campaigns - completed after his 1658-60 developed into a largely subsequently executed (two by
FEARFUL OF RUSSIAN : the Polish capital Warsaw was : death in 1661 - that saw the separate conflict over control of Aurangzeb). His reign would prove
DOMINATION OF THE BALTIC, : taken by a Swedish-Brandenburg : empire at its greatest extent. the Baltic when, in June 1657, paradoxical. Mughal India was
Sweden entered the Thirteen © force, further undermining the Denmark joined the coalition still immensely rich and powerful.
Years War between Russia and : Polish-Lithuanian state. confronting Sweden in Poland. Under Aurangzeb, a devout
: Las Meninas Muslim, it reached it greatest
Poland-Lithuania in 1655, thus : One of the greatest paintingsin :: Diego Velazquez’s painting of Sweden had made consistent
creating the First Northern War. : Western culture was created in : Margarita, the daughter of Philip IV gains at Denmark’s expense territorial extent (see p.190}. Yet
Other countries were sucked in : 1656 when Spanish artist Diego : of Spain, and her entourage, is since the mid-16th century; the the near continuous warfare of his
and alliances changed. In 1656, : Velazquez (1599-1660) painted : known for its complex composition. prize, control of The Sound - the 49-year reign, in which immense
strategically and economically
vital entrance to the Baltic - still
under Danish control in 1657. In
the winter of 1657-58, Charles X
of Sweden (1622-60) outflanked
the Danes, marching his troops
into Denmark and then, in
February, across the frozen Baltic
to Copenhagen itself. The Treaty
of Roskilde in 1658 confirmed
Sweden's territorial dominance.
The second war, if less favourable
to Sweden, still underlined
Sweden's Baltic superiority.
With the Ottoman Empire now
re-invigorated by Grand Vizier
Koprullu Mehmed, in late 1657 its
fleet captured the Aegean
islands of Lemnos and Tenedos
from the Venetians. The islands,
which dominated the approaches
to the Dardanelles, had been used
Conqueror of the World
by the Venetians to blockade
This portrait of the Mughal emperor,
Constantinople, the Ottoman Aurangzeb I, seen here with his
capital. The Venetians would not courtiers, is attributed to the Indian
pose such a threat again. artist Bhawani Das.

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 44 THE TRUTH IS, IDO INDULGE
MYSELF A LITTLE THE MORE IN
PLEASURE, KNOWING THAT THIS
IS THE PROPER AGE OF MY LIFE
TO DO IT. 99
- Samuel Pepys, English diarist, diary entry, 1660
a
2 : 2 Sr SS
ce of the Pyrenees in 1659 saw Louis XIV of France {centre left] m eet
hilip IV of Spain to ratify the treaty that ended Franco-Spanish conflict.

Swedish Empire
The Swedish _ LOUIS XIV [1638-1715] : resolved this dilemma. It was
left to his successor, the rather
North Empire reached its
Sea : less shrewd James II, to provoke
peak in 1658 in the
Louis XIV, known as Le Roi : the crisis that would later
reign of Charles X,
following the
Soleil (Sun King), had a greater : definitively propel England into
Treaty of Roskilde. impact on France than any : a unique parliamentary
However, the need other monarch. Determined : revolution (see 1688).
to defend its new to be the absolute ruler of his The famous English diarist
NORWAY territories forced it : nobles and his country, he : Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) began
Christiania @ into a series of centralized the state, fought © putting his daily thoughts on
unsustainably numerous wars, and also : paper in 1660. Pepys was a
expensive wars.
RUSSIA p encouraged culture. By his © high-ranking naval official, and
DENMARK later reign, France had : his diary, which he kept until 1669
Copenhagen'e expanded its territory and was : but was not published until the
BREMEN i &
POLAND- the leading nation in Europe, : 19th century, provided one of the
e ee wa
LITHUANIA much admired and imitated. : most valuable sources of
: information on life during the
_ English Restoration.
campaigns were launched against The year 1659 marked the start The Peace of the Pyrenees in “|... BLESSED GOD... IT WAS THE The death of Cardinal Mazarin
: the Sikhs and the Marathas, : of one of the most remarkable November 1659 ended the LORD’S DOING.” With these words : (see 1648) in 1661 began the
: exhausted the country’s developments of the scientific enduring Franco-Spanish conflict | diarist John Evelyn recorded the : personal rule of the 22-year-old
treasuries and highlighted the : revolution in Europe with the : in Europe. France was now overwhelming reception accorded : Louis XIV. He would remain on
internal flaws of his vast empire. : beginning of what is now known : Europe’s major power, and | Charles II (1630-85) in London in : the French throne for a further
By his death in 1707, it was visibly : as the Central England : Spain, its New World revenues May 1660 on his restoration as : 53 years. A childhood in which
in decline. : Temperature, or CET, record. It : diminishing, its internal tensions king of England. By any measure, : France was divided made him
Near Dunkirk, in northeastern was a scientific experiment on an : multiplying, and its support from Charles's restoration was a : aware of the need to develop a
France, on 14 June 1658 a : unprecedented scale, an attempt _ triumphant vindication of the : style of personal assertiveness
combined Anglo-French force to measure temperatures almost principles of kingship, as well as : and grandeur. This was to impress
defeated the Spanish. This was nationally, in reality within a of the contradictory limitations of : on the French elites that they
the last decisive conflict of the triangle bounded in the north by Oliver Cromwell's republican : were part of his great project for
Franco-Spanish War that had Manchester, the east by London, experiment. Charles Il swept back : French glory and pre-eminence
begun in 1635, and as such the and in the west by Bristol. Today, it
THE VALUE OF | to his throne on a wave of popular : in Europe. United under a ruler
last battle of the Thirty Years War.
It was also the last confrontation
constitutes the oldest continuous
measurement of temperatures THE EARLIEST- _ sentiment. Worldly, knowing, and,
| at heart, lazy, Charles was always
: who recognized their privileges

‘KNOWN CHEQUE
: and status, French nobles and
of the Anglo-Spanish War that : in the world. It had a precedent ready to compromise with his : officials supported a series of
had begun in 1654. For the : of sorts in 1657 in Italy, the parliamentary opponents. His ! wars to assert this position.
French, the imperative, as ever, : Accademia del Cimento (Academy : | charm was legendary. That said, However, these wars would bring
was dominance in Europe; for the : of Experiment) in Florence : Austria curtailed, was slowly his weakness for pleasure- : France to the brink of disaster and
English, to steal whatever instituting what has been called subsiding. The change roused | seeking combined with his : pauperize most of its population.
advantage, commercial or : the “world’s first weather © those states able to confront an | instinctive sympathy for : Yet the cultural impact of Louis’
territorial, they could over Spain, : observation network’. If Europe's : assertive France to do just that, | Catholicism, especially when rule remained; no other European
hence the pragmatic alliance : scientific revolution depended on : putting France ona collision | funded by Louis XIV in France, : country would approach France
between Oliver Cromwell's accurate observation and : course with the other emerging | highlighted a still unresolved : in the second half of the 17th
Puritan England with Louis XIV’s measurement, the CET was a : powers in Europe: England, the | political crisis. Charles, by turns century for such a projection of
: Catholic France. : crucial forerunner. i Dutch, and Habsburg Austria. | vengeful and forgiving, never ! national pre-eminence.

179
 ee Nis
The people of New Amsterdam plead with its director-general, Peter
, A 1635 view of Fort Zeelandia, in
Stuyvesant, not to resist the English warships gathering in the harbour. the Angel of Death holding an hourglass and a spear.
Tainan, present-day Taiwan.

FOR ALMOST FOUR DECADES the NUMEROUS ENGLISH RAIDS on

Dutch shipping and trading posts
44 ONE IS EASILY
Dutch East India Company had
controlled western Formosa in this year were the result of an FOOLED BY
[Taiwan], with its trading base Fort English desire to win as much _THAT WHICH
Zeelandia at its heart. Hostile to Dutch trade as possible. The most
this alien presence, the Chinese successful of these took place on ONE LOVES. 99
Ming dynasty besieged the fort, 27 August, when a small English
which was inadequately supplied fleet arrived at New Amsterdam, : Moliére, from Tartuffe, 1664

by water, and captured it in the capital of the Dutch North

February 1662. The Dutch were American colony of New : Ottoman army, intent on capturing
forced to abandon Formosa. Netherland, and demanded its : Vienna, was defeated by a
The pace of scientific surrender. Director-general Peter : Habsburg force at St Gotthard,
investigation in the 17th century Stuyvesant eventually complied. : Hungary. Although the Ottomans
led Europe's scientists to share By March 1665, the Second - gained favourable peace terms,
ideas, and then to form bodies Anglo-Dutch War broke out. : their invasion
was curtailed.
devoted to a better understanding The Austro-Turkish War that : Alarmed at English and Dutch
of science. In 1662, the Royal broke out in 1663 reached a : domination of trade with Asia,
Society, the world’s oldest such climax in August 1664, when an : in 1664 the French East India
scientific body, was founded in > Company was established, with
London. That it had royal approval : royal patronage. It was lavishly
Battle ofSt Gotthard sae eA aTE ledontyi
showed how both the practical This woodcut, based on a drawing by ° Unded PUL Ityesutted ontyin
application of science and the Adolf Ehrhardt, shows an attack by the settlement of the island of findings
pursuit of pure knowledge had the Habsburg cavalry in the defeat of _ Réunion in the Indian Ocean and a This page from
become of interest to the state. the Ottomans at St Gotthard. > handful of trading posts in India. THE PUBLICATION IN THIS YEAR OF : Robert Hooke’s
Micrographia, by English natural 1665 publication,
philosopher and polymath Robert : Micrographia,
Hooke (1635-1703), was the first : shows a detailed
illustration of
work under the patronage of the
anant. Hooke had
Royal Society. It was not merely
: drawn the ant after
the first time that those other : viewing it under his
than a closed circle of specialists : microscope, which
had been made aware of the ; 1s shown here.
remarkable world revealed by
microscopes. His drawings of an © ofa living organism, the term
ant, louse, and flea, lovingly : derived from the fact those cells
detailed and precisely executed, ' Hooke observed reminded him of
THE PRICE sparked particular astonishment ' amonk’s cell.
at the complexity of this hitherto The year 1665 also saw the last
IN LIVRES unsuspected micro-world. It : outbreak of bubonic plague in
FOR WHICH was, according to diarist Samuel
Pepys, ‘the most ingenious book
: England. The disease was
: concentrated mostly in London,
FRANCE that | ever read in my life”. Of ; where, at its height in September,

BOUGHT greater significance was that

Hooke was the first to use the
: 7,000 a week were dying. In the 18
: months the plague ravaged the
DUNKIRK term “cell” for the smallest unit : city, 100,000 people died.
 PLACE AND IN ITSELF, CAN
/MAKE A HEAVEN OF HELL,
Ui] A HELL OF HEAVEN. 99
John Milton, English poet, from Paradise Lost, 1667

et
in 1666, a major fire swept through the central parts of London, consuming of the admiral
housands of houses and wiping away centuries of history. cr privateer Henry Morgan.

THE TREATY OF ANDRUSOVO in THE PORTUGUESE TRADING POST

January 1667 ended the Polish- AT BOMBAY (Mumbai) had passed
Lithuanian Commonwealth's to the English Crown in 1662 as

_THE NUMBER OF
calamitous war with Russia part of the dowry of Catherine of
that had begun in 1654. It also Braganza, Charles II's Portuguese
climaxed The Deluge - its
PEOPLE KILLED | wife. In 1668, the king leased it to
dramatic decline above all in
the face of Russian expansion. _IN THE SAMAKHI the East India Company for an
annual rent of £10, making it the
Russia, granted Smolensk and _EARTHQUAKE | Company's third trading post
present-day Belarus, could for the
first time claim to have unified
_IN AZERBAIJAN in India after those at Surat and
Madras. With Bombay Castle
10 ships lost 4 ships lost
| the Slavic peoples of the region. | completed in 1675, from 1687
ENGLISH FLEET DUTCH FLEET The completion in 1667 of the England, Sweden, and the Dutch it became the focus of all the
| Four Days Battle Piazza San Pietro, by Gian ' Republic forced the isolated Louis Company's trading in India,
i In one of the longest naval engagements ever, the Four Days Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), saw : to return most of his gains by the | resisting attempts to storm it
Battle, fought in June 1666 during the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the high point of urban planning in : 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. by the Mughals and the Dutch.
saw the Dutch inflict a defeat on the English. Baroque Rome. Many of Rome’s In 1667, the epic poem Paradise In 1668, the Welsh privateer
public spaces were ambitiously - Lost, by English poet John Milton (state-sponsored raider) Henry
THE BIGGEST ENGAGEMENT OF : effective precautions were taken. rebuilt by a series of architects to © (1608-74), gave the English Morgan, famous for his attacks
THE SECOND ANGLO-DUTCH WAR, - Though drought and a heat wave make them deliberately imposing, ' language one of its greatest on Spanish settlements in the
which had begun in 1665, the : had made the city especially and worthy to be at the centre of : literary achievements. It told the | Caribbean, succeeded in one of
| Four Days Battle was an English : vulnerable, a crucial added factor the Catholic Church. : Christian story of man’s fall from the most daring assaults ever
attempt to destroy the Dutch fleet : wasa strong easterly wind. The The War of Devolution began in : grace in the Garden of Eden. when his ships captured the
before it could grow to challenge : result was that the whole of the May 1667 as a result of Louis XIV’s well-protected Spanish trading
| them. However, the English : City was destroyed, including the continuing claims to the Spanish city of Porto Bello, in Panama.
: Siege of Lille
suffered such losses that it : medieval St Paul's Cathedral, 87 Netherlands. It saw France take It won him both great wealth and
: Louis XIV directs French forces at
handed the initiative to the Dutch. : other churches, and upwards of some Habsburg cities in Flanders, : Lille during the War of Devolution. Its further English support for his
E Disaster then followed for : 13,000 houses. The official death as well as Franche-Comté to its : capture provided one of France's few buccaneering endeavours.
; England in June 1667 after a : toll of six has long been disputed. | east. However, a Triple Aliance of : gains from a frustrating conflict. Just as Philip II's seizure of the
daring Dutch raid on the River Not to be outdone by the Portuguese crown in 1580 was
Medway, in the Thames estuary. : founding of the Royal Society of a sign of Spanish power, so its
| With discontent at home, England : London (see 1662], in December recognition of Portuguese
| brought the war to a halt. ' 1666 Louis XIV gave his blessing independence in 1668 under the
As the Great. Plague ended, a : to the creation of the French | Treaty of Lisbon, which confirmed
new disaster overtook London, : Academy of Sciences, which in the House of Braganza as rulers
| the Great Fire, which burned : 1699 became the Royal Academy of Portugal, was evidence of its
| from 2 to 5 September. London of Sciences and was installed in decline. From 1640, Portugal had
| was still a medieval city, filthy and ' the Louvre Palace, in Paris. Today, been in open revolt against Spain,
| unplanned, with no great spaces ‘itis part of the /nstitut de France. | | andin June 1665 at the Battle of
and few public buildings of note. : It was at the heart of a drive for # | Montes Claros a combined
| The City, which was the : verifiable scientific knowledge. Anglo-Portuguese force inflicted
' commercial heart, was especially : As anarm of the state it was also a crushing defeat on them. Close
} overcrowded and unsanitary. It interested in discoveries that to bankruptcy, and sure of further
| was here the fire began. Although : could enrich its country, such as French hostility, the Spanish had
| the risk of fire was well known, no : in agriculture and armaments. little option but to concede.

181
 [AM DRINKING
THE STARS. 99
; Attributed to Dom Pérignon, while tasting champagne, 1670

| Portuguese glazed tiles decorat uel Fortress in Luanda, a key

. The Badshahi Mosque, Lahore, was |
\ military strongpoint in the colonization of Angola in the later 17th century.
commissioned by Aurangzeb.

; | IN 1671, PORTUGAL ENDED THE : while the Dutch preferred a weak

ONE OF THE REASONS GIVEN FOR
THE DISINTEGRATION of the | INDEPENDENCE of the kingdom of : Spain as a neighbour to a strong
| Ndongo, in what is today Angola. = France. The War of Devolution of
Mughal Empire after the death of
A Portuguese colony had largely : 1667-68 had seen French gains,
Aurangzeb in 1707 has been his
| dominated the Ndongo since the : and then losses, in the Spanish
supposed religious persecution
16th century, but a rebellion by : Netherlands, but in 1672 Louis,
of Hindus and other minorities.
Where his predessor Akbar | had their king, Philip, in 1671, saw : allied with England and Sweden,
pursued an active policy of | Portuguese troops capture the : tried again in the Franco-Dutch
religious toleration as the most | capital and take control of its : War. The war ended with the
effective means of controlling his | entire territory. : Dutch granting New Amsterdam
Hindu vassals, Aurangzeb - Just as fears of Spanish : to England, while the French -
dominance in Europe had allied : although their conquest of the
himself a Sunni Muslim - was
said to have systematically | France, England, and the Dutch : Dutch Republic failed - gained the
destroyed Hindu temples. In | Republic, so French dominance : former Burgundian territory of the
addition, he banned the use of ' after 1659 saw anti-French : Franche-Comté and a string of
music, central to Hindu practice, ' alliances throw Spain and the : border territories in the Spanish
issuing a decree, perhaps in 1669, ; ¥ | Dutch Republic together. Spain : Netherlands. Yet the peace proved
to this effect. He also had drawn See lender opposed Louis XIV’s claim to the a brief pause in Louis’ attempts to
up an exhaustive digest of IN MAY 1670, THE HUDSON’S BAY: Stepan Razin, the Cossack leader Spanish Netherlands by marriage, | expand and safeguard France.
Muslim law, the Fatawa-e- COMPANY WAS FORMED under | who rose up against the nobility and
Alamgri, said to have been British royal charter on the : the tsar’s bureaucracy, is seen here
rigorously imposed. All these initiative of two French fur : on the River Volga, South Russia.
claims are disputed, however. In trackers, Pierre-Esprit Radisson =
fact, the number of Hindu temples | and Médard de Groseilliers. They = he was devoted to eliminating the
said to have been destroyed varies | had learned that the best furs : bubbles such wines produced, as
improbably from 80 to 60,000. came from the Creeterritory to the pressure they built up in the
That Aurangzeb was strongly the north of Lake Superior. Easier : bottles tended to explode them.
anti-Christian, though, seems to reach via Hudson Bay rather : But as cellar master of the Abbey,
certain to have been true. than via the rivers and lakes to the : he did make a major contribution
| south, they proposed a base there. : to the production of white wines,
_ Rebuffed in France, they solicited © by using grapes otherwise used in
support in England. The : red wine. It was not until the early
| Hudson's Bay Company would : 18th century that the taste for
| become one of the great : sparkling wines, in England and
commercial enterprises of : France, grew rapidly.
England, the basis of its claim to A Cossack uprising in South = - = :
Loe eo oe Canada, and source of regional __—--Russia in 1670 was brutally | Avaluable natural asset of North America was fur. It drove the
THE ANNUAL | rivalry with France. suppressed by the tsar, and its French westwards into Canada and saw the English establish the
The claim that in 1670 Dom : leader Stepan Razin executed the Hudson's Bay Company (see 1670). It also led to Anglo-French
REVENUE _ Pérignon (1638-1715],amonk —_:following year. An attempt to | conflict there. While the French would accompany the American
RAISED BY at the Benedictine Abbey of protect Cossack independence Indians on fur-trapping expeditions, the English, and the Dutch
Hautvillers, in Champagne in : against the centralized Russian | (pictured) before them, usually took delivery of furs from the
AURANGZEB’S northeast France, invented the : state had become a revolt bya | Indians at their trading posts. All depended on Indian aid, while
sparkling wine of thatname,is ___ disaffected peasantry that saw | the Indians became dependent on European weapons and tools.
EXCHEQUER largely discounted today. In fact, |: several cities sacked and looted. : : : : ;
 @ Vf Mee < tes
Ceremonial entrance of the Qing emperor, Kangxi, to Beijing. Kangxi oversaw Frederick Wiltiam | leads his troops
Mississippi River with their guides. the complete suppression of the Three Feudatories revolt. at the Battle of Fehrbellin.

THE EXTENSIVE WATERWAYS OF FOLLOWING THEIR TAKEOVER OF : albeit not until 1681. With the IN 1675, MUGHAL EMPEROR
North America provided a CHINA WITH THE COLLAPSE of the rebels as wary of each other as AURANGZEB ORDERED THE
ready-made means of Ming dynasty in 1644, the Qing : they were of the Qing, they rarely EXECUTION of Tegh Bahadur,
exploring its interior. In 1673, co-opted some of the more : co-operated, allowing the Qing to ninth guru of the Sikhs, after he
French-Canadian explorer powerful Ming generals, making : pick them off one by one. Those had refused to convert to Istam. It
Louis Jolliet and French Jesuit them regional governors and : rebels who did not commit suicide brought to the Sikh throne his
Jacques Marquette travelled allowing them considerable : were executed. nine-year-old son, Gobind Singh
down the Mississippi River latitude in their rule over what After freeing the Hindu Maratha (1666-1708). It would be several
to within 600km (370 miles} became almost independent _ from the Sultan of Bijapur, Shivaji years later that, under Singh's
of the Gulf of Mexico. They territories. It was felt that if they : (1630-80) was crowned Maratha leadership, the Sikhs would pose
turned back for fear of enriched themselves - as they : king in 1674, establishing the a growing military threat to
arousing Spanish hostility did on a prodigious scale - the Maratha Empire (see Mughal rule, and contribute
but discovered the Missouri less likely it was that they would p.196) that would later significantly to its collapse.
: Leibniz mechanical calculator and Ohio rivers, as well as revolt. The risk was that their defeat the Mughals to However, the pattern of religious
: One of the first calculating confirming that the river led to the progressively greater revenues dominate India until opposition to the Mughals was
: machines, developed by Gottfried Gulf and not the Pacific. English would be matched by greater the early 19th century. already well
: Leibniz, this device multiplies by
exploration inland from their pretensions to rule China. In established in many
: making repeated additions.
scattered coastal settlements was 1674, the Revolt of the ®, parts of India,
much more hesitant, rarely Three Feudatories broke ® most obviously in
: In 1671, German mathematician co-ordinated, and additionally out across southern the Western Ghats,
: Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) blocked by the Appalachian China in those where Shivaji had
: demonstrated one of the world’s mountain chain. It almost always provinces controlled declared the
: first mechanical calculators. It depended on native assistance. by the three most Maratha Empire.
: was the first such machine that For example, it was after spending prominent On 18 June 1675, a
: could perform all four of the basic a year with a group of Tomahitan rebels, Wu combined Prussian and
arithmetic functions. Leibniz went Indians in present-day Georgia Sangui, Shang Brandenburg army, led by
: on to further refine his calculating that Gabriel Arthur travelled with Kexi Gungdong, Frederick William |, Elector
machines, thus providing
the them across the Cumberland and Geng Jingzhong, of Brandenburg (1620-88]},
basis of the modern calculator. Gap, unwittingly discovering what joined by lesser met and defeated a Swedish
: Repeated Cossack and in the 18th century would be the Ming governors. army, led by Count von
: Crimean Tartar revolts against principal route to Kentucky and Led by the Kangxi Wrangel, near Fehrbellin, in
: the weakened Polish-Lithuanian the west. Emperor (1654- Brandenburg. This relatively
! Commonwealth in 1672 drew 1722], the Qing insignificant battle in the Scanian
their Ottoman allies into a response, with its War, itself a by-product of the
: four-year Polish-Ottoman War. superior Franco-Dutch War, nonetheless
: Polish resistance under Jan Ill military, was marked a crucial moment in
: Sobieski [1629-96] was greatly successful, Sweden’s long struggle to
: undermined by grudging support impose itself as the dominant
© from the Polish parliament, the Baltic power. Defeat at the
Sejm, and was hardly equal to the THE LENGTH Statue of Shivaji
This bronze statue of
hands of an otherwise
: progressively larger armies of the relatively minor German state
: Ottomans. The result was the loss OF THE Shivaji on horseback in
Maharashtra, India, a dealt the Swedes a lasting
: of what little prestige Poland
could still claim as well as most
APPALACHIAN commemorates his
leadership of the Maratha
. blow. Swedish pretensions to
great power status were
: of its Ukrainian territories. MOUNTAINS campaign for self-rule. revealed as precarious at best.

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 A 19th-century image of the Asante, who
Horseshoe Falls, on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls, is about 800m
dominated West Africa from the 1680s.
(2,600ft) wide. Europeans first discovered this natural wonder in 1677.

: royal patronage. This official state engraving of IN 1679, THE ENGLISH

IN FRANCE, LOUIS XIV’S principal i sweeping up to Its immense
: theatre aimed to showcase the author PARLIAMENT passed the Habeas
architectural endeavours : facade and 15 courtyards
; clustered behind. Its most : glories of the French stage : Corpus Act. Like Magna Carta
concentrated on his immense
memorable feature, the lavish and French aga (see 1215], it represented a
palace at Versailles, just outside
: royal chapel L'Eglise du Déme, : culture as widely cornerstone of English liberty. It is
Paris. Louis was also determined
: was added slightly later. Placed at : as possible. the legal assertion that no one
to continue the transformation of
' the southern end of the complex, European | may be unlawfully detained.
the French capital, begun by his
: it was designed with a vast dome : explorers began | The law was passed for
grandfather Henry IV at the start
: and spire, with details picked out : to realize the pragmatic reasons rather than
of the 17th century. Henry’s intent
: in gold. - immensity of as a liberal principle ofjustice.
had been to Lift the city from
Louis XIV's reign marked one of ' North America as Its aim was to prevent James,
medieval slum to a capital
: the most fertile periods of : the 17th century Duke of York, the Catholic
worthy of the first power of
: French literature. The year 1677 : progressed. The brother and heir of Charles Il,
Europe - a city to rival Rome for
: saw the first performance of : extraordinary variety from arresting his Protestant
its imposing public buildings and
commanding spaces. The Louvre : Phédre, the greatest tragedy of : and natural beauty of opponents without legal
Palace, predictably, was : French dramatist Jean Racine ; its landscape also justification, as Charles's
significantly enlarged and : (1639-99). Dramatists such as continued to amaze.
remodelled, notably the east ' Racine, Pierre Corneille (1606- ! The discovery of
wing, whose stately facade : 84), and Moliére (1622-73) thrived : Niagara Falls in 1677,
Religious work
44 YOU MAY
encapsulated the French taste : under royal patronage, captivating : a waterfall hugely larger
: than any in Europe, with
This is the frontispiece from the HOLD THE BODY,
for Classicism at its most austere : court audiences in different ways.
and precise. But the building that : Corneille and Racine reflected © over 170,000.cum (6,000,000 cuft)
| third edition of John Bunyan’s The
: Pilgrim's Progress, a hugely SUBJECT TO
most memorably reflects Louis's : courtly concerns through their _ of water thundering overitevery : influential work in the 17th century. EXAMINATION. 99
contribution to Paris is Les : use of formal verse, classical : minute, provoked wonder in the
Invalides, or more properly : themes, and emphasis on honour, - Old World. There is doubt as to One of literature’s most English writ of Habeas Corpus, 1679
L'‘H6tel National des Invalides. Part : virtue, and renunciation, while : which European can claim to have : significant religious works was
hospital, part retirement home for: Moliére’s racy dramas mocked : seen the falls first. However, the : published in February 1678. The
French soldiers, it was completed : the social pretensions of the : French Franciscan missionary : Pilgrim's Progress was written by chief minister, the Earl of
in 1676. Designed by Liberal : bourgeoisie. As a result of this : Louis Hennepin (1626-1701), : English writer and Christian Clarendon, had begun to do. The
Bruant (1635-97), Les Invalides : rich and growing theatrical : exploring at the request of King ' preacher John Bunyan (1628-88], underlying principle of the Act,
was conceived on an grand scale, ' tradition, the Comédie-Francaise | Louis XIV, is generally credited ' who completed much of the work which is incorporated into the
with vast formal gardens : was established in Paris under : with their discovery, in 1677. while imprisoned in Bedford Gaol. American Constitution, remains
- It was published in two parts (the fundamental to most Anglo-Saxon
: second part appeared in 1684) and legal systems as an ultimate
: is an allegorical tale of an guarantee of individual liberty.
: everyman’s journey from this However, in reality the law Is
: world to heaven. The Pilgrim's hardly ever invoked.
: Progress has become one of the In August 1680, the Pueblo
: most translated books in history. people of the colony of New
Mexico rose against the Spanish
occupiers and drove them from
Les Invalides, Paris
the area for 12 years. Spanish
These sumptuous buildings now
contain museums and monuments claims to New Mexico, though
relating to France's military history, dating back to Francisco
and a hospital for war veterans. Coronado’s expeditions of the
 44 HE THAT DOES GOOD FOR GOOD'S
SAKE SEEKS NEITHER PARADISE
NOR REWARD, BUT HE IS SURE OF
BOTH IN THE END. 99
_ William Penn, English Quaker, establishing Philadelphia, 1682

: mid-16th century, had never : conquered in 1701 at the Battle Penn in America
: amounted to much more than : of Feyiase (in modern Ghana). This detail from a painting shows
: statements of priority and Few projects revealed the English Quaker William Penn's
: Christian pre-eminence over the : determination of Louis XIV's meeting with American Indians in
: region. New Mexico was seen asa what is now the state of Delaware.
: France to extend itself than the
: land of marginal value as it was : construction of the Canal du Midi,
' remote and arid. The Pueblo : a navigable inland waterway that | THE 1682 CORONATION OF
: revolt was provoked partly by ' stretched between the nine-year-old Peter the Great
: drought and by the suffering such : Mediterranean Sea and the (1672-1725) as tsar of Russia
: natural events inevitably brought : Atlantic Ocean. Its construction brought to a close this vast
: in their wake, but more : was necessary because it would nation’s vague, imperial influence
: particularly by Spain's : replace a perilous and indirect as a semi-power on the margins
: determination to crush local : sea-passage with a simple canal of Europe. Peter's childhood was
: religious practices - Pueblo : route. The technical problems, no scarred by revolt, and it left him
' shamen were consistently : less than the cost, were daunting. determined to punish his internal
~~ FY
! accused of witchcraft and : The main problem was how to enemies and reshape Russia as
: executed. When the Spanish : ensure a sufficient supply of water a western European power. Ina : follow-up expedition by sea in : belonging to James, Duke
: returned in 1692, they did so in ' to the highest parts of the canal. life of compulsive energy, he built : 1684 failed to find the river and : of York, founded the settlement
: overwhelming numbers. It was easily the most complex a new capital, St Petersburg, and : saw three of its four ships : that would grow into the city of
: The Asante kingdom, founded : engineering problem undertaken ruthlessly imposed himself on his wrecked. La Salle was murdered : Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
in about 1680, was formed fiom : by any 17th-century European boyars (nobles). His version of by the remainder of his party. : Penn promised religious freedom
: the Akan, who dominated West : state, calling for labour ona Versailles, recreated on the edge - In 1682, William Penn (1644- : and material wealth to all those
: Africa. The most prominent group massive scale, and used entirely of the Baltic, did not amount to : 1718), an English Quaker and : Europeans who settled there.
of the Akan was the Oyoko. Using : untried engineering solutions. much more than a statement of philosopher who had been
| diplomacy and warfare, the Oyoko : When completed in 1681, the intent, but by the end of his reign : granted land in North America
: consolidated the Akan tribes in : Canal du Midi stretched a distance Russia was a massive power-in-
: the 1670s, uniting them against © of 240km (149 miles). waiting, looming over Europe. French claims to
North America
: the threatof the neighbouring In 1682, nine years after Jolliet Hudson Newfoundland
Bay This map depicts the
: Denkyira, who they eventually and Marquette had ventured down York Factory@=. i
vast areas of North
the Mississippi, confirming that RUPERT'S LAND & : :
NORTH o: es RS = America claimed by
these territories contained neither : AMERICA See op See iy e aia France, as wellas the
easily exploited wealthy natives (ae ates a vee Shi 4 areas under Spanish
The Pueblo of southwest North nor obvious sources of gold, 1 Me |, HAUT ae and British control in
ni Michigan f Aes the late 17th century.
America, so called by the | Robert de La Satie (1643-87),
> is
Spanish for their pueblos, a veteran of North American ~ ATLANTIC
or villages, were famed exptoration, determined to follow Ss Me OCEAN
oO > @ Charleston KEY
for their sophisticated the river to its mouth. With his
| Rh ans 3} /— British control
and elaborate pottery. party of 19 American Indians, he
SAINT- and settlement
It is characterized by reached it on 9 April 1682, and DOMINGUE
Spanish control
a light background on proclaimed the river and its
PPSaito Domingo and settlement
which are painted stylized hinterlands a French possession, ve French control
animals and repeated Louisiana, named after the YALTY OFNEW SPAIN and settlement
Car
y b n
French king. This formed the French influence
abstract patterns in ochre,
PACIFIC — approximate
black, and grey colouring. basis of a French claim to a vast
OCEAN western limit
swathe of North America. Yet a of French claim

185
 aS, §
Sassy

The Battle of Kahlenberg saw a Polish-Imperial army lift the Ottoman This 19th-century illustration shows Friedrich Wilhelm I,elector of
Empire’s two-month siege of Vienna. Brandenburg, welcoming French Protestant Huguenots to Berlin in 1685.

ON 14 JULY 1683, AN OTTOMAN : League of the Holy Roman { 5,000 | THE EDICT OF NANTES, AGREED by : brutality - that it aroused not just
Empire, Poland, and Venice, H casualties | Henry lV in 1598, was essential : the indignation of Protestant
army besieged Vienna. As with
= formed in 1684 under papal 60 | to ending the French Wars of : Europe but reinforced its alarmed
the previous Ottoman attempt on
the city in 1529, this was adirect authority, driving them south 7B i Religion. Of necessity, it was a : perception that Louis XIV’s France
assault on the Christian West. In ; across the Balkans. ae oe | ' compromise, and it saw France's: had to be opposed at all costs.
the event, the siege failed just as it : Taiwan's Tunging kingdom, a 3 io i substantial Protestant Huguenot = The consequence of Louis XIV’s
had in 1529. But whereas 1529 : supporter of China’s ousted Ming, := ' minority granted religious » obvious designs on Europe was
had been the climax of aseries of © had supported militaryassaults © Z 30 j 12,000 toleration in return for accepting = the establishment in 1686 of the
conquests that had seen the » against the Qing since 1661. By a | casualties Henry as king. In October 1685, anti-French League of Augsburg,
Ottomans sweep across Hungary, = 1683, negotiations towards a '& 929 | with the Edict of Fontainebleau, subsequently known as the Grand
the 1683 Ottoman assault wasa_ _—:_ settlement had led nowhere and ra i Louis XIV revoked it. His decision = Alliance. The League was created
frantic final attempt to regain : so the Kangxi Emperor (1654- 10 : | was entirely logical. There was : initially by the newly confident
former glories in the face of : 1722) launched the Qing’s military : _ practically no European state that : Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold |
internal weakness. Confronted : might, securing a hugenavaland | Oe | permitted religious toleration. : (1640-1705) - vanquisher of the
with renewed resistance, the : land victory over the Tungingat Qing Tunging Louis's absolutism clearly : Ottomans - and urged on by
siege was broken in September : the Battle of Penghu, resulting in demanded nothing less than an : William Ill of Orange (1650-1792),
! Battle of Penghu | officially sanctioned state : ruler of the Dutch Republic. In
at Kahlenberg by a combined : their kingdom becoming part of : So seriously did the Qing take the
Imperial-Polish force led by the : the Qing empire. | Tunging threat that it sent a huge
Polish king, Jan Ill Sobieski. The : The climatic changes of the : land and naval force, including more
collapse of Ottoman rule in Maunder Minimum, which had ' than 200 ships, to guarantee victory.
Hungary followed, with a Holy : begun in 1645 as a result of
: reduced sunspot activity, had by : bitter winters, that of 1683-84
Thames Frost Fair, 1683-84
: the 1680s initiated a particularly ' was considered by many to be the | THE NUMBER OF HUGUENOTS
: cold period of the Little Ice Age : worst. The Little Ice Age only
Frost fairs were a regular feature on
the River Thames, in London, during ' across the world, and global : ended in the 19th century. IT WAS CLAIMED FLED FRANCE
the winters of the Little Ice Age, with
tents and coaches on the ice.
: temperatures had fallen by
: several degrees. Amid its many
: Dissatisfied with the Treaty of
: Nijmegen in 1679, Louis XIV strove
AFTER LOUIS XIV ISSUED THE
: to extend France’s frontiers at
+: the expense of the German states
EDICT OF FONTAINEBLEAU
|: and the Spanish Netherlands with
: | bids to occupy territory in | religion, and that religion was : time, every western European
: Flanders and the Rhineland - the Roman Catholicism. In every : state bar Switzerland was ranged
: latter crucial in controlling trade other respect, however, it was a : against France.
on the Rhine. Using bluster, | disaster for France. The huge In 1685, the ageing James II
| = threat, and bogus legal claims, he numbers of Huguenots who fled : (1633-1701), younger son of
| | gained Alsace, Luxembourg, and | the country were among the : Charles | and younger brother of
: key forts in Flanders, consolidated most industrious in France, and : Charles II, brought a curious
: by the Treaty of Ratisbon in 1684 | they were eagerly embraced by : incompetence to a brief
: at the end of the brief War of the | those countries to which they : occupation of the English and
' Reunions of 1683-84. Now at the emigrated, chiefly England, the : Scottish thrones. Determined to
: peak of his power, Louis was Dutch Republic, and Prussia. : reimpose Catholicism on a now
: determined to impose himself Simultaneously, so naked an act : Protestant, parliamentary nation,
: on Europe, but succeeded only in | of aggression was this against in less than three years he would
: uniting Protestant and Catholic France's Protestants - the policy overturn the delicately cynical
: Europe alike against him. _ was imposed with consistent political settlement of Charles ll.

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AN EMPIRE BUT | HAVE
NOT BEEN ABLE TO
/CONQUER MYSELF. 99
_ Peter I (the Great), tsar of Russia, reflecting on his rule, 1672-1725

This Dutch pai ing shows William III's fleet departing the Netherlands
for Englanda the start of the Glorious Revolution of 1688.

IN OCTOBER 1688, DESPITE ALACK

of finances, Louis XIV's forces
amt
ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727) | WHEN CONFRONTED WITH THE
INVASION OF WILLIAM III IN 1688,
: echo when German Calvinist
: Jacob Leisier overthrew the
ECCT
SERENE
SoS
_ devastated the Rhineland James Il of England abandoned : royal governor in May 1689 in the
| Palatinate, in Germany, provoking In 1687, the English physicist an army he sent to confront : name of William III. An English
_ the Nine Years War. His goal was Isaac Newton published the William and fled to Louis XIV’s : force arrived to compel Leisler to
| to force Leopold | to recognize universal law of gravitation, France. Charles II had been surrender in January 1691, and he
French rule over the frontier one of the most remarkable of happy to be financed by Louis XIV, : was executed for treason.
| territories previously annexed, as all scientific discoveries. It but he had disguised the fact. Since 1682, a young Peter |
well as create a devastated strip explained what holds the James || now actively reveled in : (1672-1725) had ruled Russia
of land that would be difficult for universe together: that all French backing. In March 1689, he : jointly with his disabled half-
armies to cross to attack France. heavenly bodies exert a force landed with a French-financed : brother Ivan V, but the real power
The next month, William III of called gravitas, or weight. army in Ireland, and attracting : had been his sister and regent,
Orange landed in England with Newton's work would dominate _ substantial Catholic support : Sophia. The power struggle came
an army of 15,000. These two science’s views on the physical briefly threatened the new Dutch © toa climax in 1689 when, gaining
events provoked a kind of volcanic universe for almost 300 years. Protestant settlement. However, : the support of the Streltsy royal
eruption in European political William’s victory in 1690 at the : guardsmen, he overthrew Sophia,
history. Whereas Louis's invasion, | Battle of the Boyne saw James : forcing her into a convent and
_ almost immediately bogged down If Louis XIV's apparently absolute : of England in what was, legal | back in France three days later. : leaving him and lvan as co-tsars.
| in winter mud, eventually led to : monarchy seemed the pattern by : inventions aside, a direct Henceforward, the Stuart Jacobite :
| an eclipse of French power in : which modern princes could most ' deposition of a reigning monarch. claim to its thrones in Britain (see
| the face of a Europe united in : effectively exercise power, the : The consequence, known as the 1715 and 1745) would complicate : Leisler’s Rebellion
: Jacob Leisler is shown swearing-in
opposition to him (see 1685-86], : accession of William III to the : Glorious Revolution of 1688, was French diplomacy, and seem
: volunteers to support his overthrow
within three months William III : English and Scottish thrones : a triumph of Parliamentary unlikely to change political reality. : of the governor of New York. He
had become not just the joint : made plain a radical alternative: ; authority, and England would be In New York, the Glorious : captured Fort James, Manhattan,
monarch of England (with his : that Parliament was the ultimate : immeasurably strengthened. Revolution produced a short-lived ' briefly renaming it Fort William.
wife, Mary] but the leader of the : arbiter of who should rule. No one However, for Louis XIV the
pan-European, anti-French : had disputed the right of William's : result of the Nine Years War,
Protestant alliance. At stake ousted predecessor, James Il, to : which would be mainly fought
was a fundamental clash over : the English throne. His clumsily : around France's borders, but also
the nature of legitimate rule. : active promotion of Catholicism, : in Ireland, North America, and
: however, was wholly at odds with : India, would not be the one he had
the strongly Protestant : intended. Although France had
sympathies of the ruling elite. : fought well, it was crippled by
: whose power was exercised : economic wees, and eventually
through Parliament. It was a : welcomed a settlement with the
consortium of English magnates : Grand Alliance, which too was
of all parties who invited : financially exhausted. By 1697,
William to take over the throne although Louis would retain
Alsace, he would have to return
: the province of Lorraine and all
Nine Years War coin : his gains on the east bank of the
This German commemorative
: Rhine, as well as accept William
coin - a form of propaganda - shows
the destruction of the Rhineland ; as king of England and a string of
Palatinate by French troops during Dutch fortresses along his border
the Nine Years War. : with the Spanish Netherlands.

we 187
 ff|Al N >
a
ga VI ATU 7 \

Fort William, shown here in the 1700s, was built after the English East India This woodcut, taken from the title page of a pamphlet, shows the devastation
Company moved its main Bengal trading station to Calcutta in 1690. of Port Royal, Jamaica, by both an earthquake and a tsunami in June 1692.

44 THE EUROPEANS ARE VERY

THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA
COMPANY had been a presence

QUIET; THEY DO NOT EXCITE ANY

in Bengal since the early 17th
century. Seeking greater
security for their trade, a new
base, Fort William, named after DISTURBANCES... THEY DO NO HARM TO
William III, was established in
1690 in what is now Calcutta. The
ANYONE, THEY COMMIT NO CRIMES... 99
fort, continually enlarged and
Kangxi, Chinese Qing emperor, announces the Edict of Toleration, 1692
improved, would be critical to the
later British dominance in India.
In 1690, English philosopher ALTHOUGH THE NINE YEARS WAR : hysteria. On 10 June, an elderly Jesuit missionaries had been in
John Locke (1632-1704) wrote had quickly settled in 1688 into a : widow, Bridget Bishop, was East Asia since the 16th century.
An Essay Concerning Human stalemate on land that would last : hanged asa witch, and by : In contrast to Japan (see 1597-
Philosopher John Locke
Understanding. |t marked Locke to 1697, at sea the Grand Alliance : September a further 18 people : 99), in China they were valued by
John Locke contended that there is
as a keythinker in the Western ! a contract between monarch and enjoyed a clear superiority over : had been executed on the same a succession of emperors, not
philosophical tradition, above all people under which the monarch France. The six-day Battle of La charge, and one man crushed to : least for their knowledge of
for his assertion that knowledge : can be overthrown if he abuses It. Hogue from May to June 1692 : death. Trials for witchcraft were western science. They made many
of the world came through saw much of the French fleet : no longer common in England by > converts, and in 1692 the Kangxi
experience of it, and that the basis toleration, and monarchy, it also either beached or destroyed by : this time, and the mass hysteria Emperor issued an edict of
of this understanding was > ensured his influence in debates fireships. It ended hopes of a : of Salem remains hard to explain. toleration of Christianity.
reasoned, empirical (based on : about liberty and reason in French invasion of England. :
observation) thought. Reinforcing 18th-century France and America. At 11:43am on 7 June 1692, a
many of his established ideas The turnip, a basic root crop of catastrophic earthquake struck
about property rights, religious : the agricultural revolution of the Port Royal, capital of the English
17th century, was first cultivated colony of Jamaica, and one of the
Orange Jacobite : in England in about 1690. The most important ports in the
forces of forces of : Dutch, to make best use of their Caribbean, as well as a legendary
Ao James | : limited lands, had already base for pirates. Most of the city
} : discovered that crop rotation sank beneath the sea. With
35,000 : (arable crops alternated with root the subsequent tsunami and
TROOPS : crops rather than leaving fields outbreaks of disease, the death
fallow} not only improved fertility toll was about 5,000. i
but provided food for sheep whose In Salem, Massachusetts, in late :
: manure furthered productivity. 1691, young girls started having
On 12 July 1690, William III's fits and hallucinations, citing
victory over the deposed Catholic demonic possession. This led to
James || at the Battle of the claims of witchcraft, which by
Orange Jacobite
1,500 : Boyne, in Ireland, was decisive 1692 had reached the point of
800) casualties casualties -, ' in maintaining the Protestant
supremacy that had been
Battle of the Boyne, Ireland Salem Witch Trial
: established there by the Glorious
The Orange army of William III The trial of George Jacobs was one
inflicted a decisive defeat on the : Revolution of 1688. In Ireland, of many in a Puritan community
Jacobites of James II, giving the lie brutal sectarian violence would riven by petty jealousies, where none
to William's “bloodless revolution”. : continue for centuries. disputed the existence of Satan.

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The summit vent of Mount Etna, an active volcano on the east coast of Sicily,
in Italy, has witnessed many destructive eruptions, not least in 1693. where a French garrison is besieged. The siege lasted two months.

IF SOUTHERN EUROPE IN JULY 1694, ENGLAND FOUND A : (Black Gold”) and Diamantia, and
had been spared the NOVEL SOLUTION to the problem » the region's population exploded, |
worst of the Little Ice of a lack of funds that had plagued : from scattered handfuls to
Age [see 1683-84], the the combatants of the Nine Years : 320,000 (half of them slaves). A
eruption on 11 January War. The Bank of England served : result was the near collapse of
!
1693 of Mount Etna, in \ both Crown and government, and : the sugar cane industry, stripped
Sicily, proved a cruel was closely modelled on the Bank : of most of its workforce.
reminder of the power
of nature. The eruption
N of Amsterdam, founded in 1609. One of the few moments of
A private venture (until 1931), © significance in the Nine Years War
set off an earthquake it immediately loaned the : took place in September 1695,
that devastated Sicily government £1.2 million - raised : when the Grand Alliance retook
and large areas of by its investors in 12 days - at an » the city of Namur after three
southern Italy and annual interest rate of 8 per cent » years in French hands. The loss of
Malta. About 60,000 and for an annual service charge : the most important fortress in the
were killed in Sicily of £4,000, in return for the right to : Netherlands further weakened an
alone, and thousands of square . Dodo
print bank notes. It also created a already defensive French position.
: The flightless dodo stood about 1m : Battle of Azov
kilometres became uninhabitable National Debt, but at the same In 1696, China began an
: (3ft 3in) in height and weighed about : In this painting by Robert Kerr
due to lava flows and tsunamis. : 20kg ([44lb]. It had a long, hooked bill, time allowed England not merely : eastward expansion that by the : Porter, Peter the Great is seen
For several years after the : greyish or brownish plumage ona to finance its own part in the war : end of the 18th century would see : personally leading his galley fleet
summer of 1693, a series of : fat body, and very small wings. but to finance its allies. The bank : it almost double in size. It was | during the capture of Azoy in 1696.
famines swept western Europe. was possibly the most significant : provoked by the invasion of
In France alone, about two million : little more than suffer and acccept factor in Britain's subsequent : Khalkha (Outer Mongolia] by : blocked access to the Black Sea, a
died. These were among the most its unavoidable fate. emergence on the world stage. the nomadic Zunghar people of : factor that had contributed to the
calamitous consequences of the : In 1598, on the isolated island European colonialism in the : Central Asia in 1690, who were failure of its Crimean campaigns
Little Ice Age, with bitter winters - of Mauritius, in the Indian Ocean, 17th and 18th centuries had the » anxious to forestall a possible » against the Ottomans in 1687-89.
giving way to dismal, rain-soaked © the Dutch admiral Wybrand van simple goal of money. In the New : Chinese takeover of the region. : Finally, Peter | [the Great], now the
summers, and stunted crops : Warwijck described a bird he World, the Spanish had conquered | The invasion failed, sparking only : sole tsar of Russia since the death
rotting in sodden fields. Even in : called a “walghvogel’. Later two rich civilizations and found a : a confused series of campaigns : of his disabled half-brother, lvan,
years of relative plenty, the vast Dutch settlers there called it a vast silver mine. The Portuguese ' under the Zunghar ruler, Galdan, : attacked Azov with a combined
majority of Europe’s peasants, : “dodaars”, which was a reference in Brazil had found only native as well as a civil war. In 1696, the » land and naval force, capturing
themselves the overwhelming : to what they saw as the knot of peoples and tropical jungles; : Kangxi Emperor led a Khalkha- : the city in July 1696. A lesson
majority of the continent's tails at its rear. Portuguese sailors sugar cane plantations worked by : Chinese army across the Gobi : learned was that Russia needed
population, enjoyed a subsistence : that visited the island called it a slave labour were the source of its | Desert into Mongolia and crushed : anavy, and it embarked ona
existence at best, with root : “doudo”, meaning “fool” or marginal profits. Then, in Minas : the Zunghar. Outer Mongolia was massive shipbuilding programme.
vegetables, bread, and porridge : “crazy”. By perhaps 1693, the Gerais, in the southeast, gold : incorporated within the Chinese
as their staple diet. When the : dodo, a flightless bird, which was found in 1695. It transformed : empire the following year.
: was related to the pigeon, had colonial Brazil, as did the later Russia fought two campaigns in Caucasian pistol
crops failed, they starved. In
: This ornately fashioned pistol with
the face of these near Biblical : become extinct. The dodo is the discovery of diamonds in the 1695-96 to capture the Ottoman-
: along barrel and a short, gently
visitations of mass misery, there ! first animal whose extinction can same region. Vast, lawless towns ' held fortress port of Azov. The curved handle was typical of
seemed to be no answer. Almost : be exactly ascribed to man, victim appeared, chiefly Ouro Preto ' port was key to Russia as it the weaponry employed
entirely dependent on the food : of its trusting nature, the in the Azov campaigns.
surpluses generated by its heavily : destruction of its woodland
taxed peasant population, even : habitats, and the introduction of
as obviously powerful a state as : cats, rats, pigs, and dogs who
late-17th-century France could do : hunted it to its destruction.

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189
46 THE GREATEST COMFORTS AND
LASTING PEACE ARE OBTAINED,
WHEN ONE ERADICATES SELFISHNESS
FROM WITHIN. 99
Guru Gobind Singh, 10th Sikh Master, 1697
: oie ms | as . Ba

' An engraving depicting 16-year-old Philip, duke of Anjou, being recognized

as Philip V, king of Spain, on 2 October 1700.

THE NINE YEARS WAR THAT HAD : Treaty of Ryswick THE DEATH IN 1700 OF CHARLES Il, : annihilated a Russian army four
SEEN FRANCE TAKE ON the Grand : The treaty was | the childless king of Spain, caused :
: times the size of his own. The
Alliance of England, the Holy : signed at the a major crisis when he nominated following July, he inflicted
: palace of Huis ter Philip of Anjou (1683-1746], the : a similarly crushing defeat ona
Roman Empire, Spain, and the
: Nieuwburg, the grandson of Louis XIV of France, : combined Polish-Saxon force at
Dutch Republic was ended by the
: country house of : Klissow in Poland. With Sweden
Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. It as his successor. Charles hoped
: William of Orange,
established that all territory taken : in Ryswick, in the that French power would preserve | never more dominant, Charles's
since 1679 was to be returned. : Dutch Republic. the Spanish Empire if ruled bya : bold campaigning, whatever the
The Ottoman defeat at the Siege Bourbon. Louis accepted the vast : odds against him, had apparently
of Vienna in 1683 marked not just | increase in family prestige and : been wholly vindicated.
the beginning of a protracted | French influence, but opposition From about 1700, a major
Ottoman decline, but the | to the succession and its increase : developmentin European
emergence of Habsburg Austria | in French power grew hugely. culture began to take shape: a
as a European power to challenge : was rapidly emerging as one of : gains, including the gradual The accession in 1697 of the musical tradition, part courtly,
France, England, and the Dutch : the foremost commanders in : absorption of Hungary by the 15-year-old Charles XII part church-based, known
Republic. After 1683, Austrian : Europe, an Imperial army : Austrian crown. {1682-1718} to the throne as the High Baroque.
Imperial armies pursued the ! surprised the Ottomans as they In July 1698, English military of Sweden was the signal It evolved from later
retreating Ottomans south across : attempted to cross the River Tisa. engineer Thomas Savery for Sweden's Baltic Renaissance music, above
the Balkans, a process that There they massacred them, with : (1650-1715) registered a patent rivals, Denmark, Saxony, all in Italy, but developed to
climaxed at the Battle of Zenta, : about 10,000 Ottomans drowned, : for “a new invention for raiseing of | Poland, and, increasingly, reach a new level of polyphonic
in Serbia in September 1697. anda further 20,000 killed in : water... of great use and Russia, to attempt to end tonal and instrumental
Under the Italo-French general : battle. The Treaty of Karlowitz in : advantage for drayning mines.” Swedish pre-eminence. In fact, complexity. It was
Eugene of Savoy (1663-1736), who: 1699 confirmed the Austrian : Basic forms of steam power had | in the conflict that followed, characterized by both new
: existed since the 1st century cE, the Great Northern War of and more elaborated musical
but none of these had ever been 1700-21, Charles, ‘the forms: the concerto, fugue,
: translated into working machines. Swedish Meteor”, oratorio, prelude,
The crushing of a Sikh revolt : Savery's steam engine was | would prove himself a cantata, and opera. It
in the Punjab in 1699 saw the : basic, prone to violent explosions, general of genius. was made possible
Mughal Empire at its zenith. : and unable to pump water more In the four months by new forms
From its Afghan heartlands, : than 10m (33ft) below it, meaning from August 1700, of existing
it had grown under Akbar, that in mines it had to be installed, he successively instruments: the
taking all but the tip of India’s ; dangerously, underground. It was defeated the Danes organ, harpsichord,
subcontinent by the end of ‘ only in 1721 when Thomas and then, over on and, above all, violin.
the 17th century. The harsh ! Newcomen [1664-1729], working the other side of the It depended also on
rule of Aurangzeb saw many : with Savery, produced his Baltic, at Narva, composers of genius,
revolts, and the later rise of : atmospheric engine, that a viable such as Johann
the Marathas (see 1720) left > commercial use was found. Yet, Sebastian Bach
the Mughals as puppets. the real potential of steam as an Stradivarius violin (1685-1750) and
: engine of industrialization would | The Stradivarius George Handel
KEY violin, made by
: not be realized until the invention (1685-1759),
f Akbar’s domains, 1556 | Italian Antonio
: by the Scot, James Watt (1736- and on a more
Additional areas held by Cochin Stradivari, entered
1819), in 1769, of a separate extensive world
Mughals at Akbar’s death, 1605 | agolden age in
Additional areas acquired up to INDIAN : condenser, and then only with the | 1700. These violins of courtly and
the death of Aurangzeb, 1707 : backing of English businessman were larger than private patronage
: Matthew Boulton. ' earlier models. of them.
 \

@ PAR
GogpRrergny SeisVeex \
9 i F ‘4 A
boy 2 th poe Sy ,Uy
yes) y 3 a
camino
ett oF eS &
Jethro Tull’s seed drill is shown here being operated manually. It sowed seeds
in rows, performing work that previously required several labourers. a WE & D pres a %
Zz
%ea] PeFR ¢ AeSolee2% tieBLFfe et
fa) 2 JA a + oY \

A REVOLUTION IN AGRICULTURE
BEGAN IN 1701 when English
SG ok RES HAS s
Sane? & 82 Bow ,

agriculturalist Jethro Tull mi

| (1674-1741) created the horse-

| drawn seed drill). A major SE
sehr
S75.
MEAS
| time- and labour-saving device,
| it sowed great numbers of
hs Pr}
cr
~~
ie
ANGLO-DUTCH FRANCO-SPANISH | DSS
Se
ie
| seeds in neat rows. Although not FORCES FORCES
n—

taken up at once, it later proved

: Battle of Vigo Bay, October 1702
| popular with large landowners
: Inanearly encounter in the War of
and would lay the basis of modern : the Spanish Succession, 25 ships
productive agriculture. : of an Anglo-Dutch fleet defeated a
| No sooner had the Nine Years : Franco-Spanish fleet at Vigo Bay. aoe

| War ended than Europe's powers

found themselves in another Freelance Samurai warriors “ det
/ lengthy and costly war. The : known as ronin emerged from
surprise choice of Philip, duke of : the Japanese civil wars of the
Anjou, as King Philip V of Spain 14th and 15th centuries. In 1651,
(see 1700], hugely disturbed the : they engaged in rebellion and
European balance of power, : continued to instigate dissent
| and Louis XIV did nothing to » into the 18th century. In 1701, a
discourage fears of a Franco- respected lord, Asano Nugatory, — :
| Spanish military alliance. He took : was forced to commit suicide after :
over military duties in Philip's : assaulting an official who had
_ lands, moving troops into the : insulted him. In revenge, 47 of his
| Spanish Netherlands to defend » samurai became ronin and
them from the English and the : murdered the official, an act
' Dutch. With renewed confidence : normally punished by execution.
| in France's European status, Louis But because Confucianism taught
| then recognized James Ill, son of : that it is honourable to avenge a
the exiled James II (1633-1701), : lord’s death, they were allowed to
| as king of England. With England commit suicide in turn.
|
i and the Dutch Republic backing The kingdom of Prussia - later
| Austria’s claims to the Spanish the forerunner of the German
|
| throne - in the form of their : state - was proclaimed in 1701
| candidate, Archduke Charles of : when Frederick |, duke of Prussia
| Austria - armed opposition to : and elector of Brandenburg, was
France was now guaranteed. The : crowned the first “king in
War of the Spanish Succession : Prussia”, in Konigsberg Castle.
that began in 1701 saw a Grand
Alliance oppose the unification of
Revenge of the 47 ronin
the French and Spanish thrones. This colour woodcut is one ofa
| It would last until 1713-14 and series on the 47 ronin uprising, the
redraw the map of the continent : most famous incident of the samurai
| and the world. : code of honour, bushido.

74
 This modem photograph shows Halley's Comet, named after the British estranomer Edmond
Halley, who was the first to determine that the comet returned periogiicallly, every 76 years.

cig
THE BATTLE
ca eb lmeat
OF BLENHEIM
wo
(TheBoitonN
SS, Ss e THE DEATH IN 1707 OF
AURANGZEB, sixth Mugha
SI Herr 9 ria fh TANS mane
emperor Qha (0 KE

M \ > y
f Mtr ATTA FO?
. - <a He NN RE
‘ brand Lfi th INUNLDEN t to Spanish New Mexico

sore OF POCUMTUCKS England, the first steam

engine using moving parts was
Succession in favou send AMONG THE built in 1704 by Thomas
RAIDERS AT Newcomen
be me Cm irs

DEERFIELD Guru Gobind Singh, had

peninsula on

Victor of Blenheim

Massachusetts, \

GURU GOBIND SINGH

. 20,000
(1886-1708)

= ; :

meee
~ ~ SS Cc reating the Khalsa (Pure,!

a community 3! bhn that

of the fait Afia

trained as warriors; now the

Khalsa embraces all Sikhs.
Aurangzeb considered
coming to terms with Gobind
Singh, but the rajas of the
Sivalik Hills remained
hostile, and Gobind Singh
was assassinated in 1708.

ge
™)
~~
at ~~ otyy?
Ween
OR >)
Pee oe EN
Rear ¢ NS
. SS 3S

192
> Y»
 Koeepe
ibidenn
4%
“7

Ina detaofa ante by Ignace Jacques Baezoeet Prince Eugene of Savoy's

troops are Shown confronting the French at the Battle of Malplaquet.

THE BATTLE OF MALPLAQUET in Ukraine in July 1709. The Swedes provinces of Scania, Halland, and
1709 was the bloodiest of the War were faced by Peter the Great’s Blekinge to Sweden in 1700 but
of the Spanish Succession (see army of 80,000, which eventuually still had hopes of seizing them P tins
1701) and, indeed, the entire 18th ran them from the battlefield back. Assuming Sweden to be ~~.
century. Grand Alliance forces Charles, exiled in Moldavia, weakened by the Battle of Poltava, ane

27 under the Duke of Marlborough persuaded the Ottoman Empire Denmark found pretexts to
attacked the French at to go to war with Russia in 1710, declare war on 18 October 1709.
YEARS OF WAR Malplaquet, France, southwest of but Peter the Great [1672-1725] In November, a large Danish
the French-held fortress of Mons, agreed terms in 1711. invasion force landed in Sweden
which lay over the present-day In 1709, the Persian Safavid virtually unopposed. However,
Bee? border. In gaining rulers of southwestern by February 1710 Sweden had
possession of the battlefield, the Afghanistan were overwhelmed managed to amass 16,000
| Aurangzeb’s reign
Allies suffered rnore than 21,000 by an uprising organized by men, and this force
Emperor Aurangzeb reigned for 48
years, from 1658 until his death in casualties, twice as many as the Mirwais Khan Hotak (1673- : defeated the Danes
1707, but for 27 of those years he French, but the French retreated 1715], a tribal chief of the Ghilzai in the Battle of
was at war with the Marathas. in good order and remained a Pashtuns and founder of the Helsingborg.
future threat. Hotaki dynasty (which lasted from : Denmark lost 7,500 f
summoned him, but died before Meanwhile, in the Great 1709 to 1738). Furious at Safavid : men in the battle
_ they could meet. Gobind Singh Northern War (1700-21) between cruelty and attempts to force ? and thereafter i
' became friends with the new Russia and its western them to convert from Sunni : abandoned hope of
emperor, Bahadur Shah (r.1707- neighbours (see 1700), Charles XII to Shia Islam, the Afghans : regaining its former
12), but was assassinated in 1708 of Sweden had been leading assassinated their Safavid » possessions.
on the orders of a rival leader, forces in a march on Russia. The governor, Gurgin Khan, and In 1710, French
Nawab Wazir Khan. Swedish army of 17,000 men massacred many Persians. settlers of the
Far from India, the kingdorn attacked the fort of Poltava in the In Britain, revolution of an : Canadian east coast
' of England and the kingdorn of : industrial kind was in the making. - region of Arcadia
' Scotland were formally unified as In 1709, Abraham Darby (now Nova Scotia]
Great Britain by the Acts of Union 17,000 (1678-1717), a Quaker ironmaster endured a third, and
of 1707. Henceforth, both were SWEDISH who was smelting iron using this time successful,
ruled by a single monarch and by re’ charcoal, was the first to produce British attempt to seize
a parliament based in London. : high-quality pig iron using coke. > Port Royal. The victory
Britain, still embroiled in the His new process freed iron secured Britain their
War of the Spanish Succession, ; smelting from its dependence first French colonial
i joined Dutch forces to seize on wood supplies, and coke - possession and helped to
Minorca and Sicily fromm France in ; processed from coal - was much obstruct French colonization
1708; both were used as military more plentiful. In 1710, it was : of Canada for years to come.
' bases. Also in 1708, British 10,000 1,300 Germany's turn to transform
settlers lost control of the ; an industry. In that year, the
' Canadian east coast after a defeat Swedish forces Russian : Meissen factory, near Dresden,
. by the French at St John’s, killed/captured forces killed : produced the first successful
: German chinoiserie
Newfoundland. ' European porcelain.
Forces in the Battle of Poltava : This 18th-century Meissen porcelain
North of Germany, Denmark : vase has mouldings picked out in
In the Battle of Poltava, 60 per cent
of the Swedish troops were killed or was taking an interest in the Great : gold leaf. Its form and decorative
captured, while less than 2 per cent Northern War between Sweden : motifs were inspired by imported
of the Russian troops were killed. and Russia, Denmark had lost the : Chinese porcelain.

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193
 44 RIGHT IS RIGHT, EVEN IF EVERYONE
A AGAINST IT; AND WRONG IS WRONG,
/ EVEN IF EVERYONE IS FOR IT. 99
William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania, 1681

On completion, St Paul's Cathedral dominated the north bank of the River

Thames. It remained the tallest building in London until 1962.

RARK
IN AN EXTENSION OF THE WAR
OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION
(see 1701-03) in South America, a
squadron of French ships attacked :
Portuguese-held Rio de Janeiro,

RARK
incapacitated Portuguese ships in
the harbour, and only spared the
city’s defences from destruction
on payment of a ransom. French
morale, which had been at a low
since their withdrawal from the
Battle of Malplaquet (see 1709),
: Losses at Rio de Janeiro Smallpox epidemic
was raised by this proof that
: Caught unawares by a French naval 9 In the South African
French long-range naval power : attack in Rio de Janeiro harbour, Cape, smallpox
had not been extinguished. : Portuguese ships tried to escape. 1:the native Khoisan
In North America, the : Three drifted aground, and one was population, killing nine people
Tuscarora War began in North : destroyed by its crew. for every one survivor.
Carolina between Tuscarora
American Indians and settlers moved to counter the uprising : ON 7 JUNE 1712, PENNSYLVANIA,
from Britain, Germany, and the : organized by Mirwais Khan Hotak : under moral pressure from its
Netherlands. The settlers and (see 1709-10), but the Safavid Quaker population, freed all the
northern Tuscarora American army and its leader, Khosru Khan, : Slaves in the state, an early step in
Indians began to kidnap the were annihilated, and Afghan : the abolition of slavery. However,
Tuscarora in the south, sell them independence was secured. Queen Anne reversed the decision
into slavery, and appropriate their In December 1711, St Paul’s in the following year. Quaker
lands. The southern Tuscarora Cathedral, London's most iconic state-founder and slaver trader
retaliated in September with building, was completed. : William Penn (1644-1718] was not
widespread attacks on Designed by Christopher Wren, it : himself an opponent of slavery.
settlements in which hundreds was the fourth church to occupy In South Africa’s Cape region,
of settlers were killed. its site; its predecessor was badly : Dutch sailors infected with
In Asia, the Persian Safavid : damaged in the Great Fire of : smallpox inadvertently caused
rulers of western Afghanistan : London in 1666. The building had | | a catastrophic decimation of the
: the first triple dome in the world: : native Khoisan people in 1713.
» alight, timber-framed outer : The disease rapidly spread from
: dome, supported by a hidden : laundrywomen infected by the
: brick cone, and inside it, the ' sailors’ dirty linen to the wider
: inner dome that is visible from » population because none had
: the interior. : immunity or medicine. The
: epidemic killed 90 per cent

Attack on Rio de Janeiro An end to war

French corsair René Duguay- This painting from the French royal
Trouin’s ships enter Rio de Janeiro
almanac for 1714 shows signatories
harbour to salvage French honour
of the Treaty of Utrecht, which ended
- and profit at the same time.
the War of the Spanish Succession.
 44. SUCH A FIGURE, THAT
IMAGINATION CANNOT FORM
AN IDEA OF A FURY FROM HELL,
TO LOOK MORE FRIGHTFUL. 99
Captain Charles Johnson describing Edward Teach, from A General
History of the Robberies and Murders of the most notorious Pyrates, 1724

William Penn, English Quaker leader The flag of English pirate Edward Teach, known as Blackbeard, became
and colonialist. notorious in the Caribbean between 1717 and his death in 1718.

‘44 NO CHINESE CATHOLICS

- of the southwest Cape’s Khoi. THE STATE OF WAR BETWEEN THE men (mainly Scottish) marched
Survivors fleeing inland were MAJOR EUROPEAN POWERS in the towards London but were
killed by neighbouring tribes to
limit the disease’s spread.
late 17th and early 18th centuries
created a profound sense of
ARE ALLOWED TO WORSHIP defeated in November by
Hanoverian forces at the Battle
In 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht
was signed; together with the
lawlessness. This was most
marked in regions where
ANCESTORS IN THEIR : of Preston. While his lieutenants
; countered the threat to his reign in
Treaty of Rastatt in 1714, it was
to end the War of the Spanish
desperate efforts were being
made to seize colonial power. With
FAMILIAL
:
TEMPLES. 99 : the north, life for Hanoverian king
: George | in London was seemingly
Succession. Underlying the the standing navies at war, some : unaffected: there were several
Pope Clement XI, Papal bull, 1715
Utrecht Treaty (actually a series of the work of policing the new : performances for the king and
of treaties} was the principle of colonies fell to privateers. For members of the court of Water
maintaining the balance of power many it was only a short step to several missions and, in 1718, the : had ensured their protection with : Music by the German Baroque
between France, Spain, and their becoming outright pirates. One town of San Antonio. While the : an Edict of Toleration (see 1692). : composer George Frideric
neighbours, so that no state could of the most notorious, Edward : latter becarne the target of raids : However, in 1715 Pope Clement X| : Handel (1685-1759), who had
dominate Europe. The lines of Teach, known as Blackbeard : by Apache American Indians, the : issued a Papal bull condemning : made his home in London in 1712.
succession of the two countries (c.1680-1718), became a target Spanish successfully encouraged ' Chinese ancestor worship. In
were separated, so no Spaniard for the authorities after he took the Yamasee and other tribes : retaliation, the Kangxi emperor
could claim the French throne, charge of his own ship in © in their attacks on hundreds of : was to repeal his edict in 1721,
and vice versa. Savoy gained Sicily, November 1717. He was finally : British settlers in South Carolina, © officially forbidding Christian A style of European music
Austria received the Spanish murdered in November 1718. : aconflict known as the Yamasee : missionsin China. that began around 1600
Netherlands, and Britain was In North America, the signing of War (1715-17). In Europe, King Louis XIV of and lasted until about 1750,
ceded Newfoundland, Nova the Treaty of Utrecht [see 1713) In Asia, Zunghar Mongois : France diedin 1715, leaving the — baroque developed from the
Scotia, and Gibraltar. In addition, had failed to bring an invaded Outer Mongolia : infant Louis XV as his heir. Ignoring : masses and madrigals of
the Asiento Agreement gave end to the hostilities and Tibet in 1717, and : the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht, : the Renaissance. It had
Britain a 30-year contract to between the European sacked the Tibetan : King Philip V of Spain claimed the a stronger emphasis on
supply slaves and goods to colonizing powers, and, capital of Lhasa, : throne of France if the infant were counterpoint and rhythm,
Spanish colonies. in turn, these were struggling looting the tomb of the fifth : todie. in 1717, a Triple Alliance greater expression of
In Britain, after the death of to dominate competing Dalai Lama. Tibet appealed : was signed by the Dutch Republic, : emotion, and gave greater
Queen Anne in 1714, George | American Indian tribes. to the Qing Kangxi emperor : France, and Great Britain with a importance to the solo voice
(1660-1727) became the first In 1716, in an attempt to (1654-1722) for assistance. : view to compel Philip to abandon and instrumental solos. It
monarch of the German House block French expansion The Zunghars defeated an : his expansionist ambitions. also established opera, with
of Hanover to rule Great Britain westwards from Louisiana, invading Qing army in 1718, : Austria's joining of the alliance Monteverdi and Cavalli being
and Ireland. The Hanoverian the Spanish entered east and the Qing Empire was : in the following year turned this early practitioners. Notable
succession in 1714 ended the Texas; they established not to liberate Lhasa for : into a Quadruple Alliance against baroque composers Include
reign of the House of Stuart, three years [see 1720). : Spain [see 1718-19). Peri and Allegri (early
which had ruled Scotland from Meanwhile, in the Chinese In Britain, the Hanoverian baroque); Lully,
1371, and Great Britain and Qing cloisonné homeland, Jesuit succession [see 1714] had Pachelbel, and Purcell
Ireland since 1603. This ornamental missionaries » provoked anger among Jacobites (middle); and Bach,
In 1714, the Ottomans declared elephant with two found : supporters of the deposed Handel, Telemann,
war on the Venetian Republic. miniature vases themselves : Stuart king James VII of Scotland and Vivaldi {late
exemplifies the under threat. : and Il of England - and in 1715 baroque).
The final conflict between the two
sophistication that Impressed : this erupted into the First
powers, the war ended in 1718 | cloisonné enamel
with an Ottoman victory and bytheir : Jacobite Rebellion. Over- BAROQUE
work reached
Venice's loss of the Peloponnese, during the Qing services, the : estimating the support they could LUTE
: its major possession in Greece. dynasty period. Kangxi emperor : count on in England, about 4,000

195
 HoNDVRAS.

wy WOAR OCT A.

: Apa se
ss LDL Q.oxe eur
Admiral Sir George Byng's British fleet sail into the Straits of Messina prior This detail of a map by Willem Blau (c.1650) shows the position of British-controlled
to the Battle of Cape Passaro, in a painting by Richard Vale. Honduras, lying on the east coast of the Yucatan peninsula.

THE TREATY OF UTRECHT (see : withdrawal of Philip's invasion THE BRITISH COLONYIN : Maratha expansion
1713) had ceded Sardinia and : force. The British fleet, led by Sir HONDURAS (now Belize], the only : The Maratha expanded
Sicily to Savoy, but the treaty was George Byng, clashed with the British possession in Central : their empire to the north,
: south, and east. Such
ignored by King Philip V of Spain © Spanish invasion fleet — which America before it gained full
| was their reputation that
(1683-1746), who sailed to capture ' had not been informed of the independence in 1981, was
: they were able to raise
the islands in 1717. Set against : ultimatum - in the Battle of Cape established on the eastern coast ' taxes even beyond areas
Philip was the Triple Alliance (see : Passaro on 11 August 1718. The of the Yucatan peninsula by : of their direct
1717) of Britain, France, and the : larger Spanish warships were British buccaneers. By the turn : administration.
Dutch Republic, which Austria : captured, while the smaller ships of the 18th century the colony had
joined on 2 August 1718, : escaped, Later that year, an begun to exploit the region's _ KEY
expanding it into the Quadruple : Austrian army landed at Messina, logwood [Haematoxylum ! §) Maratha Empire
Arabian
Alliance. On 21 July, Austria - Sicily, to oust the Spanish garrison, campechianum), which yielded an :i — Maratha campaigns
palg 6s
under Holy Roman Emperor : but was defeated on 15 October in important dye used for textiles
Charles VI (1685-1740) - had : the first Battle of Milazzo. and paper. In 1720, slaves - many
signed the Treaty of Passarowitz, : In 1719 there were further from Jamaica and others direct : re-established in 1674. The
ending the Austro—Turkish War » attempts by the Quadruple from Africa - were first imported : catalyst for the expansion, which
(1716-18). This freed Charles's : Alliance, now joined by Savoy, to to this area of the so-called ! began in 1720, was the death in
forces to turn their attention to : curb Spain. France invaded the Mosquito Coast to expand logging : 1719 ot Balaji Vishwanath (b.1680)
Spain, and the War ofthe : Spanish Basque Country and operations on the Belize River. ) and the succession of his son
Quadruple Alliance was declared : then Catalonia, but disease The year 1720 saw the end of Bajirao (1700-40), who was only
on 17 December 1718. : forced both forces to withdraw. the War of the Quadruple 20 years old at the time but
Previously, the Triple Alliance : The Austrians attacked in Sicily Alliance (see 1718) with already a charismatic Ceylon
had set an ultimatum for the : and eventually the Spanish the signing of the and dynamic leader.
: occupiers capitulated, their Treaty of the Hague. Recognizing the ; expansions in 1728, when he
: supplies having been blocked by Philip agreed to weakness of the grip : also moved his capital from
War casualties
In the War of the Quadruple Alliance,
; the British navy. In another abandon his claims that the Mughal : Satara to Pune.
28,350 men were killed or wounded, : example of Spain’s vulnerability to Sicily and Sardinia, Empire, based in Far to the northeast, the
including more than 2,000 from » from the sea, the British captured which came under the Delhi, had on the : Zunghar Mongols had taken
Sardinia, which was invaded by Spain. : the port of Vigo in October. control of Austria and ; states around him, : possession of Tibet (see 1717). In
the Duchy of Savoy iF Bajirao’s army struck out into : 1720, a force of Qing and Tibetan
12,000 - respectively, with the duke Hindustan. The campaign was : warriors drove the Zunghars from
om)
being titled king of Sardinia. In successful and gained Bajirao : Tibet. The Zunghars had killed the
10,000) North America, the French great credit at home. This © sixth Dalai Lama, claiming he
returned Pensacola in Florida helped him negotiate peace : was an impostor. The Qing force
8000-.
to King Philip V, along with treaties with Mughal authorities ' brought with it a replacement,
places they had occupied in the Deccan. With the security : Kelzang Gyatso, who was made the
in the north of Spain, receiving of the Maratha homeland : seventh Dalai Lama. Tibet became
6000~
trade advantages in exchange. assured, Bajirao began further : a tribute-paying protectorate of
CASUALTIES The treaty also confirmed Texas : Qing China, and the Tibetan region
4000- was a Spanish possession. : of Kham was annexed to China’s
LILI
LONGI Maratha mace
SPONTA
NSN
Sh
Meanwhile, the Maratha, a : Sichuan province. However,
The head of 118 spikes and
sub-ethnic group inhabiting the : disputes over who should govern
a quadrangular top spike on
Maharashtra region of western this Maratha mace testify to : under the Qing emperor resulted
India, began a major expansion its fearsome effectiveness : in harsh suppressions by the
France Sardinia Dutch Rep. of the empire that it had as a weapon. : Chinese in the years that followed.
 44 SLAVES WHO ARE
DISABLED FROM WORKING
.. SHALL BE... PROVIDED
FOR BY THEIR MASTERS. 99
From the Louisiana Code Noir, 1724

| Brilliant polychromatic decoration characterizes this detail of a rectangular

| Persian dish made in the 18th century during the Safavid dynasty.

ore
Sos
THE GREAT NORTHERN WAR : Russia. Sweden was irrevocably : the three ships chanced upon EUROPEAN SUCCESS in procuring French territory of Louisiana,
| (1700-21) between Sweden and : diminished by the terms of the Easter Island (now Rapa Nuil, slaves in West Africa for North America. The code was
| Russia was brought to an end by : treaty, while Russia, with its new : so-named because it was transporting to the new colonies partly intended to give slaves
_ the conclusion of the Treaty of Baltic ports, now dominated discovered on Easter Sunday. depended on the enthusiastic basic protection from their
Nystad. In 1719, Russia had Eastern Europe. Roggeveen also discovered the co-operation of certain tribes. : masters - all were to be given
successfully challenged Sweden's In one of the landmark Society Islands and Samoa In Dahomey, in what is now the : food and clothes, for example -
supremacy in the Baltic by : moments of Dutch exploration, before returning home. Republic of Benin, King Agadja : but it also legitimized cruel
::
attacking cities on the Swedish : Jakob Roggeveen [1659-1729] In 1722, the declining Safavid (r.1708-40) presided over a : punishments: runaway slaves
| east coast. An alliance of the : set out in 1721 to find Terra : dynasty of Persia was deposed by culture of enslavement and > were to be branded, their ears cut
f| British and Swedes in 1719 then :; Australis, the mysterious independent Afghans to the east. human sacrifice. His conquest off, and, after a second offence,
| gave Sweden British navy southern continent earlier Mahmud Hotaki (¢.1697-1725}, of neighbouring Allada in : crippled by having their
protection that discouraged : mapped in part by Spaniard Juan son of Mirwais Khan Hotak (see 1723 provided a ready source hamstrings cut.
| further raids. The Nystad Treaty Fernandez and Dutchman Abel 1709), brought an army to the of captives for sale, and by Also in 1724, the disintegrating
| restored Finland to Sweden, but : Tasman, among others. A former Safavid capital of Isfahan, sacked 1724 Dahomey had become Mughal Empire saw the Indian
_ former Swedish Baltic territories : employee of the Dutch East Indies : the city, and proclaimed himself the Europeans’ principal source state of Oudh gain independence
_ in Estonia and elsewhere went to Company but now sponsored by : shah of Persia. It was not until of slave labour. under Saadat Ali Khan (c.1680-
: its West Indies counterpart, 1729, and the defeat of the Hotaki In 1724, the Code Noir, King 1739]. He founded the Moghul
Roggeveen and his three ships : dynasty by Afsharid Persians who Louis XIV of France’s extensive » Awadh dynasty, which ruled until
|| Deified ancestors
_ Moai were erected by clans on
sailed to the Falkland Islands, : were descended from the definition of the conditions of : its power was seized by the
| Easter Island to watch over their Chile, and the Juan Fernandez Mongols at the Battle of slavery, was introduced in the British in the early 19th century.
fields. This group, at Ahu Akivi, is Islands. While crossing the South - Damghan, that the Afghans were
the furthest inland. Pacific Ocean the following year, : finally forced back to Kandahar.

197,
 cy
46 YOU ARE NOW TRAVELLING
INTO THE PARADISE OF
Teeysry errr tara

ou

i
THE SCHOLARS. 99
i
Caspar Wolff, German scientist, praising the Academy of Sciences
in a letter to mathematician Leonhard Euler, ¢.1779

The Shinto gate (torii) at the entrance

Peter the Great's Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg, founded in 1725,
to the Itsukushima Shrine, Japan.
was rehoused in this building of 1783-85 on the River Neva.

THE RUSSIAN EMPEROR PETER

THE TREATY OF THE HAGUE : Panama, but withdrew without
THE GREAT was determined to
(see 1720} did not end rivalries success in 1727 after severe
discover the full extent of his
between the major European : losses from disease.
lands to the east. A Danish
powers. In 1725, Austria signed Emboldened by its promise
: of Austrian support, which was seaman, Vitus Bering (1681-
the Treaty of Vienna with Spain,
negated by a secret pact made
1741), was commissioned to
gaining trading advantages in the
: between Britain and Austria, follow the Siberian coast
colonies for its Imperial Ostend
Spain besieged Gibraltar in northwards from the Kamchatka
Company; in exchange, Austria
1727, an act that precipitated the Peninsula, and in 1728 Bering
abandoned all claims to the
: Anglo-Spanish War. The sailed into the narrow strait, now
Spanish throne and also promised
: four-month siege failed, costing named after him, that separates
to help Spain recapture Gibraltar.
Spain 1,400 men to British Siberia and Alaska. By sailing
In 1726, Britain embarked on an
casualties of 300. The war ended further north, Bering established
attempt to blockade Spanish
: with the Treaty of Seville in 1729. that Siberia reaches its eastward
treasure ships at Porto Bello,
In Russia, the St Petersburg limit at the strait. Bering
Academy of Sciences was suspected that there must be land
: founded in 1725 by Peter the further east, but it was only during
Great (1672-1725). The most a second voyage, in 1741, that he
eminent scholars of all disciplines : Coffee in Brazil first saw the coast of Alaska
: were invited to work there - for : To the southeast, the Afghan This 19th-century woodcut shows a across the strait.
» shah of Persia, Mahmud Hotaki
: Brazilian coffee plantation. From small On the Indian subcontinent, the
» example, German embryologist
beginnings in 1727, Brazil grew into Maratha people, after nearly a
: Caspar Wolff (1733-94) offered : (see 1721-22], died in 1725. He
the world’s largest coffee producer.
Swiss mathematician Leonhard : was succeeded by his cousin, decade of consolidating their
: Euler a 200-rouble salary as an : Ashraf Khan (d.1730}, who may power under Bajirao (see 1720},
: enticement, which he accepted. : have murdered him. By then, Also in 1727, the Treaty of struck out into the Deccan region
Persian lands were being : Kyakhta was signed by Imperial surrounding their homeland. In
encroached upon by : Russia and the Chinese Qing 1728, in the Battle of Palkhed,
Ottoman forces, who were : Empire; it remained the basis of they confronted rival prince
S:ef linked to the previous : relations between the two until Asaf Jah | of Hyderabad [also
CATHERINE | (1684-1727] regime by an Ottoman- > the mid-19th century. Mongolia’s known as Nizam-ul-Mulk] who
Safavid alliance. However, : northern border was mapped and had been laying claim to Maratha
The orphaned daughter of Ashraf Khan defeated the : agreed, and routes established for leadership and who was refusing
Lithuanian peasants, the Ottomans in a battle near trade in furs and tea. to pay them chauth [a tribute tax).
future wife of Peter the Great Isfahan at Kermanshah, The late 1720s saw the start of In a strategic miasterstroke, the
was born Marta Skowronska. and peace was eventually : coffee-growing in the Caribbean Marathas cornered the nizam’s
She was secretly married declared at Hamadan, and South America. Seedlings army in a waterless zone, where it
to Peter in 1707, and she Persia, in 1727. > were first brought to Martinique refused to fight. In consequence,
reigned as Russia's first : around 1720, and in 1727 the king the nizam abandoned his
female monarch from his ' of Portugal sent to French Guinea leadership claim and payment
Satirical novel for seeds. His envoy, Francisco of chauth was resumed.
death until her own. In her
Clergyman and writer : de Mello Palheta, persuaded the The year 1729 was a pivotal
reign, she was supported by Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)
the Supreme Privy Council, : French governor's wife to provide point in trading relations
first published Gulliver's
which wanted to deny power Travels in 1726. This edition seeds and seedlings, and these between China and the West
to the aristocracy. of the satire on humanity enabled the Portuguese to start because the Qing Yongzheng
was published in the 1860s. a coffee industry in Brazil. Emperor banned almost all

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 : obsessed. Ottoman architecture 180 the Fulbe Revolution. The first
; | and art were invigorated, but such state was Bondu, in Guinea,
- high prices for tulips and tulip — oloO
formed in the late 17th century.
: bulbs distorted the economy. The Then came Futa Jallon (centred
: instatement of Mahmud | in 1730 eatnNoO
in Guinea but sprawling over
: brought an end to the Tulip neighbouring territories}, where
So)oO
: Period, but Halil was strangled the Islamic Fulbe took power
in front of the sultan in 1731 for CASUALTIES
a oO from the existing leaders and
overreaching himself. non-lIslamic Fulbe people.
In Japan, whose population 30 fal
A confederation of provinces
had been ruled by the Tokugawa was formally created in 1735 with
shogunate since 1603, there was a : Men Women Children its capital at Timbo, Guinea.
resurgence of the Shinto religion. Other areas that were profoundly
Beginning around 1730, it was : Massacre at Fort Rosalie
affected by the Fulbe Jihad - as
: On 28 November 1729, Natchez
fuelled by the writings of scholars the seizure of power was termed
: American Indians killed 242 settlers
Bering Strait : such as Kada no Azunamaro : at Fort Rosalie, Mississippi, in - included the formerly declining
importation of opium. Chinese This satellite image shows the : (1669-1736) and Kamo no : retaliation for years of mistreatment. Bornu Empire (in present-day
goods were in high demand in : Bering Strait, a 96-km (56-mile] ! Mabuchi (1697-1769). The Shinto Nigeria], the fortunes of which
Europe, but the Chinese were : stretch of water that separates
: scholars rejected Chinese and : of Mombasa and the island of underwent a significant revival.
unimpressed by European goods Asia and North America.
Buddhist influences and sought to Pemba had been captured by the In 1731, formerly independent
and accepted payment only : identify a purely Japanese = Omanis in 1698, and by 1730 they Dahomey in West Africa finally
in silver - which Britain, in number of Natchez for work spiritual identity. Shintoism was had driven the Portuguese from accepted the suzerainty of the
particular, had to obtain at on Caribbean plantations. reinstated as the national religion ; the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts Yoruba Oyo Empire (present-day
: exorbitant cost. In the early 18th The short-lived Ottoman Tulip of Japan more than a century : and gained control of the island of Nigeria]. The Yoruba had invaded
century, British traders had begun _ Period (1718-30) was ended by later in 1868. ; Zanzibar (now part of Tanzania). and defeated them after a
' to trade Indian opium for Chinese : arebellion against unpopular Meanwhile, the Arabian state In West Africa, Islamic Fulbe, protracted and bitterly fought
' goods, and there was soona measures led by a janissary : of Oman was expanding its or Fulani, people began to unify campaign in 1728,
growing number of addicted (soldier), Patrona Halil, that : dominions in Africa. The : into larger communities in but resistance
Chinese that greatly reduced : caused Sultan Ahmed Ill to be : Portuguese-held Kenyan city what is now known as in Dahomey
Europe's silver requirement. supplanted by Mahmud |. The did not end
European opium smugglers Tulip Period was one of stability until 1748.
remained a major problem for
China into the 19th century.
: in the Ottoman Empire and was
marked by increased interest
44 ....IN LESS THAN
» Also in 1729, after more than a
decade of mistreatment, Natchez
in Western ways. Just as Western
: Europe had been fascinated by
TWO HOURS THEY
- American Indians killed more
than 200 French settlers at Fort
tulips in the 17th
century, the
MASSACRED MORE THAN Opium pipe and poppy
This traditional Chinese
Rosalie, Mississippi. However,
by 1731 the French, assisted by
Ottoman 200 OF THE FRENCH. 99 opium pipe has a knob-
shaped bowl in which the
court drug (dried latex from the
the Choctaw people, were to became Father le Petit, missionary, in a letter to Father D’ Avaugour, Procurator opium poppy] is vaporized
retaliate by enslaving a large equally of the Missions in North America, 1730 when the bowl is heated.

ee ee eed
 Sk aw
“Tavern Scene” is one of the eight paintings of Briti sh artist William Hogarth’s A Rake’s
Progress (1732-33), which depicts the downfall of a rich merchant's feckless heir.

: (1704-80). The loom had a

OBSESSED WITH CREATING a
strong, independent state,
(44 WHERE : on the Alaskan mainland. In the
: same month, his second ship sent : wheeled, thread-carrying shuttle,
Frederick William | (r.1713-40),
the “Soldier King” of Prussia,
SOME > men ashore on Alaska’s Prince of
Wales Island.
=
:
which greatly increased the rate
at which fabrics could be made.
instituted compulsory military
service: every young man had to
STATES Meanwhile, during the Kyoho
© era (July 1716 to April 1736]
: Kay's new loom threatened the
: livelihood of weavers, who
serve in the military for three
months of each year. In this way,
HAVE AN : in Japan, famine had struck. In
1732, swarms of locusts attacked
§ Polish election, 1733
: attempted to get the loom
banned. However, they were
the Prussian army became the ARMY, THE the crops, especially rice, of
agricultural communities around
1 ay
ae
Stanislaw Leszczynski
gained 12,000 votes
: unsuccessful, and Kay’s invention
: was adopted widely.
PRUSSIAN
fourth-largest in Europe, with : and temporarily became king of
60,000 soldiers, despite having the inland sea. Heavy rains then : Poland. Augustus II/ gained only 3,000. :

ARMY HAS
the twelfth-largest population. » destroyed winter crops of wheat : votes but succeeded him in 1734.
In America, the state of Georgia : and barley, and insects decimated
was founded in 1732, becoming
the last of the Thirteen Colonies
ASTATE. 99 . the following year’s rice crop. The
worst-affected area was the north
the backing of Russia and Austria
to install Augustus as king in
established by Britain on the of Kyushu Island, where around : 1734. What began as a civil war
Voltaire, French thinker (1694-1778) : 15,000 people died. In cities such : developed into the War of the
Atlantic coast. Named after
Britain's King George II, the new : as Edo [present-day Tokyo) and Polish Succession [1733-38] as
state was intended to strengthen Also in 1733, Danish seaman : Osaka, the cost of rice rose the Bourbons (France and Spain],
the British presence in the south. Vitus Bering (1681-1741], after seven-fold, and in 1733 rice shops the Habsburgs (Austria), Prussia,
The first settlers began to arrive whom the Bering Strait is named were attacked during food riots. Saxony, and Russia campaigned
in 1733 and included many (see 1728), began the Great In 1733, Poland’s King Augustus : outside Poland to seize territories
released from debtors’ prisons. Northern Exploration. Empress Il died. Stanislaw Leszczynski was : lost after the War of the Spanish
» Anna of Russia (1693-1740) had made king when 12,000 Polish Succession [see 1701). Only with
: authorized a large expedition : nobles voted for him in the Sejm the Treaty of Vienna in 1738 did
involving 3,000 people in three election. However, 3,000 nobles Stanislaw give up his legal claim. VOLTAIRE (1694-1778)
separate groups: one group was ' who voted for Augustus II| used : British culture in this period
to map northern Siberia; the : came to be dominated by radical Born Francois-Marie Arouet
second, to explore north of humanism, a conviction that in Paris, Voltaire was a
Japan; and Bering’s group, : human identity, ethics, and prolific writer, historian, and
to determine what lay east : knowledge need not be based on philosopher of the French
of the strait. It was not : a belief in God. Alexander Pope Enlightenment (see 1763},
until June 1741, just (1688-1744] wrote in his poem An who disseminated his radical
months before his Essay on Man (1734), “Know then humanist ideas in works that
death in December, : : thyself, presume not God to scan/ : ranged from essays and
A4 that Bering first The proper study of Mankind is historical works to poems,
caught sight of : Man.” Secular humanism spread plays, and novels. His ideas
TOTAL
Mount St Elias to the arts, with artists such as — on social reform and civil
POPULATION
William Hogarth (1697-1764) liberties, for example - often
: bringing sharp social criticism met with hostility, forcing him
Prussian blue : and satire to their depictions to flee several times, but they
The conscripted army of : Kyoho famine in Japan
: of humanity. had a major influence on
Prussian king Frederick In the Fukuoka Domain, northern
William | wore dark blue : Kyushu, about 20 per cent of the Another British development thinkers of the French and
coats with red linings and population died during the 1733 : was the patenting in 1733 of a American revolutions.
red and white facings. famine of the Kyoho era. : flying-shuttle loom by John Kay

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 CHARLES MARIE DE LA In North America, pressure from : signalled that no treaty could
CONDAMINE (1701-74), French : expanding British colonies forced : easily end the War of the Polish
_ explorer, scientist, and : the French to strengthen their : Succession (see 1733}. In addition,
| mathematician, joined an : claim to Indiana by establishing a : Russia, joined by Austria in 1737,
expedition to Peru in 1735. After » permanent settlement. In 1732, : intended to seize the Crimea and
falling out with his colleagues, he ! a trading fort had been erected at ? gain access to the Black Sea, at
continued alone to Quito, Ecuador, : the site of present-day Vincennes, : the same time ending raids by
| from where he travelled down the : but in 1735 the traders were : Crimean Tartars. One Russian
_ Amazon to Cayenne, thereby : Joined by a wave of agricultural : army captured part of the Crimea
making the first scientific : In 1736, but was forced by disease
exploration of the river. : to retreat. Another army recovered
Returning to Paris in : Azov from the Ottomans in
1744, he published the axe head : Romania and advanced to Jassy
journal of his travels and inlaid with : (lasi}, Moldavia. In 1737, renewed
discoveries in 1751. When silver Russian gains in the Crimea were
in Ecuador, La Condamine calligraphy
reversed due to a lack of supplies.
was the first European to By 1737, the Maratha Empire
encounter rubber - the : in India (see 1728) was enjoying
Mayans had been making workers. Vincennes quickly : its greatest expansion to the
flexible rubber for centuries - grew, becoming not only the : north, at the expense of the
and in 1736 he introduced the foremost French trading post : Mughal Empire. Peshwa (prime
product to Europe when he in Indiana but also the : minister) BajiraoI (r.1721-40)
sent sheets of processed dominant centre of French : masterminded this expansion, but
rubber to Paris. culture in the region. : almostas powerful as the Peshwa :
By the early 18th century, the Meanwhile, the year 1736 : were Maratha chieftains called :
Portuguese, Spanish, British, marked the end of Safavid : Sardars - among them Gaekwads
| French, and Dutch had rule in Persia. Persian : of Baroda, Shindes of Gwalior,
he
SN
| slave-worked sugar military leader Nader Shah : and Holkars of Indore - who
| plantations in Brazil and (1698-1747) had become more : established their own kingdoms
throughout the Caribbean. powerful than the Safavids he i in the captured lands. :
| In 1735, the French East India served (Tahmasp II until 1732, ; In 1737, Swedish taxonomist and :
Company began to develop and Tahmasp’s young son, : botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707-78)
plantations on the islands of Abbas III). When Nader published Genera Plantarum, later :
Ile-de-France and Bourbon proposed himself as shah, few : partnered by Species Plantarum
(now Mauritius and Réunion). Ae
reins
RE
ae
Ca
an
iJ
SAAS
er
stood against him. He was : (1753). Together with his earlier
Soon to follow was the first crowned in 1736. In 1737, : Systema Naturae (1735), these
sugar refinery on Mauritius, Nader moved against Persia's : works laid the foundation for the
built at Ville Bague in the north. former Afghan overlords by » system of biological classification
occupying southern still used today.
Afghanistan. When Tahmasp
Weapon of conquest
and Abbas were murdered in
| This finely decorated battle axe > Plant anatomy
1740, the Safavid dynasty was : Carl Linnaeus’s Genera Plantarum
| belonged to Nader, who was
| crowned shah of Persia in 1736. extinguished. : classified plants by their sex organs
| He led the Persians to war with The Russo-Austrian- : - the numbers of stamens and
| Afghanistan in the following year. Turkish War (1735-39) : pistils in their flowers.

201
 Frederick II (left} converses with the
The ruins of the old Kandahar citadel, Afghanistan, lie on the hilltop behind the 12th-~caletee arch. In the Parstari
siege, Hussein Hotaki took refuge in the citadel but surrendered after it was bombarded by Nader Shah. Marquis d’Argens near Sanssouci.

THE AFGHAN HOTAKi DYNASTY : 1939, around 110km (68 miles) ca cane Administration WITH THE DEATH OF KING
had been expelled from Persia ' from Delhi, Nader Shah entered e RUMATAG of empire FREDERICK WILLIAM | OF PRUSSIA
: the city victorious on 9 March es © @Charleston OCEAN The Viceroyalty in 1740, his son, Frederick II
in1729 by Nader Shah (1698-
: of New Spain, (1712-86), ascended to the throne.
1747), and he was also : 1739. The Mughal treasury was Cenured on the
determined to eliminate the : empty but the shah seized the Bahamas Caribbean and In his youth, Frederick II had
remaining threat posed by the been fond of music, poetry, and
emperor's personal jewels, Gulf of Mexico tele) Hispaniola gen Juan GulfofMexico was
Afghan Ghilzai people. Having © including the famous Koh-i-Noor PWSanto Domingo the first of four philosophy. He studied the works
Jamaica
occupied southern Afghanistan : and Darya-e-Noor diamonds. Mex west IN
DIES
Trinidad.
created to govern of Niccolé Machiavelli (see 1513)
in 1737, he besieged the Hotaki Also in 1739, the Austro- Spanish New in preparation for kingship, and
Caribbean
World territories. in 1739 wrote a refutation of
stronghold of Kandahar in 1738. Turkish War (1737-39) was ended Sea

Nader Shah exiled Hussein, last of byy the

the Treaty
Treaty of Belgrade.
Belgrade. InIn ththe ee,
PACIFIC ee the Renaissance Florentine’s
the Hotakis, destroyed the towns : same year, the Treaty of Nis ideas, Anti-Machiavel, which he
of Kandahar and Qalat-i-Ghilzai, : brought the Russo-Turkish War published anonymously in 1740.
and finally crushed the hopes of (1735-39) to a conclusion. Both © 16th century, responded by : Mississippi Basin with Spanish His rule was characterized by
the Ghilzais by backing the rise of : these treaties confirmed Austria's ' increasing its defences around : Colorado and Santa Fe. In 1739, modernization, tolerance, and
the rival Afghan Durrani people. : loss of northern Serbia and » the Caribbean coast. * two French brothers, Pierre and patronage of the arts. Yet he
Afghanistan was then part of the : Belgrade to the Ottomans, : In North America, French : Paul Mallet, opened up aroute became known as Frederick the
Mughal Empire, centred in Delhi, : obliging Russia to abandon hopes : colonists were maintaining their : by negotiating the Missouri and Great for the political and military
but the Mughal governor had : of capturing the Crimea, although - drive to push westwards into ; Platte rivers, travelling feats by which he first expanded
been powerless to stop Nader : the Russians were allowed to : Spanish territories. A priority : southwards to the Arkansas the borders of Prussia (until 1701
Shah's Persian force, which : build an unfortified port at Azov : was to identify a route to link the : River, from where a local man known as Brandenburg-Prussia]
swept through Kabul and crossed : and trade on the Black Sea. guided them to Santa Fe. Despite far beyond their historical limits,
Hostilities broke out once again Battle of Porto Bello the continuing existence of a then defended these acquisitions

Rit
the Indus in December 1738.
After defeating the forces of : between Britain and Spain in buffer state of warring American against massive coalitions of
Fought in 1739, in the early stages of
Mughal Muhammad Shah in the ! 1739. Britain had been awarded the War of Jenkins’ Ear, the Battle : Indian tribes, a link between the powerful enemies. Frederick Ils
Battle of Karnal in February : limited rights to trade slaves and of Porto Bello resulted in the British ; French and Spanish settlements first opportunity to expand
goods in the Spanish colonies seizing the settlement from Spain. : was established. Prussia’s frontiers arrived quickly
: (see 1713], but increasingly, the after his accession. The Habsburg
Spanish were seizing British emperor, Charles VI, died in 1740
cargoes. In 1731, Spanish and was succeeded by his
coastguards had severed the i # daughter, Maria Theresa (1717-
ear of a British captain, Robert i: ee 80), who was to rule Austria’s

ARR
Jenkins, and in 1739 the case led: S hereditary domains with her
: to a war, which was later dubbed husband, Francis Stephen, as
» the WarofJenkins’Earbythe | Holy Roman Emperor.
: Scottish historian Thomas Carlyle. Immediately Prussia and France
: Britain began to attack Spanish challenged the arrangement.
! possessions in the New World, Most of Europe took sides in what
: such as the Spanish naval base of became the War of the Austrian
: Porto Bello in Panama. Following Succession (1740-48), with
Battle of Karnal : the Battle of Porto Bello, the Britain, the Dutch Republic,
Trying to prevent
Nader Shah's Persian
: British took possession of the Sardinia, and Saxony supporting
8:army from reaching Delhi, © settlement in November 1739. the queen. Frederick, claiming
the Mughals lost 20,000 men while : The Viceroyalty of New Spain, inheritance of Silesia - parts of
the Persians lost only 2,500. : first established in the early present-day Poland, Germany,
 ilad com
i(

aaa
if

Poppelsdorf Castle, Germany, exemntifies Rococo style, which became popular

during the 18th century, particularly in France, Germany, Bohemia, and Austria.

: and the Czech Republic - seized : of Katanga in the present-day 4,000 70,000 THE OPPORTUNISTIC Celsius thermometer
: the territory from Habsburg, : Democratic Republic of the Congo. | Britain North America SEIZING OF SILESIA by This 18th-century French
: Austria, and made it a Prussian Meanwhile, the War of the Frederick II of Prussia instrument, intended
: province. It was later incorporated : Austrian Succession was having (see 1740-41) proved a for measuring outdoor
" into the German Empire, in 1871. temperatures, features
: repercussions in the north. successful gambit.
Celsius’s scale, with a range
: In Asia, the Mon kingdom : Sweden, still bridling at losing its The Austrian army had of -15 to +45 degrees.
: centred in Pegu, Burma : Baltic territories after the Great 16,500 challenged the Prussians
: (Myanmar), rebelled in 1740 : Northern War (see 1721-22], Europe but had been defeated in In India, the struggle for
: against the northern Burmese : deployed troops on the Russian the Battle of Mollwitz power continued between
: Toungoo kingdom that had first : border and declared the Russo- in 1741. In 1742, Maria the Maratha people (see
: subjugated it in 1539. After the : Swedish War (1741-43]. The Theresa of Austria and 1720) and the nizam of
' rebellion, a Burmese monk with » threat to St Petersburg pushed the victorious Prussians Hyderabad, the semi-
: Toungoo royal heritage was made | forward a planned coup d’état signed the Treaty of independent representative
: king of Pegu. The independent ' in Russia, but the new tsarina, Berlin, by which a large of the Mughal Empire.
» The Ulster diaspora
: kingdom lasted until 1757. : Elizabeth Petrovna (1709-62), part of Silesia was ceded The Marathas seized
: Between 1680 and 1750, 70,000
: Also in 1740, a major expansion : continued with the war rather : Scottish-Irish emigrants left Ulster to Prussia. The treaty Trichinopoly, leaving
: of the Lunda kingdom of Central than cede the Baltic territories to : for North America, 4,000 moved to brought an end to Murrarao Ghorpade as
: Africa began when a party : Sweden, as had been promised. : Britain, and 16,500 left for Europe. the First Silesian War governor of the town, and
exploring to the west established In Ulster (Northern Ireland), (1740-42), though the refused to pay tribute to
: the kingdom of Kazembe. For the : emigration to North America : Church, most of whom were wider European conflict the nizam. In 1743, the
: next hundred years, an aggressive increased dramatically. Those ‘ descendents of families who had known as the War of the nizam, determined to
policy of annexation increased © leaving included many members colonized the Irish north in the Austrian Succession regain control of the area,
: Kazembe’s size to cover most : of the Scottish Presbyterian : 17th century. Ireland’s English continued until 1748. : had 80,000 men besiege the town.
_ } overlords distrusted the Scottish- In 1742, Swedish astronomer : Defeated, Murrarao accepted
DENMARK ‘SWEDEN _; Irish colony, which supported Anders Celsius (1701-44) : payment to change allegiance.
North es ; Scottish interests. Presbyterian developed the Celsius, or The Russo-Swedish War
Sea
Flensborg@_
! ministers were fined or centigrade, thermometer. : (1741-43) was ended by the
' incarcerated, and economic Celsius actually set the melting : Treaty of Abo in 1743. Intent on
: activities of the Scottish point of ice at 100 degrees and the : reducing the Swedish threat to St
: Presbyterians were curtailed, boiling point of water at zero : Petersburg, Russia had occupied
; Causing poverty and famine. degrees, an arrangement that : Finland, and the treaty moved the
: In the early 18th century, this was reversed in 1744 by Swedish ' Swedish border north. Most of
discrimination worsened; they botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707-78). : Finland was returned to the
_ | were forced to pay tithes in In Spanish Peru, a new leader : Swedes, who in exchange accepted
_ } support of the Church of England of the native people, Juan Santos : Adolf-Frederick of Holstein-
: and excluded from important Atahualpa, a Jesuit-educated : Gotthorp (1710-1771), a client of
_; office. A severe famine in 1741-42 man claiming to be a direct : Empress Elizabeth of Russia, as
_ ; resulted in about 12,000 annually descendant of the murdered Inca _ heir to the Swedish throne.
© leaving for the New World. These king Atahualpa (1497-1533), In North America, South Dakota
: Scottish-Irish emigrants, began a rebellion in Quisopango : was first explored by Europeans
: resentful of their treatment by the in 1742. The Spanish mounted a : in 1743, when the French de La
: Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia : English, later gave fierce support military campaign against him in Vérendrye brothers returned west
i In the late 17th and 18th centuries,
: successive leaders enhanced the power KEY : to the cause of American 1742, and again in 1743, 1746, and : after being the first Europeans to
: and territory of Brandenburg-Prussia | Brandenburg 1648 independence from Britain 1750, but never defeated him in » see the Rockies during their
! through military and political means. ~ Acquisitions 1648-1786 : inthe 1770s and 1780s. his home territory in the Andes. : attempt to reach the Pacific.
 i \
entury, hand-coloured copperplate engraving shows disciplined ranks of red-coated Hanoverian troops
falling upon Jacobi ghlandersat the Battle of Culloden, the last battle of the Jacobite uprising.

Deadly Coehorn mortar : shogun. The retiring shogun’s : fortified British headquarters in
THE EAST AFRICAN PORT OF
MOMBASA was used in the 18th The Hanoverian army at Culloden eldest son, was poor in health, southern India, 140km (100 miles)
had six short-barrelled Coehorn defective in speech, and had little ! south of Madras, but this time he
century for trade in gold, ivory,
mortars; easily portable, they were interest in government affairs, was unsuccessful. However, the
and slaves. Mombasa was held
deadly weapons on the battlefield. but his father demanded his » French remained in occupation
for 200 years by the Portuguese,
until a native rebellion drove them ! succession as primogeniture of Madras until the Treaty of
out in 1729. The Arabs of Oman ' dictated. Natural disasters and : Aix-la-Chapelle (see 1748}
took over, and in 1744, with a new famine characterized his reign, returned the port to the British
dynasty installed in Oman, the and as the power of the in exchange for Louisbourg in
new governor of Mombasa seized : mercantile class grew, his own Nova Scotia.
power there from the Omanis. authority declined, the result of In China, during the reign of the
He was killed by Omani assassins poor decisions and delegation Qianlong Emperor (r.1736-99],
in 1745, but his brother, Ali ibn of power to subordinates. Christians were subjected to
Athman (r.1746-55) stirred up a Meanwhile, France was still at renewed persecution from 1746
rebellion and the assassins were war with Austria and its allies. In to 1748 as a matter of imperial
executed. Ali ibn Athman : Frederick II's sovereignty in : the Scottish force was overcome 1746 a French force, authorized policy. In 1715, Pope Clement XIl
proclaimed himself Sultan of : Silesia by signing the Treaty of by a Hanoverian force at the : by Governor-General Joseph : had criticized idolatrous elements
Mombasa, thereby securing the : Dresden at the end of the year; Battle of Culloden. The hounding Francois Dupleix (1697-1763), in Chinese religious practices, and
port’s independence from Oman. : in return, Prussia recognized her and killing of fleeing and wounded took the British-held Indian port the Qianlong Emperor realized
Meanwhile, Prussia’s war with husband, Francis, as Holy Roman Highlanders earned the of Madras. In 1747, Dupleix that Chinese Christians felt
Austria (see 1740) continued. : Emperor. This left only France ' Hanoverian commander, William followed this with an attack : greater loyalty to foreign powers
In the Second Silesian War : prosecuting the War of the : Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, on Fort St David, the strongly than to him. As a result,
(1744-45], the Austrians tried to Austrian Succession (1740-48}. : notoriety as the ‘Butcher of ME

regain Silesia but the Prussians In 1744, France attempted a :; Culloden”. The battle ended the
eventually defeated the forces of ! major invasion of Britain in Second Jacobite Rebellion and
Empress Maria Theresa in 1745 in : support of Prince Charles Edward wiped out Jacobite hopes of
the battles of Hohenfriedberg, Stuart {1720-88} - grandson of ‘regaining power in Britain.
Soor, and Kesselsdorf. Maria the deposed Stuart King James II In 1745, an English farmer
Theresa finally recognized ' and the’Young Pretender’ to the began experiments in selective
Hanoverian throne of Britain. But : animal breeding
that were to
: the invasion foundered due to revolutionize animal husbandry.
terrible weather. In 1745, “Bonnie The principle of mating animals
Prince Charlie”, as Charles with desired traits was already
: became known, crossed to ! known, but the methods developed
: Scotland and rallied the Jacobite by farmer Robert Bakewell were
: chiefs of several Scottish better than earlier ones. His work
Highland clans to march on resulted in the New Leicester

5,000 : England. The Scots defeated a

: Hanoverian force in the Battle
:
»
breed of sheep and New
Longhorn cattle breed, both of
PRUSSIANS of Prestonpans and eventually : which are still widely influential
Losses at : reached Derby but then retreated, : in animal breeding today.
Hohenfriedberg
: having gained little support from In Japan, the hold of the
In this battle the victorious Selectively bred sheep
Prussians had significantly fewer ; the English or the French. Military Tokugawa dynasty on power was This 1842 engraving depicts a New Leicester ram, a breed
casualties than the Austrians and successes followed on their weakening. In 1745, Tokugawa developed by Robert Bakewell’s new breeding methods at
their allies from Saxony. > return to Scotland, but in 1746 leshige (1712-61) was elected as : his Leicestershire farm.

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 44 THE MOST SUDDEN AND VISIBLE
GOOD EFFECTS WERE...FROM
ORANGES AND LEMONS. 99
James Lind, British surgeon, from Treatise of the Scurvy, 1753

Be oF ——«
A firework display on the River Thames on 15 May 1749, organized by the
| Duke of Richmond to celebrate:tie:signingofthe TreatyofAix-la-Chapelle,

Map of Madras | THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN

This 1750 engraving | SUCCESSION (see 1740) was
depicts the Indian port of i concluded by the signing of the
Madras, together with its | Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
British Fort ofStGeorge,
' (present-day Aachen] in 1748.
both captured by aFrench |
naval expedition in 1746. | Prussia’s conquest of Silesia
| was recognized, France
| regained some of its
resulting weakness of colonies in exchange
the Persian Empire, | for withdrawing from the
elected Nader's Afghan Netherlands, and Britain's
lieutenant, Ahmad Asiento contract with Spain
: Unrefined platinum ore
Khan Abdali, (also (see 1713] was renewed.
: Platinum was discovered in South
known as Ahmad Shah Nader Shah's lucrative sacking : America by Spanish conquerors. The
Durrani, 1722-73) as _ of Dethi (see 1739] became the : name is derived from the Spanish
head and founder of » incentive for a second attack, this ; term platina, meaning ‘little silver”.
the modern state of _ time on the Punjab by Ahmad
Afghanistan. Abdali _ Khan Abdali (see 1747]. His army : kept the British settlement
was to unify the country of 12,000 horsemen was met : constantly under attack.
under his rule and in the Battle of Manupur by a In Pennsylvania, the first
develop a large empire, | defensive Mughal force of 60,000. ; Lutheran Synod was founded
: evangelization was banned, and : Invented by the Dutch scientist : including parts of present-day _ Abdali’s Afghans held their own : in 1748 by Henry Melchior
: Chinese Christians were forced :; Pieter van Musschenbroek of the : Iran, Pakistan, and India. ) until 1,000 of them were killed by : Muhlenburg (1711-87]. German
: to go into hiding. Wherever : University of Leiden, this device, _ In West Africa, the Yoruba | an exploding gunpowder store; » Lutherans had first arrived in
: missionaries were discovered : an early type of capacitor, : people, occupying territory from _ devastated, they fled. Meanwhile, : Pennsylvania in 1683, but it was
: flouting the law by preaching, ; demonstrated that electricity : eastern present-day Benin to a rising power in the south was : the creation of the Synod that
: the persecution of Christians could be stored. From this : southern Nigeria, invaded the the Kingdom of Mysore under : unified the Lutheran community.
: was intensified. developed the idea of a Kingdom of Dahomey in 1747. the control of Hyder Ali (1720-82), South America’s gold and silver
: Another scientific battery, originally a group The kingdom was rich from trade father of the famous Tipu Sultan : had long been valued in Europe,
: breakthrough in 1745 was of Leyden jars combined to : in slaves and commodities such (1750-99). Under Hyder Ali, the : but it was not until 1748, witha
: the Leyden jar, probably generate a more powerful as palm oil, and was forced to pay Mysore Empire seized territory : report from Spanish explorer
the most important electric charge. : tribute to the Yoruba Empire of | from the Marathas, Hyderabad, : Antonio de Ulloa (1716-95), that
18th-century In 1747, the powerful : Oyo, an arrangement that lasted and neighbouring kingdoms. : the value of South America’s
: development in Persian overlord : until 1818. In North America, the British : platinum was realized. A dense,
: the understanding Nader Shah 1747 also saw a development presence in Nova Scotia was : corrosion-resistant metal, it was
| of electricity. (b.1688), who had : that was to improve the lives of _ consolidated with the » mined in the Cordillera Occidental
become paranoid : sailors. In a pioneering study, i establishment of Halifax in 1749; © of Colombia and in central Peru.
and mercilessly : James Lind, a surgeon of the | the area capital was transferred Another Spaniard, Giacobbo
: Early capacitor cruel, was Royal Navy, proved that scurvy, a | there from Annapolis Royal. In » Rodriguez Pereire (1715-80),
i The Leyden jar could murdered by his sometimes fatal disease common violation of a previous treaty, made history in 1749 when he
: store electric charge, bodyguards. A : during long voyages, could be | Lieutenant General Edward : tooka pupil to the Paris Academy
: which was created
grand assembly : treated by eating citrus fruit. Cornwallis (1713-76) arrived with : of Sciences to demonstrate his
: by an electrostatic
: generator and at Kandahar in : However, only in 1795 did the | transport ships containing 2,500 » new sign language for deaf-
: conducted into the jar Afghanistan, Royal Navy begin to use lemon | settlers, sparking a war in which ; mutes in which the sign alphabet
: through its metal rod. recognizing the " juice to prevent and treat scurvy. | the French and native Mi’ kmaq : required the use of only one hand.

205°
ah
HioS

ca
iM

isa ot
ha
 Often dramatic, war-torn, and vi
a time of remarkable pia
communication, and transportat
ford.
beginnings of the modernn wo
r) oe re f t. 3 Pd
P ’
< : * Ye Sbeand wg
 iy
José | of Portugal's coat of arms on A detail from engraver William Hogarth’s 1751 work Gin Lane depicts th e This Buddha statue is in the Sulamani Pahto temple in Bagan, Burma, which
the ceiling of Coimbra University. public drunkenness and social problems caused by cheap gin. | was built in 1181 but contains images and frescos from the Konbaung period.

THE COLONIAL BOUNDARY

BETWEEN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
: Enlightenment (see 1763). Many
: influential French thinkers - such
BURMA (MYANMAR} HAD LONG
BEEN DIVIDED among warring
-€@ ENERGY AND
in the New World was settled by : as Montesquieu (1689-1755), factions until a chief, Alaungpaya PERSISTENCE
the Treaty of Madrid, signed on
13 January, which significantly
: Jean-Jacques Rousseau
: (1712-78), and Voltaire (1694-
(1714-60), began to unite the
country through a series of
-CONQUER ALL
amended the Treaty of : 1778) - contributed to tens of military victories, and established THINGS. 99
Tordesillas (1494). The previous : thousands of articles in the work, the Konbaung dynasty. Not only
a
SS Attributed to Benjamin Franklin,
: which attempted to catalogue the did he have to bring disparate
THE NUMBER
agreement stipulated that the
: American inventor, politician,
Portuguese empire extend no : depths of human knowledge in groups together, he faced the
: and diplomat
further than 370 leagues west of
the Azores (around 46 degrees OF VOLUMES : science,
: religion.
philosophy, politics, and
With its emphasis on
challenge of troops from Britain
and France, who were eager to
west], but the new treaty took into OFTHE : reason, the volumes were banned gain territory in Burma and who : had made the decision to change

ENCYCLOPEDIE
account the extent of Portuguese SS
: in some countries, such as Spain, were willing to arm Alaungpaya’s : from the Julian calendar to the
settlement in Brazil. Spain hoped » where the Catholic Inquisition =e enemies. But for the next seven : Gregorian one, joining the other
that by allowing Portugal some
PUBLISHED ' objected to its content. — years, Alaungpaya resisted both ; western European countries that

BETWEEN 1751
concessions it would discourage Halfway across the world, China threats, and British and French : had made the change hundreds of
any further Portuguese territorial : was extending its power in the troops were driven out. Under - years before. This calendar was
expansion in the region. |AND 1765 : Dzungaria and Tarim basin by successive kings, the unified
——————
| introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory
» fighting the Mongolian tribes kingdom continued to become © XIII, who chose to make the

||
for control to this key part of the stronger, and over the following : change when it became clear that
ENGLAND WAS EXPERIENCING AN : steppes. The basin’s importance decades it went so far as to make : the old Julian calendar put around
ALCOHOL CRISIS, fuelled by the : lay in its proximity to the Silk incursions into Siam (Thailand). : 11 extra days between vernal
popularity of cheap gin, as : Road (see pp.78-79), the vital In Britain, the public went to bed > equinoxes, making the celebration
illustrated by the darkly satirical : trade route between China on 2 September and woke up on : of Easter arrive earlier each year.
ae| engraving Gin Lane by William : and the West. 14 September. The government In British North America,

||
Hogarth (1697-1764), issued in ee : scientific discoveries were making
1751. Gin production had been : their own leap forward. Inventor,
refined over the previous 50 years, : politician, and diplomat Benjamin
and the spirit proved hugely This 18th-century painting on : Franklin (1706-90) invented the

|
popular - by the year Hogarth’s the ceiling of a Bavarian : lightning conductor. Before the
print was completed, the British church exemplifies the work : advent of Franklin's lightning rod,

“MARQUIS OF POMBAL | were drinking more than two

gallons of gin per capita a year.
of the Rococo movement that
dominated European
buildings were often destroyed by
fires started by lightning. Franklin
Ce | Public outcry over the social
effects of gin led to the Gin Act of
decorative arts, architecture,
painting, and sculpture.
thought there was a relationship
: between lightning and electricity
The Marquis of Pombal was 1751, which attempted to limit the Rococo evolved out of : and was said to have flown a kite
|
|
a controversial political amount that could be bought. Baroque [see 1626], but its : ina lightning storm to prove his
figure, appointed prime In France, intellectuals led by details and flourishes were : theory. The rod, developed after
minister of Portugal in 1750, the writer and philosopher Denis even more ornate and often : this experiment, attracts
|
|
the year José | (1714-77} took Diderot (1713-84) began the playful. The period is often lightning, which is conducted into
| publication
|
the throne. His 27 years in of the Encyclopédie, ou associated with French the ground, bypassing the building
power saw economic and dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, design during the reigns : and keeping it safe froma
social reform, and the
expulsion of the Jesuits. | des arts et des métiers. Known as
the Encyclopédie, it became one
of Louis XV (r.1715-54)
and Louis XVI (r.1774-92).
lightning strike.

of the defining works of the

 (2
aT 7 BE
. a aie Ie ~~ ae
Based on the work of the botanist Carl Linnaeus, this This scene shows troops mounted on A painting depicts the desperate search for survivors in Lisbon
botanical drawing of blackberries is by J. Milter. elephants during the Carnatic War. after the city was heavily damaged by.an earthquake in November.

| BY THE TIME SIR HANS SLOANE

: exchange, he wanted a payment
44 1AM NOT SO LOST IN
THE SECOND CARNATIC WAR
(1660-1753), an Irish-born : of £20,000 to his estate - well (1749-54) and the French and
LEXICOGRAPHY AS TO
physician and collector, died, he : below the value of the collection. Indian War (1754-63) were both
had amassed 71,000 different : The English Parliament approved precursors to the larger Seven
objects, ranging from samples of
flora and fauna from all over the
: the deal and passed an act
' establishing the British Museum.
Years War [1756-63]. However,
the theatre of these Anglo-French
FORGET THAT WORDS ARE
world, to books and manuscripts
about a wide range of subjects.
: Parts of the collection were put on
: public display a few years later.
disputes was not Europe. The
THE DAUGHTERS OF EARTH. 99
Like other intellectuals and : Sloane's contemporaries across INDIA oak Samuel Johnson, English writer, from the preface of his Dictionary
scientists across Europe, he was : Europe were engaged in collecting of the English Language, 1755
Chandernagar® Chingura
part of wider Enlightenment and other scientific pursuits. plies Calcutta
Dive @Daman
intellectual currents, and he In the same year, Swedish B = AN EARTHQUAKE KILLED TENS OF : London printers. It took him
assei” Bombay @ Vizagapatam
had realized the scholarly botanist Carl Linnaeus THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE in Lisbon, eight years and six assistants
Goae @Yanam
value of his collection, which (1707-78) published his Masulipatam
Portugal, when it shook the city : to finish it. Although it was not
Pulicat
he bequeathed to Britain. In Species Plantarum, which Cannanore Madras on the morning of 1 November. It : the first English dictionary, it
Mahe _®& Pondicherry
classified more than 7,000 Calicut _® SS was later estimated by historians © quickly became the most
Golden collection ; species of plants by
Cochin -——__Nagapatam
Sa
to have measured 9 on the Richter _ celebrated and authoritative.
Used for determining ™— Trincomale
putting each genus Colombo scale, while estimates of the Some of its more notorious
positions ofstars, this KEY Galle ®® Matara

gold astrolabe, was into a class and number of deaths range from : definitions include “patron:
e Portuguese e French
part of Hans order, a system settlements settlements | 10,000 to 100,000 in a population commonly a wretch who supports
Sloane's that is still e British Dutch of 200,000. The earthquake also : with insolence, and is paid with
collection. used today. settlements settlements triggered a tsunami that destroyed : flattery” and “oats: a grain,
ST
SSS
2
Europe in India
settlements further south in the : which in England is generally
By the mid-18th century, European Algarve region. The disaster had : given to horses, but in Scotland
powers held territories and a profound effect across Europe : supports
the people”.
| established settlements in India. - Voltaire (1694-1778) was
inspired to write his Poeme sur le
French and Indian War désastre de Lisbonne about the
ranged from Virginia in the event, and German philosopher
south to Nova Scotia in the Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) wrote }
north of North America. a series of essays about it. The
_ Battles of the Second Marquis of Pombal (see panel,
Carnatic War took place left] immediately took action,
in South India. The Treaty making sure fires were put out
of Pondicherry temporarily and the dead were quickly buried.
halted tensions between He then began the rebuilding of
France and Britain, whose the city, including the construction
troops were technically of buildings meant to withstand
employed by corporations - another earthquake.
the East India companies. Earlier in the year, in England,
The treaty recognized the | the writer Samuel Johnson
British-backed Mohammad Ali (1709-84) had completed the
: English by definition
| as the new Nawab of Carnatic, commission he had received : This is the front cover of the first
| which had been a key factor for a Dictionary of the English : edition of Samuel Johnson's
| behind the dispute. | Language from a syndicate of : Dictionary of the English Language.
This detail taken from an engraving by Paul'Revere-depicts the British capture of the French fort in Louisbourg, Nova Scotia. The for t was built to protect France's
interestsinthe region’and became a target for the British when war was declared in 1756. The town was attacked by land and sea, falling to the British in 1758.

THE SEVEN YEARS WAR [1756-63] : alliances, these situations : Menatarms

was fought in theatres from India i escalated into what became : The sizes of the armies
to North America to Europe, : known as the Seven Years War. : involved in the Seven
: Years War are shown
making it a truly global conflict. By 1756, some key incidents had
: here. Although some of
Its roots, however, were European. i made the battle lines clear. In : the important battles
The earlier War of Austrian : April, France invaded Minorca in : were at sea, most of the
Succession (see 1740) left many : the Mediterranean, which Britain : fighting was done by
territorial issues unresolved. The : had taken from Spain in 1708. The ' army soldiers.
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) : French sent 15,000 troops to the
did not settle the dispute between : island, where the British had only : Saxony, between Prussia and : out of India and North America; : local rulers in India, leading to an
Prussia and Austria over the : around 2,500. Britain formally : Russia. They outnumbered those : Austria and Prussia both wanted : Infamous incident - the Black
province of Silesia, located in _ declared war on France. The _ in Saxony by more than 3:1, but : Silesia. Russia wanted to curb : Hole of Calcutta. The Nawab of
southeast Prussia and bordering : conflict brought in the Electorate : Austria's leader, Maria Theresa : Frederick II's growing powers and Bengal, Siraj-ud-Dawlah
Austria. At the same time, British : of Hanover, in northwest : (1717-80), was quick to send : assist Austria and France. (1733-57), who France supported,
and French tensions continued to : Germany, which was willing to : more troops. The war had begun. The European conflict had been attacked the British in Calcutta
simmer. Because of complicated ' send the British extra troops. Britain and Prussia formed an preceded by skirmishes in and imprisoned many of them
Prussia’s Frederick Il (1712- : alliance against France, Russia, © colonial territories: the British in asmall cell in Fort William.
: 86), meanwhile, was increasingly : Austria, Sweden, Saxony, and : and French had been fighting in : Estimates of the captives range
suspicious of the alliance between : eventually Spain. But each country - North America, as well as in India. : from 60 to 150. Overnight,
France and Russia. |n May, his : was also pursuing its own : Anglo-French tensions had : between 40 and 123 of them died
troops entered the Electorate of ' interests: Britain wanted France ! spilled over into disputes with : due to overcrowding and heat.

SWEDEN
Zorndorf 1758
Minden 1759
Krefeld 1758

BRITAINes RUSSIAN EMPIRE

Kolin 1757
SSIA
Rossbach 1757 UROPE
Quiberon Bay 1759 X FRANCE Bohemia —
: HOLY ROMAN
EMPIRE
PORTUGAL
spain > Minorca 1756
FRANCE
Known as Frederick the ATLANTIC
Great”, the Prussian King OCEAN
Frederick II ruled for 46
eS Havana
years. With his interest in os 1762 %
culture and philosophy, : Cuba
ean AFRICA
Frederick's reign was Guadeloupe 1759
Wandiwash
Martinique 1762
marked by a liberal spirit. 1760

But it was his military PACIFIC Pondicherry %

: 1761
OCEAN
prowess that earned
7 INDIAN
Frederick Il his reputation, OCEAN
as he transformed the small |; The Seven Years War KEY
kingdom of Prussia into a : The battlefields of this conflict spanned the globe, stretching from X Britain » Austria
European power. _ Canada to India to Europe, making it the first global war. The coloured > Prussia * France
"+ crosses show the victors in the key battles. % Anglo-German alliance
 fe
WAS MN é india
Barbary pirates in an engagement FrederickIlleads his soldiers to years. Luis Paret yAlcazar
with the Venetian navy. victory at the Battle of Zorndorf. epicts palace life in his painting Charles /I/ Eating Before his Court:

44 ALLIS FORTHE BEST

THE BRITISH-PRUSSIAN ALLIANCE AS THE SEVEN YEARS WAR
(see 1756) received a number of CONTINUED, the British won key
boosts during 1757. Robert Clive victories over France by taking
i
(1725-74) recovered Calcutta for
the East India Company (see 1600)
Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg in
North America and Pondicherry
INTHE BEST OF ALL |
and Britain by defeating the
Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of
| Plassey. The Holy Roman
in India [see map, opposite], and
by claiming Senegal in West
Africa. In Europe, Britain and
POSSIBLE WORLDS. 99
| Emperor Francis | - who was Prussia defeated the French near Voltaire, French writer, from Candide, 1759
| married to Austria’s Maria the banks of the Rhine at Krefeld
| Theresa - officially declared war in June and Russia at the battle FOR THE BRITISH THE SEVEN : Germany, followed in November
on Prussia. King Frederick II of Zorndorf, on Prussian soil, YEARS WAR reached a turning : by further defeat by the Austrians
then attacked Bohemia, though he in August. point. They took the French West : in the Battle of Maxen in Saxony. The image of a kneeling
| was defeated by Austrian troops. Meanwhile, in India, warfare was Indian island of Guadeloupe in In Spain, the throne was taken slave and the inscription “Am
Although Prussia defeated breaking out on a different front May, Canadian territory in July, _ by the Bourbon Charles Ill | not a man and a brother?”
Austro-French forces in Rossbach — between Afghans and Marathas. and Quebec in September. They : {1716-88}, who would become became a famous symbol of
in November, they lost to Austrian Territorial disputes were behind also defeated French naval forces : known for his reforming zeal. the British abolitionist
troops in Leuthan in December. the Afghan-Maratha War (which off Portugal at Lagos Bay in Portugal, meanwhile, had grown movement and was later
In Morocco, Muhammad III continued until 1861). After the August and at Quiberon Bay, in suspicious of the activities o the adopted by the American
(c.1710-90) brought stability to the death of Nader Shah (1688-1747), the west of France, in November. ' Catholic Jesuit order (see 1533), Anti-Slavery Society, founded
country as sultan after 30 years of his Persian empire began to Anglo-Prussian troops defeated : expelling them from its territories. in 1833. The seal was made
unrest. Muhammad was known disintegrate and Afghanistan the French at the Battle of Minden : Cultural developments included by Josiah Wedgwood for the
for curbing the power of the emerged independent under the in Germany in early August, : the publication by the Frenchman Society for Effecting the
Barbary pirates, who raided rule of Ahmad Shah Durrani although less than two weeks : Francois Marie Arouet Abolition of the Slave Trade.
towns across the Mediterranean. (c.1722-73) who wanted to gain later Prussia faced a humiliating de Voltaire of Candide, a satire After decades of pressure,
control of the nearby territories surrender at Kunersdorf, in : about mindless optimism. the British slave trade ended
of the Punjab and the Upper in 1807. Abolitionist groups
Ganges. Durrani had sacked the were also established in
Mughal city of Delhi the previous other countries involved in
year. The neighbouring Marathas, oe
slavery, such as the French
who felt they should rule over the Société des Amis des Noirs.
territory, then went to war against
the Afghans.
In the Arabian Peninsula, Wedgwood pottery
significant — though not violent LZ, Born into a family of English potters,
Josiah Wedgwood transformed his
- political change was taking craft with his style and technique.
place as the chieftains of the Utub He set up his own business in 1759
confederation elected Sabah bin and became potter to Queen
Jaber (Sabah I) (c.1652-1762} Charlotte. His “creamware” dishes
emir of an emerging territory that gained huge popularity.
would soon become known
Robert Clive
as Kuwait. His family, ooo
Calcutta was recaptured for the
British by Major General Robert Clive the al-Sabah dynasty,
at the Battle of Plassey. The victory
ee continues to rule Kuwait
secured Clive’s control over Bengal. to the present day.
 34 &
|S HO
iyray aN

fy,

A caricature of George Illa Hyder Ali, the ruler of the Indian kingdom of Mysore, who
was born in Britain, which he ruled for nearly 60 years. became an enemy of British East India Company troops.

WHEN GEORGE III (1738-1820) AS THE SEVEN YEARS WAR Halfway across the world,
TOOK THE THRONE OF ENGLAND INTENSIFIED within Europe, it also ; British and French troops were
in 1760, he was the first king from reached a climax in the colonial : fighting in the Caribbean.
the German royal dynasty, the possessions. The British effectively - The British used the island of
Hanoverians, to be born in Britain. destroyed French power in India : Guadeloupe, which they had
Unlike his German-speaking when they seized Pondicherry : captured two years earlier {see
grandfather, George Il (1683-1760), 1755 1760 (see map, below). The port had map, 1756), as a base from
English was his first language. The been settled by the French East : which to take Dominica from
crown skipped a generation owing India Company in 1674 and had ; the French. The following year
become one of France's main : they stormed Martinique.
7 31
to the death of George's father,
Frederick Lewis (1707-51). Before
his death, he left instructions for
115 27 bases of operations for trade as
well as ongoing fights against
To complicate matters further,
Spain had entered the conflict,
the 12-year-old George to separate the British East India Company. : and Britain's naval fleet was
the Electorate of Hanover from KEY This victory followed another : making preparations to attack
: Fleet size in the Seven Years War
England and reduce the national : Many important battles were at sea, British Royal Navy French Navy one against the French the : Spanish ships. However, the
debt, when he took the throne. : and British naval strength became @ battleships ® battleships previous year in Wandiwash, : attack plans would go beyond
After the death of his father, : even more superior to that of France. cruisers cruisers in southeast India. » naval skirmishes, as British
George fell under the influence of At the same time in India, the - troops managed to not only
John Stuart, Third Earl of Bute : (see 1756). Most significant in this The British island of Jamaica fighting between Afghans and invade and occupy the Cuban
(1713-92], who was his tutor and : period is George Ill’s desire to : had become a large sugar Marathas (see 1758] came toa : port of Havana the following
adviser. During the early years of : have the war come to an end, as : producer and seen a rapid rise head in the battle of Panipat, in : year, they also used ships
George IIIs reign, Bute held much : wellas have Britain distance itself in the importation of slaves, many the north of the territory, on 14 : stationed in India to mount
sway. This was especially evident : from Prussia. These wishes were : of whom ran away or rebelled. January. The battle was bloody, : asimilar attack on Manila,
in the souring of relations with : made manifest when Bute : Arebellion took place on Easter with high casualty rates - some : the capital of the Spanish
William Pitt, the Elder (1708-78) : became prime minster in 1762. - Sunday in 1760, when a revolt led 75,000 Marathas were killed and colony of the Philippines.
and the Newcastle-Pitt coalition, : While George Il was embroiled » by aslave named Tacky began in 30,000 captured. However, Ahmad
which governed Britain during the : in British and European politics, > St Mary's parish. It spread from Shah Durrani, who led the
height of the Seven Years War : his dominions in the Caribbean : there, and some 30,000 slaves Afghans, was forced by his troops
: had undergone a transformation. : participated before it was to return to the throne in Panipat @

50- : No longer were they imperial : suppressed the following year. Afghanistan. This outcome meant
: outposts, but wealthy sugar Meanwhile, in Qing China, the that the Marathas and British
40- ‘ colonies. However, these riches : ongoing revolts in the northwest began to divide the former Mughal INDIA
: depended on the use of thousands : frontier by Mongol tribes, which territory among themselves. The i
30-i if
: of African slaves to work on the : started around 1755, had finally war contributed to the weakening
: plantations. The population of ' been supressed. The conflict had of the Maratha Confederacy and
: British America had reached two : begun after the Mongols refused the further decentralization of its Wandiwash
! million by 1760, and of this more : to pay the annual tribute the power, leading to the break-up of Mysore@
s
®@
@ Pondicherry
: than 300,000 were slaves. Similarly, Chinese government had its kingdoms and subsequent
STERLING
POUNDS
IN
PRICE : the slave population in France's : demanded - indeed, the Mongols battles over territory with Britain.
1748 1758 1775 : Caribbean colonies would reach : went so far as to kill the Chinese Further south, in Mysore,
: 379,000 by the end of the decade. : revenue collectors. However, another future enemy of Britain,
Price of a male slave : Conflictsin India
As British Caribbean colonies began
: In the Spanish sugar islands, : China was eventually able to Hyder Ali (1720-82), was building
: India was the site of important
to increase sugar production, they : however, Cuba had fewer than ; overpower the Mongols and up his army and consolidating his : battles in 1761, not only for Britain
had to bring in more African slaves : 40,000 slaves, but its sugar boom © bring thier territory under their power base in order to take : and France, but also in the fight
as labour, as did the French. : would come later. ! dominion by 1760. control of the territory. : between Marathas and Afghans.
 §_ ae ng wil Ay a eee

A print of a firewo rks display in London celebrating the Peace of Paris, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, aged 8,
which ended the Seven Years War. around the time he visited Britain.

RUSSIA SAW THE ARRIVAL OF OUT OF MONEY AND EXHAUSTED, exchange British troops left IN AN ATTEMPT TO FILL THE
TWO RULERS over the course of THE EUROPEAN POWERS fighting Havana and Manilla. In Europe, COFFERS DEPLETED BY WAR,
1762, first with the ascension of the Seven Years War brought the France agreed to evacuate the British government brought
Peter III (1728-62) and later conflict to a close with the Treaty German territories. in the Sugar Act, which clamped
Catherine Il (1729-96), who of Paris {also known as the Under the Treaty of down on tax avoidance on
became known as Catherine the Peace of Paris) and the Treaty of Hubertusburg, the borders of imported molasses in North
Great. When Peter Ill became Hubertusburg. The cost had been 1756 were reinstated, so Austria America, a move that angered
emperor, he made clear his enormous - the lives of hundreds retreated from Silesia and Prussia traders and colonists.
support of Prussia in the Seven of thousands of soldiers, and left Saxony, and Europe reverted to At this time, the musical prodigy
Years War and then pulled Russia mountains of money. Britain saw : Its former boundaries. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
out of the conflict. His views were its national debt rise from €75m In the Ohio River valley territory, (1756-91] was on a three-year
deeply unpopular with ministers to £133m; Prussia raised taxes » Pontiac (1720-69), a chief of the tour of Europe wth his family. He
and the public. A conspiracy and debased the taler three times. ; Ottawa people, was angered by | visited Munich, Brussels, Paris,
against him was quickly For Austria it cost 392m gulden : the deal, which would put the land and London where his father
organized, leading to his arrest. (the original estimate had been under British rule. In what became Leopold presented him to play at
His wife, Catherine, was installed 28m] and French national debt : known as Pontiac’s Rebellion, he the royal courts. While in London
Catherine the Great
as empress of Russia. Peter Ill The German-born empress of rose from 1,360m livres in 1753 to led attacks against settlements, a he met the German composer
was imprisoned, where he died in : Russia, who reigned from 1762 until 2,350m livres in 1764. : situation that lasted until a deal Johann Christian Bach
dubious circumstances. Catherine 1796, oversaw the territorial The Treaty of Paris involved : between the Ottawa and British (1735-82], who became an
the Great's reign was marked by » expansion of her adopted country. Britain, France, and Spain. The was reached in 1766. important musical mentor.
Russian aggression and French faced the largest losses:
territorial expansion. She : North Ameria, which stretched they ceded to Britain their
introduced wide-ranging reforms west of the Mississippi River. The territories in present-day Canada,
in agriculture, industry, and : treaty was partly to thank Spanish with the exception of the islands
education. She also relaxed : Bourbons for their support of of St Pierre and Miquelon; their
Russia's censorship laws and was : French forces, and also to get rid territories in present-day USA
known for her love of literature : of a potential drain on resources. east of the Mississippi River; the
and particular fondness for : Spain also benefited from the deal Caribbean islands of Grenada,
French philosophers and writers because it would block British Dominica, St Vincent and the
- including Voltaire, with whom : expansion towards Spanish Grenadines, and Tobago; Minorca
she corresponded for 15 years. : territory, especially nearby Mexico. in the Mediterranean; and
As the Seven Years War In France, the philosopher and Senegal in West Africa. They also
continued, Spain became further writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau formalized their cessation of the
drawn into events as the British : (1712-78) published his influential Louisiana territory to Spain. In
occupied its key Caribbean port of : treatise, The Social Contract (Du exchange, Britain returned to
Havana. In addition to this, Britain : Contrat Social) in which he France the valuable Caribbean
was able to use troops in India to examined the relationship sugar islands of Martinique and
occupy Manila, in the Philippines, between governments and the Guadeloupe; Belle Island, off the
which was also a Spanish colony. : governed, and the question of coast of Brittany; and the The Enlightenment was a time of questioning many established
At the same time, Spain and : freedom in the face of political slave-trading island of Gorée in beliefs in Europe - a change in ideas reflected in the writings and
France entered a secret : authority. It was immediately West Africa. France also regained other cultural output from around the mid-18th century. It is also
agreement known as the Treaty : banned by French authorities. its Indian factories, but they were marked by scientific curiosity and advancement. This painting by
of Fontainebleau. Under the not allowed to fortify them. The Luke Howard {1772-1864} shows a fascination with weather that
terms of the treaty, Spain received Spanish were forced to give their led him to classify and name many cloud types.
France’s Louisiana territory in Florida territory to Britain, but in
A cartoon about the Stamp Act shows the Treasury Secretary, George Grenville, with Jacobites toast Charles Stuart - “Bonnie Prince Charlie” - in Edinburgh.
a child’s coffin bearing the words Miss Ame-Stamp, born in 1765, died 1766”. Many of his supporters were Scottish.

THIS YEAR WOULD BE ONE OF : playing cards would carry the : onthe ground. He realised that JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART
GROWING DISCONTENT with : duty. The colonists feared the tax :; by creating a machine that was DIED IN 1766 at the Palazzo Muti in
colonial rule within British and : represented a form of press : horizontal, more spindles could Rome, having failed in his mission
Spanish colonies in the Americas. : censorship. They also resented : be added. The spinning jenny to be restored to the British
In May, the residents of the » the tax's introduction, not so : enabled cloth production to thrones as James Ill. His birth
Andean city of Quito [in today’s much because of the cost, but increase by eightfold, and other in 1688 had initiated the Glorious
Ecuador] protested against the ' because the Crown was beginning : inventors continued to modify Revolution, forcing his father
imposition of a new system of : to look at internal American : Hargreave’s design to make the James || [1633-1701] to take his
tax administration aimed at : commerce and not just external : machine even more efficient. family to France to
increasing revenues for Spain's trade for additional revenue, In Germany, Joseph Il (1741-90) live in exile. At the
depleted Treasury. The rioters : something not done before. In : became Holy Roman Emperor heart of the matter
drove out the royal officials, ‘ addition, Britain was imposing and also co-ruler of the Habsburg | was the Stuart
installing in their place a : taxes without the consent of the : family lands with his mother faith: Catholicism.
government that controlled the : colonists, who responded with Maria Theresa until her death After the royal family had
city until troops arrived a year protests, and the act was : in 1780. Joseph later began a fled, the English Parliament Bonnie Prince
Charlie's star and garter
later to reestablish royal control. : repealed the following year. : programme of reform that passed the Act of Settlement
The star and garter worn by Charles
Further to the north, Britain's Meanwhile, in Lancashire, : included the emancipation of of 1689, barring any Roman Stuart indicated he was the son ofa
American colonists were growing : England, a weaver and carpenter : serfs and improvement of the Catholics from succession to the : legitimate sovereign. It was awarded
angry at similar revenue-raising = named James Hargreaves ; education system, a reflection throne. The Stuarts, however, had : While the family was in exile.
exercises. Following the : (1720-78) had completed work : of the Enlightenment works he many supporters in England,
unpopular Sugar Act [see 1764) ? onan invention nown as the : read. He was considered to be Scotland, and Ireland. They were : the Stuart throne, the battle that
was the Stamp Act. This piece of : spinning jenny. The device was : an “enlightened despot”. known as Jacobites after had consumed both their lives
legislation stipulated that all : an improvement on the spinning “Jacobus”, the Latin for James. : had been lost, though admiration
American colonists would have to : wheel because it could power Several attempts were made : for the cause continued.
: Dawn of the machine age
pay a tax on every piece of : multiple spindles. Hargreaves : Awoman working at a spinning to return James Ill, or the “Old In Denmark, Christian VII
printed paper they used. This supposedly came up with the idea : Jenny in an early 19th-century mill. Pretender” as he became known, - (1749-1808) became king shortly
meant that products from legal : for the device after observing a : James Hargreaves’ invention to the throne, the most notable : before his seventeenth birthday.
documents to newspapers and : spinning wheel lying overturned : revolutionized cloth production. being the risings of 1715 and Later that year, he married
1745. All proved unsuccessful. : Caroline Matilda, one of the
44 IF OUR Over the course of the Old
Pretender’'s exile his son, Charles
: sisters of Britain's George Ill. His
: reign was marked by his mental
TRADEBE Edward Stuart (1720-88) - instability and debauchery.
TAXED, WHY known as ‘Bonnie Prince Charlie” : During his early days of rule, the
or the “Young Pretender” - also : German doctor Johann Freidrich
NOT OUR took up his father’s fight, but : Struensee (1737-72) infiltrated
LANDS, OR to little avail. Charles never : the court and exercised much
PRODUCE, recovered from his defeat at the
Battle of Culloden (the last clash
: influence over the weak king,
: eventually enacting policy and
IN SHORT, of the 1745 rising - see 1744-47) : having an affair with the queen.
EVERYTHING WE though he made later efforts
to secure support from France
: Struensee was finally arrested
' and executed. The later years of
POSSESS?... 99 and the Holy Roman Empire for : Christian's reign were in name
further uprisings. By the time the : only, and from 1784 his son,
Samuel Adams, American Old Pretender died and Charles : Frederick VI (1768-1839), acted
politician, on the Sugar Act, 1764 became the official claimant to 2 @ regent.
 BS : =
A depiction of the Jesuits being Captain James Cook and his crew at the watering place ' Detail of the bell tower at the Mission
expelled from the kingdom of Spain. in the Bay of Good Success, Tierra del Fuego. of San Diego de Alcala in California.

CAPTAIN JAMES COOK (1728-79) The Endeavour THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH

made his name in the Royal Navy A model of the ship that AMERICA showed no sign of
with his excellent navigational took Captain James abating, though its inhabitants
skills and cartography of Cook to the southern
still knew very little about the vast
hemisphere.
Canadian waters during the western territory. In 1769, an
Seven Years War (1756-63). These American named Daniel Boone
accomplishments paved the way (1734-1820) set off for a hunting
for his next assignment - an expedition in present-day
expedition to the South Pacific. Kentucky, an area virtually
The mission was organized by unknown to white settlers. Along
the Royal Society, with the the way he worked out a better
Admiralty providing the route along the Cumberland Gap,
ship. The Endeavour set a plateau in the Appalachian
off from Plymouth on mountains. This became part
25 August and arrived of the Wilderness Road, a
Jesuit settlements
in Tahiti - via Madeira, Rio de trail blazed by Boone and
in the New World
The Society of Jesus was Janeiro, and Cape Horn - on the Transylvania Company,
instrumental in the settlement of 13 April 1769. Cook then headed and later used by settlers to
territory in the Americas and by further south encountering the cross the mountains and reach
1767 had extensive missions. island later known as New the Kentucky territory. Boone
Zealand. He eventually sailed and his family moved to Kentucky
LIKE THE PORTUGUESE NEARLY from there to the unknown in 1775 and established one of the
A DECADE EARLIER, the Spanish eastern coast of Australia where first towns, Boonesborough. He
Crown grew concerned about the he landed in what became known spent the rest of his life working
Jesuits and the order's activities as Botany Bay. The Endeavour as a hunter and explorer.
in the American colonies. One of returned to England in 1771 and As Cook was Sailing the Pacific, : clowns to provide entertainment The Spanish, too, were looking
the underlying causes for concern Captain Cook’s expedition was other changes were afoot in during the interludes, and the to expand their territory in North
had been Jesuit resistance to hailed a success. Britain. Reflecting the growing : modern circus was born. America. They had claimed a
paying tithes to the Crown, and : desire for knowledge [the In Russia, events had taken a region in present-day southern
this reluctance was symptomatic : Enlightenment), the first volume : serious turn. Tensions with the California that Charles III was
| of longer-running struggles : of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, : Ottoman Empire had pushed the eager to populate with Spanish
between the order and the king. : was published in Edinburgh. It two into the Russo-Turkish War settlers after rumours that Russia
At issue was the Jesuits’ growing : was “compiled upon a new plan in of 1768-74. The root cause was was planning to move into the
influence and wealth in Spanish : which the different Sciences and : Catherine the Great's refusal to area. To this end he sent
America through their schools, : Arts are digested into distinct : comply with the treaty ending the Franciscan friars to establish
extensive landholding, and : Treatises or Systems”. It soon : previous war with the Ottomans missions in the region. Spanish
agricultural success. Claiming : sold out and by 1771 a three- : (1736-39), as well as her Franciscan Junipero Serra
| he was “moved by weighty
| reasons’, Charles Ill decided to THE NUMBER : volume set was completed.
Meanwhile, in London, former
: interventions in Poland. The
: Ottomans declared war after
(1713-84) began work on a series
of missions throughout Spain's
expel the Jesuits from his realm. OF CREW AND -soldier Philip Astley (1742-1814) : Russia sacked a Turkish town. California territory. The first one,

CIVILIANS WHO
This enabled the Crown to opened a riding school in 1768 Further east, Prithvi Narayan established in 1769, was San
confiscate valuable Jesuit land called Halfpenny Hatch based in Shah (1723-75) brought together Diego de Alcala, and over the
and property. Thousands of the
SET OFF WITH : Lambeth, where he performed : kingdoms in the Kathmandu course of the next 54 years a

CAPTAIN COOK
order’s members fled to the : tricks on horseback in a ring. He Valley to create the kingdom chain of 20 further missions was
| Papal States and Corsica. added musicians, acrobats, and : of Nepal. built along the California coast.
 Y
g

Rey 1 ret l es
An engraving depicting the violence of the The Cromford Mill set up by Richard | A engraving showing the assassination of Gustavus III of Sweden (bottom),
Boston Massacre. Arkwright in Derbyshire. | whose constitution and reforms angered the nobility and led to his death.

AFTER THE FAILURE OF THE | THE BIRTH OF THE INDUSTRIAL KEY

RUSSIAN
STAMP ACT (see 1765] the REVOLUTION came a step closer EMPIRE Poland

British government was still when Englishman Richard 8 To Austria

left with the question of how to | Arkwright (1732-92) worked with {To Prussia
raise money in the colonies. ' clockmaker John Kay to develop @® To Russia
The answer came ina a spinning frame. By 1771 they
series of acts formulated had decided to use a waterwheel
by the Chancellor of the to power it - hence the name
Exchequer, Charles “water frame’ and built a PRUSSIA
Townshend (1725-67). factory - Cromford Mill -
in northern England, Partition of
The legislation
Poland
included duties on making this the first
Russia, Austria,
paint, paper, glass, water-powered textile and Prussia
e Vienna
lead, and tea imported mill. The venture was a recieved parts of
to the American success and thetextile } HABSBURG EMPIRE OTTOMAN. Poland in the first
EMPIRE partition.
colonies, as wellas a factories became profitable, |
reorganization of leading Arkwright to open |
customs to cut down on a series of factories in | POLAND FACED the first of three by the Polish legislature (Sejm)
smuggling. In addition, Engand and Scotland. | partitions of its territory. This : - depriving Poland of a third of its
another act suspended the Arkwright’s inventions are resulted from Russia’s defeats of : land, of which all three powers
New York legislature considered an important part of | the Ottoman Turks in the Russo- : took a share.
because it refused to comply | the Industrial Revolution, which | Turkish War (see 1768], which had In Sweden, Gustavus III
with the Quartering Act, which transformed Britain from an | alarmed Austria and Prussia. (1746-92} took the throne, though
demanded that colonial Marie Antoinette miniature
agricultural economy toa | Frederick Il aimed to shift Russian i the monarchy had been weakened
assemblies provide basic : Acameo of Marie Antoinette, who | manufacturing one. The mills expansion from Turkish territory : by a government faction wishing
necessities for British soldiers would become one of the most saw the development of the | to the Polish-Lithuanian Union, : to limit the Crown's power. In
in the territories. On 5 March, a infamous queens of France. mass-production factory system | which was weakened by civil war. response, Gustavus staged a coup
group of dock workers began to which would be adopted all | On 5 August, Russia, Prussia, and ' and issued a new constitution. He
harass some British soldiers on | over the world. | Austria signed a treaty - ratified introduced judicial reforms and
patrol near a customs house in ] ' strengthened Sweden's navy.
Boston, and a crowd formed. More
}
_ INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION However, he was unpopular with
soldiers arrived and opened fire : the nobility, of whom he was
on the colonists — the majority of The Industrial Revolution was an economic transformation that : Critical, and was denounced for
whom were unarmed - killing five took place in Europe during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, his expenditure of public funds.
and wounding a further six. This changing rural, agrarian economies to ones based on manufactured He was assassinated in 1792.
episode became known as the goods, which were often made in cities. This transformation In England, a legal case was
Boston Massacre and fuelled began in England, and was facilitated by the arrival of inventions mounted over a slave, James
resentment between Britain such as the spinning jenny [see 1765) and the use of steam power | Somersett, who had been brought
THE AGE AT and its American colonies. (see 1775], which led to the growth of industries such as textiles : from Jamaica to England in 1771
WHICH MARIE In-Europe, the Dauphin of
France; the future Louis XVI
in cities like Manchester. New technologies soon spread and was due to be sent back. The
throughout Europe, and other countries such as France, Germany, Lord Chief Justice, Lord Mansfield,
ANTOINETTE (1754-93), married the daughter and Belgium were seeing similar economic shifts as agricultural : ruled Somersett must be freed.
MARRIED of Maria Theresa of Austria, Marie
_ Antoinette. They were aged 15
workers left the countryside for jobs in growing urban centres, or
to work in the coal mines that powered the urban factories.
: This set a precedent that people
: could not be taken out of England
LOUIS XVI and 14 respectively at the time. : against their will.
 Ss Voy
wa
ge) 2%
This painting by Vasily Perov shows Cossack leader, Emelyan Pugachev, The funeral procession of Louis XV (1710-74), whose nickname had been “the
holding court and passing judgement on his enemies. well-beloved”. Louis XV ruled France for almost 60 years.

BRITAIN’S AMERICAN COLONISTS : their contraband goods. They put : the Great's army, his troops were | IN THE AMERICAN COLONIES,
were becoming increasingly : pressure on East India ships to eventually overpowered. He was || representatives from each of the
agitated by the number of * not dock in American ports. The executed on 10 January 1775. } 13 colonies except Georgia met in
ae
restrictions being placed on them : Dartmouth, however, proceeded The Ottoman Empire was facing | Philadelphia to discuss what to do
— even if some had unexpected : to anchor in Boston. On 16 upheaval in Egypt. Ali Bey about a slew of legislation that
benefits, such as a reduction in : December, angry traders took 342 : al-Kabir (1728-73) had been became known as the
the price of tea. Indeed, because : chests of tea worth £10,000 from : Egypt's de facto ruler, butin 1769 | Intolerable Acts. These acts
of the Tea Act of 1773, which : the Dartmouth and tipped it into he deposed the Ottoman governor | were issued in retaliation for the
allowed direct exportation from ; the city’s harbour. This was : of Egypt and tried to make the | dumping of tea in Boston harbour
India to North America, as well as : heralded as a key moment of : country independent. He also sent } (see 1773) and growing American
having it taxed at source rather : resistance to British governance. : troops into the territories of | rebellion. They stipulated that
than upon arrival, American Russia also was experiencing : Palestine and Syria, but by 1773 Boston harbour must be closed to
colonists would pay less than unrest, led by a Cossack called : he was defeated by Ottoman | all but British ships; that the
anyone in Britain for their tea. : Emelyan Pugachev (1742-75). forces and died from his wounds | colonists must house British
However, there were many : Pugachev served in the Seven while in prison in Cairo. | troops if necessary; that British ee
colonial merchants who dealt in : Years War, though he deserted in On his ship in the South Atlantic, ] officials would not be tried for
: Louis XVI
smuggled tea and so faced ruin if
oe
1762. He travelled around Russia, : Captain James Cook crossed the | crimes in the colonies but in : The king of France, Louis XVI,
legal tea became cheaper than : claiming to be the deposed : Antarctic Circle. He had set ] Britain instead, allowing them : wearing his coronation robes. He
: emperor Peter Ill, and promising : out on another mission the year | to act with impunity; and self- : came to power aged just 17.
Boston Tea Party
: to abolish serfdom. Through his : before, in a ship called the | government in Boston was to be
Merchants dump chests of tea worth : travels he managed to rally about Resolution, determined to explore |) stopped. Also included was the In France, Louis XVI became the
£10,000 from an East India Company : 25,000 willing troops. Despite the vast and unknown areas of the | Quebec Act, which enlarged the : king at the age of 17 after the
ship into Boston harbour. : early victories against Catherine : southern hemisphere. | boundaries of the Canadian : death of his grandfather, Louis XV.
province, permitted a degree of Meanwhile, fighting between
a
self-rule through a governor and : Russia and the Ottoman Empire
appointed councillors, guaranteed : came to an end. They signed the
| religious freedom for the many _ Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji in July,
| Catholic settlers, and allowed the - which granted Russia the right of
| continuation of French civil law in : free navigation in the Black Sea
/ conjunction with British criminal and recognized the Crimean
) law. This act added insult to injury : Peninsula as independent,
for many American settlers. They » meaning Crimea was free from
ooo | objected to the expansion » Ottoman rule. The region soon
, | of Quebec into territory they : aligned itself with Russia.
ee believed was theirs, and many The Ottomans faced further
| were suspicious of the type of : disruption with the death in
government that had been : October of Sultan Mustafa III
| installed there. The Continental : (1717-74), succeeded by his
————— Congress - a group of delegates : brother, Abdul Hamid I (r.1774-
drawn from each of the thirteen : 89). When Mustafa became ruler,
| colonies - decided to take action, the empire was already in decline,
| and agreed to boycott British : as earlier economic growth had
} goods and trade, sending a strong : faltered. The situation was
! | message to the English king, : exacerbated by the costly and
- || George Ill. disastrous war with Russia.

fen
=
 44 LET JUSTICE BE DONE
THOUGH THE HEAVENS
SHOULD FALL .99
John Adams, American statesman, 5th December 1777

OSS Bios

The opening shots of war between the British troops [in red) a nd the American coloni al militia (in the
foreground) on Lexington Common in Massachusetts, by English artist William Barnes Wollen (1857-1936).

THE ANGRY RECEPTION GIVEN TO ! outside of Boston. Aware that the were on the march. Minutemen > (1728-1809), who owned an

fs
LEGISLATION and discontent over : British might execute such a plan, : (militia who were ready to fight “at engineering works. Watt had
the issue of “taxation without the colonists had set up a system = a minute's notice”) grabbed their ' improved the Newcomen steam
representation” in the 13 : of alerts should any event come to guns and waited for the arrival of engine, which had been around
American colonies had begun pass. Once news was received of the redcoats. : since the turn of the century. He
to worry British officials and they the planned raid on Concord, On the morning of 19 April the : developed a separate condensing
feared an armed rebellion. On 18 : Boston engraver Paul Revere : “shot heard around the world” was chamber for the engine which
April, General Thomas Gage (1735-1818} set off from the city fired and battle ensued between : meant it lost less stearn and was
Continental soldier’s hat
(1721-87], who was also : that night to warn fellow colonists and British troops in This style of tricorne was worn by more efficient. In partnership with
Governor of Massachusetts, » organizers that British troops Lexington and nearby Concord. American colonists fighting for Boulton, Watt began to
sent British soldiers The American War of : the Continental army. » manufacture these engines in
(known as “redcoats”) to Independence - or the American 1775. At this point steam engines
seize the guns and Revolution - had begun. thought their interests, such as were used mostly to pump water
ammunition being stored Fighting continued through the territorial boundaries, stood a from mines, but Watt saw more
by the colonists in the summer. Colonial forces, under : better chance of being protected potential uses for steam and
town of Concord, just the command of General George by Britain. For slaves, the incentive continued working on engines for
» Washington (1732-99) captured to side with the British Crown was : the rest of his life. His inventions
four-way
: key points near Lake Champlain, the possibility of emancipation allowed later engineers to
valve
but the British defeated them at - they had been told they would : revolutionize transport and
controls
spent steam admission the Battle of Bunker Hill on 17 be freed if they fought for the : he effectively laid the foundations
escapes via and release : June, despite losing half their : king. Some residents, such as : of modern industry.
smokestack of steam troops in the process. the Quakers, opposed warfare.
Within the colonies the war was : Many others simply wanted to
divisive. Not all colonists were avoid participation in either side
willing to fight against Britain and of the conflict.
: soon people were divided into Halfway across the world, British : }
patriots and loyalists. Some 20 East India Company troops were
per cent of the population of the : embroiled in the domestic troubles
13 colonies were estimated to of the Marathas (see 1758). The
have supported the Crown. Within First Anglo-Maratha War
this number were American (1775-82) was the result of the
Indians and slaves. In the case of East India Company's intervention
the former, some tribes felt into the Maratha Confederacy, a
: compelled to side with the British union of five clans that came to THOMAS PAINE
because they were valued power after the collapse of the
trading partners. Many also : kingdom of Maharashtra. This Thomas Paine (1737-1809)
: war left many issues unresolved was born in Norfolk, England.
and tensions would rise again He emigrated to America and
between the British and Marathas, - advocated independence. He
leading to two further wars returned to England and
: (see 1803). wrote Rights of Man, defending
Steam power
James Watt's work on
In Britain, Scottish inventor and the French Revolution, which
steam engines allowed engineer James Watt (1736-1819) cemented his reputation as
for the development of ' had struck up a business : a radical propagandist.
steam-powered trains. partnership with Matthew Boulton :
 eg
ili ke @ ao Y

Ecstatic colonists tear downa statue of King GeorgeIII in’New York in | Acolonial map of the city Colonia A view of the opu ent interior of La
celebration of the signingofthe Declai ndependence. | del Sacramento in Uruguay. Scala opera house in Milan. French naturalist Pierre Sonnerat.
eS

| 44 WE HOLD THESE TRUTHS TO BE | IN BAVARIA, there was unrest over

| the succession
to the throne.
j | THE RELOCATION OF THE BOERS

SELF-EVIDENT THAT ALL MEN ARE Elector Maximilian III Joseph }

(Dutch-speaking settlers} to
remote regions hundred of
/CREATED EQUAL: THAT THEY ARE (1727-77), last of the Wittelsbach_ | kilometres north of Cape Town was

ENDOWED BY THEIR CREATOR line, died, and Charles Theodore

(1724-99), Elector Palatine was
causing problems for the Xhosa
people. These tribes had settled in
WITH CERTAIN INALIENABLE crowned. Charles had no the territory long before the Boers’
RIGHTS; THAT AMONG THESE ARE legitimate heir but several
bastards for whom he sought
arrival. Both groups were cattle
farmers and competed for rich
LIFE, LIBERTY AND THE PURSUIT land. He signed a treaty with aa
SEES
pasture land for their herds.
| OF HAPPINESS. 99 Joseph Il of Austria to cede Lower
Bavaria to Austria in exchange
Attempts were made to establish
a border between the Fish and
Clubs used against Cook
for part of the Austrian Sundays River, though both
_ US Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776 Traditional Hawaiian clubs ————
Netherlands. This angered like these may have been groups violated any agreement.
} Frederick Il of Prussia and used in the attack that Tension turned to violence, with
| AS THE WAR FOR AMERICAN : for American independence and in 1778, the War of the caused James Cook's death. the Xhosa raiding Boer cattle and
_ INDEPENDENCE WAS GAINING : the establishment of a republican Bavarian Succession broke murdering some herdsmen,
| MOMENTUM, on 4 July the First » government. The pamphlet, out, ending in 1779. WITH TWO SUCCESSFUL VOYAGES possibly in retaliation for the death
| Continental Congress issued a : initially published anonymously, Spain and Portugal finally settled TO HIS NAME, Captain James Cook
Declaration of Independence, : was hugely influential both onyoing disputes in the Rio de la (see 1773] set out for a third in
| formally announcing the : nationally and internationally and Plata region with the First Treaty 1776, this time to search for the
| separation of the North American : had a significant role in furthering of San Ildefonso. Spain ceded Northwest Passage, a fabled
| colonies from British rule and : the cause. In Britain, Scottish territory in the Amazon basin in Arctic shortcut that was supposed
| calling this collective the United : philosopher Adam Smith return for control over the Banda to connect the Atlantic and Pacific
States. The document outlined ! (1723-90) published An Enquiry Oriental (in present-day Uruguay). Oceans. By 1778 he had made the
} reasons for the decision to : into the the Nature and Causes of first European contact with the
| separate from Britain while : the Wealth of Nations, which Hawaiian islands. He continued
| asserting certain natural rights. - outlined the advantages of a | on to the Arctic circle, but failed to
} The ideas put forth in this : system of free trade, changing the | find the passage. He later sailed
| declaration - that all men were : way politicians and the public | back to Hawaii, where a dispute
aSS
SS
aS
created equal and had the right to thought about economic expansion. i |)over a missing boat led to his |
|
“life, liberty and the pursuit of Also in this year, the first volume } being killed by Hawaiians in 1779. } Boer house
| happiness” — would not, however, : of The History of the Decline and In Milan, a grand opera house ||
} Dutch settlers in South Africa moved
| apply to everyone. Enslaved : Fall of the Roman Empire by } was opened - La Scala. It was |
away from Cape Town, deep into rural
| Africans - some of whom had : English historian Edward Gibbon } founded under the patronage of | areas where they raised livestock.
| been fighting on the Americans’ : (1737-94) was published. The | Maria Theresa of Austria (the city |
| side - were excluded. work struck a chord and was a } was under Austrian rule) to replace | of a tribesman. The Boers then
The year 1776 also witnessed : success, It was also noteworthy _ a theatre that had been destroyed i attacked and captured more than
the publication of many influential » for Gibbon’s methodoloay, which in a fire. The new theatre was built | 5,000 head of cattle.
) works. In January, the writer and : was objective and meticulous in | on the site of the church of Santa i These skirmishes, amounting to
| radical thinker Thomas Paine : his use of reference material, } Maria alla Scala and financed by — | | the first Xhosa War, did not resolve
Charles Theodor {
(see panel, opposite], who had : making it the yardstick for future
The Elector Palatine, Charles
| wealthy patrons. It opened on
}
i the root cause of the dispute -
| been living only a short time in historians.A further five volumes Theodore, had no legitimate heirs | 3 August with a performance of |\ access to grazing lands and water.
| Philadelphia, issued a pamphlet : were published over the following though several illegitimate ones. He | LEuropa riconosciuta, an opera | Intermittent battle continued for
entitled Common Sense, calling | proved an unpopular king. ) by Antonio Salieri (1750-1825). | almost a century.
A mural from Daria Daulat Bagh, the summer palace belonging to Tipu Lord Cornwallis, left, surrenders his sword to George Washington,
Sultan, ruler of the southwestern Indian kingdom of Mysore from 1782-99. right, after the British defeat at the Battle of Yorktown.

AS BRITAIN’S EAST INDIA Dutch maintained Britain should THE ONGOING WAR between The politics of the American
COMPANY attempted to extend its respect their neutrality, but the Britain and North American : colonies was changing. The
reach outside of Bengal, it often British did not agree. colonists took a decisive turn at Articles of Confederation had
met resistance from Indian The North American colonists the battle of Yorktown, Virginia, been ratified earlier in the year,
princely states. This was especially : were not alone in their struggle, on 19 October. The Continental on 1 March. The process of
true of the southwestern kingdom as their southern neighbours in Army had received a boost from ratification had started in 1777
of Mysore, which was under the : Peru took up arms in the Tupac French support the previous year, under the Second Continental
rule of the powerful Haidar Ali Amaru revolt (1780-82), which and the Comte de Rochambeau Congress. The agreement set up
Khan (1722-82). Disputes over : was prompted by dissatisfaction (1725-1807) led troops alongside a “firm league of friendship” for
territory and had led to the First : with the Spanish colonial regime. the American General George what were to be known as the
Mysore War [1767-69], which was Some 75,000 Indians and Creoles Washington (1732-99). Their United States of America, while
soon followed by the Second : (those born in Peru but of Spanish combined force of ground soldiers : outlining what the responsibilities
Mysore War (1780-84). The descent) rose up in protest at their meant that when rebel forces took of the central government would
fighting did not completely settle : treatment. The leader Tupac be. The document would
the conflict between them, which Amaru II {see box, below] was 20 600
: eventually be replaced with the
continued until 1799. American British
» captured and killed in 1781, but US Constitution [see 1787).
Unrest in India was not the only it took another year and 60,000 American riflemen
In Europe, tensions between the
military preoccupation for Britain, : Spanish troops to quell the unrest.
: This cartoon depicts an American
Dutch and British led to a convoy
rifleman as worn out and badly
which was now fighting on many In Africa, the kingdom of of British ships setting off from : equipped. However, these soldiers
fronts. In addition to the ongoing Buganda, located on the northern India on 9 August with orders : defeated British regular troops.
war in North America, dispute shore of Lake Ukerewe (Lake : to destroy Dutch settlements
broke out with the Dutch. The Victoria], emerged as a regional : in Sumatra. When the British alcohol in what became known
Fourth Anglo-Dutch War ' power as it expanded its territory. : arrived, the small Dutch as the Comunero Rebellion.
(1780-84), which saw no actual : Around the same time, the Masai, population in the outposts Plans to march on Bogota were
fighting, was a direct consequence who occupied the southeastern - surrendered immediately abandoned after a deal was
of the conflict in America. The : side of the lake, were also : and all the Dutch factories and reached over taxes but the
Dutch were supplying arms to : becoming a significant presence warehouses in Padang were Spanish viceroy then attacked
the rebelling colonists, and a in the region and were moving turned over to the British crown. : the comuneros and killed two
Deaths at the Battle of Yorktown
dispute erupted over Britain's further south and east - helped by Meanwhile, colonial subjects of their leaders.
Yorktown took a high toll on British
seizure of Dutch ships. The . their large, organized warrior class. troops and proved decisive in the in the Viceroyalty of New Revolution of an intellectual kind
quest to end British rule in America. Granada - which comprised : was taking place in Prussia with
: present-day Colombia, Venezuela, : the publication of the Critique of
their positions on 28 September Panama, and Ecuador - were Pure Reason by the philosopher
Born José Gabriel General Charles Cornwallis discontent with the Spanish Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). His
Condorcanqui in Cuzco, Peru, (1738-1805) was outnumbered regime. They revolted over : work challenged existing notions
around 1742, Tupac Amaru II by more than two to one, and his : mounting taxes on tobacco and about the nature of knowledge.
re-named himself after the last hoped-for reinforcements failed to
Inca leader, who ruled the arrive in time. That, along with a
Incan Empire from 1545-1572.
Of mestizo (Indian and Spanish)
French naval blockade, meant
Cornwallis had no option but to
(44 SCIENCE IS ORGANIZED
heritage, he fought against the
colonial regime to gain better
surrender. Although this was the
last major battle of the War of
KNOWLEDGE. WISDOM IS
conditions for the indigenous
population of Peru.
Independence, official recognition
of American independence would
ORGANIZED LIFE. 99
not come until later. Immanuel Kant, German philosopher, from Cri tique of Pure Reason,
1781
| Chakri Mahaprasad Hall in Bangkok | This bronze frieze depicts the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 , in which Britain A cartoon depicts the political
| was built under Rama |. recognized the independence of its former American colonies. | implications of the India Act.

WHILE THE VICTORIOUS FORMER | NEARLY TWO YEARS AFTER THE » KEY BECAUSE THE BRITISH PRESENCE
BRITISH
COLONIES OF NORTH AMERICA ) SURRENDER at Yorktown, the Western Territory NORTH AMERICA IN INDIA had evolved through the
| entered into complicated and Treaty of Paris, which formally United States East India Company (EIC), the
W

| protracted negotiations with ended the American War of

| i

.— NEW HAMPSHIRE 18th century saw a growing

' Britain over their official Independence, was finally signed MASSACHUSETTS tension between the EIC and the
| recognition and their future, on 3 September between Britain ae RHODE ISLAND British government. The India Act
} Ireland found that it was also ina and its former American colony, \_ CONNECTICUT 1773 had already brought the
| position to receive a new political calling for them to ‘forget all NEW JERSEY company under tighter control,
| States of the
| settlement from the British past misunderstanding and : Union { \_DELAWARE but its demands for government
government. The Declaratory Act differences”. The document gave This map shows MARYLAND money to cover the cost of its
of 1720 and Poynings’ Law of 1494 formal recognition to the United : the 13 original NORTH CAROLINA many battles had prompted
were repealed. These laws had States and established the : United States as further action. The India Act
been designed to place Ireland boundaries of the 13 states that : recognized by the SOUTH CAROLINA
1784, which was ushered in
: Treaty of Paris.
| under the rule of the English it comprised. Although the under the government of British
: US borders were
) Parliament. With many of the settlement saw the establishment : extended to the
ATLANTIC prime minister William Pitt the
OCEAN
restrictions in these Acts lifted, of the United States, there was : Mississippi River Gulf of Mexico Younger (1759-1806), placed the
Ireland was able to establish stilla significant European : under the treaty. EIC under even more scrutiny by
some degree of legislative presence, with Spain holding establishing a Board of Control to
independence. Despite the new large territories to the west. : retaining Minorca - which it had : aviation history. On 4 June, look after civil, military, and
freedoms, however, political A further treaty was signed : regained the year before - and » Joseph (1740-1810) and Etienne
participation was only open to between Britain, France, and : its territories in Florida. » Montgolfier (1745-99) had the
| Protestants, and the unrest this Spain, in which Britain Ina small village called : first public trial of a hot air 44 EVERY RUPEE
arrangement eventually prompted
) in the largely Catholic territory
surrendered Tobago
8
eee and
Senegal to France and
Annonay, in the southeast of
France, two brothers
: balloon officially recorded. Only
a couple of months later, and after
OF PROFIT
meant that self-rule had a agreed to Spain were about to make : some design modifications, they MADE BY AN
short life span.
In Siam (Thailand), a new ruling
' gave a demonstration of their
: balloon in front of Louis XVI and
ENGLISHMAN IS
dynasty was established - the : Marie Antoinette at Versailles. In LOST FOR EVER
Chakri - after a power struggle : the 19 September flight - one of
: several flights made in 1783 -
TO INDIA. 99
following the demise of the
previous ruler, King Taksin, who : they put a sheep, a duck, anda Edmund Burke, British politician,
had left no heir. The Chakri remains | * roosterin the balloon’s basket on the East India Company, 1783
Thailand's ruling house. It was : tosee how the animals would
| established by Rama] (1737- fare at a high altitude. The first financial affairs, which would
} 1809), who had been the chief manned free flight, when the include members of the British
commander in the army and had : balloon was not tethered to the government. The Act also
won loyal support fighting against : ground, took place on 21 stipulated that trade and
the Burmese. Rama! spent much ! November of the same year. territorial rule were to be two
of his reign on the reconstruction separate activities. Legislation
Balloon ride that followed in the 19th century
of Siam after years of warfare,
This engraving shows a later
building extensively, including a went even further, abolishing
Montgolfier balloon, named
royal palace and Buddhist temples, Le Flesselles, ascending over Lyon the EIC’s monopoly and opening
though he remained a strong with seven passengers, on 19 SS
SS
a up trade, as well as allowing
SESS
a
military leader, and repelled five January 1784. One of those onboard the settlement of Christian
| further invasions from Burma. was Joseph Montgolfier. missionaries in the region.
 i
The power loom transformed i Frederick ll of Prussia was feared and admired throughout Europe | This 19th-century engraving depicts the coastal settlement
the textile industry. I for his military prowess. of Sierra Leone, West Africa.

IN 1784, EDMUND CARTWRIGHT { | AFTER THE RULING IN THE

(1743-1823), an English clergyman, | SOMERSETT CASE (see 1772),
paid a visit to a cotton-spinning AFRICA
| which established that slaves who
mill established by Richard | arrived in Britain were free, many
Arkwright {see 1771). What he | slaves were abandoned by their @
SIERRA LEONE

saw inspired him to invent similar | masters and the “black poor” of
machines to weave textiles. By } London were left with no means
1785 he had patented his first i | of support. Abolitionist Granville
power loom. Cartwright’s loom } Sharp (1735-1813) arranged for a
became an integral part of the | free settlement to be established
textile industry in Britain. The { | in Sierra Leone, West Africa. The | Slave settlement
design was later improved by the | ship Nautilus returned some 400 : Sierra Leone is located on the west
American businessman Francis | | former slaves to Africa. These ; coast of Africa. Previouslya trading
Cabot Lowell, whohadseenthe | initial settlers were later joined : post for slavery it became a place
looms in operation on a visit to SS of settlement for freed slaves.
| by slaves from Nova Scotia,
Britain, and its use was widespread THE US WAS EXPERIENCING : First steamboat ) Canada, who had fought for the
on both sides of the Atlantic j AN ERA OF TECHNOLOGICAL John Fitch managed to take
| British in the American War of instead, the delegates drew up a
after 1820. innovation. In Philadelphia, steam-engine technology and apply
Independence. At the same time, ; New system of government. They
In Burma, the Konbaung i Pennsylvania, inventor John it to boats. However, commercial I
: SUCCESS Was Some Way Off. | West Africa was still rife with created a bicameral legislature
dynasty’s King Bodawpaya | Fitch [1743-1798] had set up the other European slavers. : in which all states would be
(1745-1819) had captured the | Steamboat Company with the aim In the US, there was a growing equally represented in the Senate
coastal kingdom of Arakan the of designing a steam-powered Shipping still had its perils and | call for a stronger central : and proportionally based on
previous year, Bolstered by this boat. Fitch found success ahead pirate raids were common. US | government and, from May to population in the House of
victory, he decided to move to the | of his rivals in August 1787 when merchants wishing to trade in the } September, the Constitutional Representatives.
east and invade the kingdom of | the Perseverance successfully Mediterranean markets risked | Convention met, ostensibly in In Russia, designs on Ottoman
Siam [Thailand], but was defeated. | sailed on the Delaware River. By » attack and the Barbarycorsairs | order to amend the Articles of territory led to the Russo-Turkish
1790, a fledgling steamer service : were particularly feared. On 23 | Confederation (see 1781). But War, lasting until 1792.
| was running between Philadelphia : July, the US signed a treaty
} and Trenton, New Jersey, but with Morocco which assured safe |
Fitch struggled as he had trouble passage for US ships in exchange |
} attracting investors. It would take : for trading on equal terms. |
| The US Constitution is the
the more advanced boat designs In Europe, Prussia mourned the | oldest written constitution in
and superior business acumen of _ death of Frederick Il. He had i the world still in use. It was
Robert Fulton (1765-1815) before : turned Prussia into a formidable |
adopted on 17 September
steamboat travel became a viable : power, and reshaped Europe’s | 1787 and has been amended
commercial enterprise. political balance.
27 times to deal with issues

44 AN EDUCATED |
such as freedom of speech.
George Washington [left] led

PEOPLE CAN BE |
the Constitutional Convention
and became the first US
Round-the-world expedition president in 1789. During his
Jean-Francois de Galaup, the comte
de Lapérouse, was sent by Louis XVI EASILY GOVERNED. 99 presidency, the first ten
amendments, known as the
on an expedition to map out the ;
uncharted waters of the Pacific. Bill of Rights, was ratified.
Attributed to Frederick II, king of Prussia
 ‘MILLION PESOS
THE AMOUNT OF MONEY SPAID
RECEIVED ANNUALLY
_FROMITS COLONIES AT THE
TIME OF CHARLES III'S DEATH
= 4 eg Pde j = \a P

A portrait of Charles IV (centre right} and his family vy Spanish painter

Francisco Goya (1746-1828).

| AFTER ALMOST 30 YEARS ON : Arrivalin Port Jackson

THE SPANISH THRONE, the : Colonists arrive in the bay that would
“enlightened despot” Charles III : later become Sydney, Australia.
| died, and his son, Charles IV : Native women are shown watching
(1748-1819), inherited the crown. : them on the shore.
Unlike his father, Charles IV was
| not a strong leader. His wife, : up the Société des Amis des
| Maria Luisa of Parma (1751- : Noirs (Society of the Friends of
1819), and her political protégé : the Blacks}, which called not only
Manuelde Godoy (1767-1851), : for the abolition of the slave trade
who eventually became prime : and slavery, but also urged
minister, ran the country and the : equality for people of mixed race,
empire, leading it into disaster. : the treatment of whom was a
This period was marked by : growing issue in the French
i constant warfare with France, : Caribbean sugar colonies.
culminating in an occupation in Meanwhile, in Sweden, Gustav
1808 when Charles was forced to : Ill was trying to realize his
abdicate (see 1808). : imperial ambitions by declaring
In France, as in Britain, there » war against Russia without the
was growing public support for ! approval of parliament. He hoped
| the abolition of slavery. The : to capture Finnish territory while
Committee for the Abolition of the : the Russians were occupied with
Slave Trade had been established : their war against Turkey.
| in Britain in May 1787 with the aim : Gustav's efforts failed initially due
of ending the slave trade. Shortly : toa conspiracy by aristocrats and
afterward, in February 1788, a : officers angry at the expansion of
group of Parisian men met to set : the Crown's power at the expense
: of the Riksdag (parliament) and
: the nobility. Officers attempted to:
: negotiate with Catherine the Great |
: of Russia without Gustav's prior : tax system, and had already In Britain, Royal Navy Captain : than 1,400 people, with convicts
knowledge. Denmark later joined : abolished serfdom. By the time of : Arthur Phillip (1738-1814) had set | making up 778 passengers. The
: the Russo-Swedish War (to1790) : his death in 1790, the Magyars : sailon 13 May 1787 with 11 ships : fleet arrived in Botany Bay in
: as an ally of Russia, and laid siege : were on the brink of a rebellion, : full of convicts destined for 1788, but Phillip soon decided the
: to the key port of Gothenburg, in : and even appealed to Prussia to : settlement at Botany Bay in : site was not suitable for
778 : the southwest of Sweden. : support them. However, their : Australia. Captain James Cook : permanent settlement and the
CONVICTS In the neighbouring Habsburg : discontent did not escalate to : (see 1768) had first come across : colony moved further inland to
: Empire, the Magyar (Hungarian) ' armed conflict due to the © the bay in1770, and the British : Port Jackson, which would later
nobles were unhappy about : intervention of Leopold Il (1747- ' government was eager to settle ' become known as Sydney.
: Joseph Il’s reforms (see 1765], in : 92), who succeeded his brother ' theterritory. At the same time, Although the early days of
- particular the introduction of : and promised to rescind the : the shipping of convicts to settlement were difficult, a
First Fleet
: German as the official language of | previous reforms. He swore to : Australia presented a way of : stream of ships continued to bring
| Despite its reputation, only about
| half of those on the First Fleet were : government and secondary : treat Hungary as an independent ; relieving Britain’s overcrowded : felons, and less than 50 years
convicts. The remainder included education. Joseph was also : kingdom and allow for it to be ; prisons. Known as the First later there were nearly 60,000
marines, crew, and their families. : planning to restructure the land : administered under its own laws. : Fleet, these ships carried more : settlers in Australia.
 _. 4@ LIBERTE,
EGALITE,
FRATERNITE! 99
“Liberty, Equality, Fraternity!”
Rallying cry of the French Revolution, 1789
a7 |

Representatives of France's “Third Estate” - the people - swore the “Tennis Court Oath”
not to separate until they had established a constitution in France.

BY 1789 FRANCE’S LOUIS XVI was : frustrated Third Estate declared During late July and early August, followed on 26 August by the
facing multiple crises: he was themselves a National Assembly : rumours spread throughout the _ publication of the Declaration
bankrupt from endless warfare, and decided to proceed without French countryside, which was : of the Rights of Man and of the
there was popular unrest, and the » the nobles and clergy. This : already in a state of unrest due to Citizen, which proclaimed that
failure of the 1788 grain crop ! prompted officials to lock them : grain shortages. There were fears “men are born free and remain
meant riots over bread. The : out of their usual meeting place, THE NUMBER : of bandits sweeping the land and : free and equal in rights” and that
decision was made to summon : so they occupied Louis XVI's stories of crops being burned. “the source of all sovereignty lies
the Estates-General, France's indoor tennis court and swore an OF PEOPLE During this period, known as the : essentially in the Nation”.
representative assembly. It had
not met since 1614, so between
: oath on 20 June to remain united
© until they produced a constitution
“WHO STORMED Great Fear, panic set in among
: Many peasants, who armed
Throughout this period of
upheaval, uncensored newspapers
January and April elections were : for France, a pledge that became THE BASTILLE : themselves and attacked nobles reported events and political
held to select deputies. The : known as the Tennis Court Oath. : and their chateaux. clubs formed where people could
Estates-General was composed of : All but one of the 577 deputies By 4 August the National : voice their opinions. Despite the
: Storming of the Bastille
three “estates” or orders: the : signed; Joseph Martin Dauch : Constituent Assembly sought onslaught of new freedoms and
: The crowd of around 600 people that
: from Castelnaudary refused to : gathered outside the prison calling : to control the situation and so monumental social reform, the
: endorse it because it was not : for its surrender was peaceful at : they decreed the abolition of Revolution was in its infancy -
: sanctioned by the king. : first, but violence soon broke out. : feudalism and the tithe. This was France's future was far from clear.
Louis XVI felt he had no option
: but to give in to the demands of
the Third Estate and urged the
nobility and clergy to join what, by
: 9 July, was named the National
' Constituent Assembly (though
: it continued to be called the
: National Assembly).
A few days later, Paris was
> awash with rumours, including
» that troops were on their way into
The three estates
These figures (from left to right) : the city to disperse the National
symbolize each of the estates i Assembly. In response, on the
representing France: the nobility, : afternoon of 14 July, some 600
the people, and the clergy. : people armed with weapons
seized from the Hotel des
First Estate (the clergy); the : Invalides attacked the Bastille,
Second Estate (the nobility); and a medieval fortress used as a
the Third Estate - the people. prison. The Bastille held only
The assembly met at Versailles on seven prisoners at the time of
5 May. The immediate issue was the attack, but it symbolized the
how much voting power to give despotism of the monarchy and
the Third Estate; the First and : cenAtained ammunition the people
Second Estates wanted voting to : wanted to seize. The uprising, in
be by estate rather than a vote per : which a whole garrison and 98
head, so that they would not be : attackers died, became a defining
outnumbered by the public's moment of the French Revolution, -
representatives. By 17 June the : which was now underway.
 3 (RN te SOX.5 Nae = "a ie
| General Josiah Harmar met with defeat when he mounted a campaign Plantations go up in flames in Le Cap int he north of Saint-Domingue
against a coalition of American Indians in the Northwest Territory, US. (Haiti) during the slave rebellion.

NEWS OF THE EVENTS IN PARIS IN JANUARY, VINCENT OGE and Domingue was more than 15
spread to French colonies. As the Jean-Baptiste Chavannes : times the population of whites.
| National Assembly knew, slavery (c.1748-1791), who had helped ; Unlike previous revolts, this one
did not sit well with the ideas Ogé organize the 1790 revolt, were | would prove unstoppable.
espoused in the Declaration ofthe BUNT DE. in hiding in the Spanish colony, In France, Louis XVI and his
| Rights of Man. Neither did the INDIVISIBILITE Santo Domingo. They were, : family had tried to flee to the
inequity that free people of colour ie DEILA however, returned by the Spanish : royalist stronghold of Montmeéedy
faced in France and its empire.
REPUBLIQUE
LIBERTE to Saint-Domingue where their on the eastern border. They
Part of the French empire was EGALITE bones were broken on a wheel : reached Varennes, in the
Saint-Domingue (Haiti), half of the RO RATERNITE and their heads placed on : northeast of the country, before
| the island of Hispaniola - the -# <i
stakes. This was met with outrage | : being stopped and forcibly
FOU LA 30,000
| other half of the island, Santo if in France, and by May political : returned to Paris. After this failed
Settlers
| Domingo (Dominican Republic), rights were granted to free : attempt at escape, Louis lost all
: Slaves vs settlers
belonged to Spain. In 1790 two people of colour, if born of two : credibility as a monarch.
The high number ofslaves imported
wealthy mixed-race planters from free parents. to Saint-Domingue to work in the
Saint-Domingue, Vincent Ogé Slaves in Saint-Domingue had ; sugar industry became a liability
(1750-91) and Julien Raimond also been hearing a mixture of when they launched a rebellion.
(1744-1801) were in Paris, where news and rumours about events
: Revolutionary cartoon
they argued that because they : This illustration shows a version of
in Paris and begun to hope they : “listen to the voice of liberty that
were property owners, they ought : the French Revolutionary emblem would see abolition. In the end, ; speaks in all of us”. A week later
to be given full rights. Ogé was i issuing the famous call for liberty, they decided not to wait tor France Boukman and his followers Haitian Voodoo lor Voudou) is
frustrated by the Assembly's : equality and fraternity or death. to grant it to them. : launched a massive revolt in the a religion that was born out
failure to confront white planters One hot August evening, a slave : north of the island. They attacked of slavery. It draws ona
on this issue and continued his In the US, General Josiah leader named Dutty Boukman : estates, killed slave owners, range of African traditions,
| protest back in Saint-Domingue. _ Harmar (1753-1813] had been (2--1791} gathered slaves ata : destroyed tools, and torched cane especially those of Benin, the
| He led a revolt of some 200 : ambushed by a coalition of religious voodoo ceremony in : fields. They had numbers on their : former home of many slaves.
supporters in the town of Grande- ? American Indians. The attack near Bois-Caiman and told them to : side: the slave population in Saint- It also incorporates
Riviere. It was quickly suppressed, : the Maumee River (Ohio) in the Catholicism, the religion
and Ogé fled to Santo Domingo. : Northwest Territory was led by Tortuga forced on the slaves by their
Throughout 1790 the National : Chief Little Turtle (1752-1812). Port-de-Paix Le Ca Fort.Liberté -
(Fort Dauph in)
oO captors, and may also have
ss fp e CE
Assembly continued working on a : Harmar was ordered to lead an °
@ Santiago
4H links to the practices of the
} constitution, pushing through the : expedition against the Indians, but e San Francisco de Macoris indigenous Arawak people.
| official ban on'the nobility and his force of 1,100 militiamen and The Catholic practices slaves
SANTO
suppressing the religious orders. | 320 troops was forced to retreat. Gonave
DOMINGO adopted enabled them to
jspaniola
e
disguise their true religion
eJereme Port-au-Prince.
Santo Domingo from their masters, with

46 MEN ARE BORN AND REMAIN e@ Cayes Catholic saints standing in

for Loa [spirits] worshipped
oe
FREE AND IN EQUAL RIGHTS. a
Mea, ea
KEY
(1791: original centre
in Voodoo. This new system

SOCIAL DISTINCTIONS MAY of the slave revolt of belief allowed slaves to

form their own identity and
BE FOUNDED ONLY UPON THE
— 1790: border between
Haitian revolution
Saint Domingue (French) also provided a way of
The slave revolt in French Saint-
|GENERAL GOOD. 99
and Santo Domingo (Spanish) :
Domingue later become an organizing resistance, as in
— 1820: border between
international! conflict when Britain the Republic of Haiti and Saint-Domingue.
Article 1, Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 1789 and Spain went to war with France. Santo Domingo [Spanish]
 » : ie
i
: ie wf be 2 ce BV IN TW
A detail from the painting Battle of Valmy, by French artist This image shows the execution of Louis XVI byguillotine in the Place de la
Emile-Jean-Horace Vernet, shows Prussia’s defeat by France. Révolution, Paris. His wife Marie Antionette was executed a few months later.

EVENTS IN FRANCE TOOK A : growing, and on 2 September an ON 18 JANUARY, THE NATIONAL of Suspects was passed, which
DRAMATIC TURN on 20 April 1792 armed group of Parisians CONVENTION OF FRANCE : established Revolutionary
when the National Assembly : attacked and killed some 142.5 | condemned Louis XVI to death. On Tribunals. Anyone suspected of
declared war on the Holy Roman : prisoners who were being MILLION | 21 January he was taken to the : being an enemy of the Revolution
Empire, perceiving it as a threat. ' transferred to a different jail. This Place de la Révolution, Paris, was tried and if deemed guilty
Emperor Leopold II had signed set off a wave of action, known as | where he was guillotined. His received a death sentence. The
the Declaration of Pilnitz with : the September Massacres, in wife, Marie Antoinette, remained activities of hundreds of
1783-84
Frederick William II of Prussia, : which angry mobs in Paris and in prison until October, when she thousands of people were
swearing to defend Louis XVI and : elsewhere took suspects from | appeared before a Revolutionary : monitored, and many were
destroy Paris should anything ' prison and executed them. tribunal. She met the same fate : arrested. The Committee of
befall him. Provoked by the : Around 1,200 people were killed | as her husband on 16 October. Public Safety, led by Maximilien
French call to war, Austrian and : In five days. Marie Antoinette’s death
Prussian troops set off for France. The war began with setbacks for 1792-93
occurred during the Reign of
: Tea export : Eli Whitney's cotton gin
News of this enraged the French France, but by 20 September, the Terror, which was the result of a
: The British public's taste for tea This machine separated cotton
people, who thought they had : French successfully held off the decree on 5 September that made
: became evident, as the pounds of : seeds from the plant's fibre more
been betrayed by their king and : Prussians at the Battle of Valmy, : tea the East India Company exported | “terror” the means of governance. : quickly than if done by hand, which
the aristocracy, and on 10 August in north-eastern France, then : from China doubled. | Acouple of weeks later the Law : Increased cotton production greatly.
a group of revolutionaries found : attacked the Austrian Netherlands
Louis XVI when they stormed the : winning a victory at Jemappes in By this point the rest of Europe
Tuileries Palace. The king and : what is now Belgium. In Paris, a was concerned about events
the rest of the royal family were : new ruling body, the National : within France and its boldness
jailed in the Temple prison. - Convention, met and the : beyond its borders, so Holland,
By early September, fears that : following day abolished the : Spain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia
royalist prisoners were organizing © constitutional monarchy in favour _ established the First Coalition,
a counter-revolutionary plot were : of establishing a republic. : with Britain joining in 1793. They
fought against France throughout
MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1 759-97) : the following six years during the
| War of the First Coalition.
Mary Wollstonecraft was an Meanwhile, halfway across the
English writer and early world, the East India Company
advocate for women’s rights. had found that supplying the
Deeply influenced by events in : British with Chinese tea - for
France and subsequent - which they were paying China in
debates in Britain, she : opium produced in Bengal - was
published, A Vindication on the proving a profitable trade. Exports
Rights of Woman, in 1792. The doubled in a decade as the hot
work, calling for the education drink became popular in Britain
system to allow girls the same and North America. Conducting
advantages as boys, was : business with China, however,
controversial. It would be many was complicated for the Company. |
years before any changes were : It was only allowed commercial
enacted, but the book has : access through one port, Canton
endured as a work of early : [Guangzhou], as the Chinese kept
feminist philosophy. ; strict controls on the entry of
: foreigners to the rest of the country. |
 44 MY PEOPLE,
I DIE INNOCENT! 99
Louis XVI of France, before his execution —

i = \ ~
This detail from a fresco depicts the battle of Raclawice on 4 April 1794, when
| Polish troops led by General Tadeusz Kosciuszko defeated the Russians.

: Robespierre (1758-94), was, ==, | THE REIGN OF TERROR in France In Saint-Domingue, the former
in effect, in control of the -. | eliminatedthe enemies ofthe :; slave turned military leader,
government. Members of the i _ —| | Committee of Public Safety on : General Toussaint Louverture, 4
same political club as Robespierre © = & “== | the left and right by 1794. : was persuaded to leave the
- the Jacobins - also become However, the committee felt : Spanish and join French
involved in the surveillance of THE NUMBER | the need to go further and : Commissioner Léger-Félicité
potential suspects. OF PEOPLE | suspended a suspect's : Sonthonax (1763-1813) to lead
In Saint-Domingue (Haiti), i right to public trial and : French Republican troops - though
fighting on the island was EXECUTED ' legal assistance, with juries : he later broke with the French
complicated by the arrival of : DURING “THE | instructed to issue either : (see 1803). Sonthonax was posted
British troops. Prompted bythe : +E acquittal or death. This » to Saint-Domingue in 1792 to keep
French declaration of war in 1792, TERROR ) measure was passed in June, : the island under control after the
: Britain hoped to seize controlof — but little more than a month : slave rebellion, and to enforce the
: the island and add it to their other | Britain and Spain averted a war | later a revolt in the National : National Convention’s ruling that
: Caribbean sugar islands, such over the Nootka Sound in the | Convention ended the reign of : free people of colour were to have
: Revolutionary coin
as Jamaica. The struggle lasted Pacific, north west of the Robespierre. Known as the The French king Louis XVI was equality. However, France's _-
: for five years. » American territory, by signing the | Thermidorian Reaction, this : replaced on the country’s coinage by | declaration of war against Britain
In the US, Eli Whitney (1765- Second Nootka Sound Convention. : refers to 9 Thermidor Year I! (27 ! the figure of Hercules, flanked by : had complicated the situation, and
1825) perfected a machine called Another agreement was signed | July 1794), the date inthe French : Liberty and Equality. : Spain and Britain fought alongside
the cotton gin, which he patented = the following year in which Spain | Revolutionary Calendar. This : the former slaves. This prompted
the following year. Many planters : capitulated to British demands. change to the calendar system : proclamation of the Republic : Sonthonax to look to existing
wanted to diversify into the cotton = The diplomatic stand-off - which began in 1792 and lasted until : (21 September, also the autumn —_: slaves as possible troops. In 1793
trade, but the long-staple variety = eventually involved the European | 1806. The calendar began onthe =: equinox]. Each month was 30 days : he promised slaves in the north of
of cotton grown - which yields : allies of both sides - had started | year of the anniversary of the : long, divided into “decades” of _ the island freedom if they fought
long, silky fibres — could only be n 1789 when Spain seized three | : 10 days. ' for the French cause, and by that
cultivated near the coast. Heavily | British ships sailing nearby. This > On 27 July, Robespierre was August he decreed the abolition
seeded short-staple cotton - : escalated into a battle of words | : arrested and he and another 100 : of slavery, ratified by the National
producing shorter fibres - was the : over who had the right to settle b supporters faced the same : Convention on 4 February 1794.
only other option, but removing : in that territory. : guillotine used on their enemies. : Meanwhile, in Poland, anger
the seeds was a laborious and : In China, East India Company \ : This wasaturning pointinthe : had mounted over the devastating
time-consuming task. Whitney's = officer George Macartney (1737- | : French Revolution, as the National _ partition the previous year, and
machine, however, combed cotton : 1806] had arrived in Beijing | : Convention asserted its strength, : patriots organized the Polish
very quickly, and it led to the (Peking] in 1792 with a party of i : but the Terror had exacted a high : Rebellion of 1794. Despite an
development of the cotton : 94 peopte and a range of British | : price - some 17,000 people were initial victory in Russian-held
industry in the American South. : goods. He was finally presented to : officially executed and hundreds —_: Warsaw, the Poles were crushed
Back in Europe, Poland faced a the emperor Quinlong (1735-99) : of thousands arrested. : by Russia's forces.
second partition, this time with in September 1793. The British |
Prussia and Russia taking some
300,000 sq km (115,000 square
iles}],
Company wereage xp
government and the East India
Company were eager to expand
leaving Poland a fraction of : trade between Britain an ina,
j
(4@ [WAS BORN A SLAVE,
: but Qing ieee oe 1 Maximilien (Robespierre Bw NATURE GAVE ME A
OS aie. eee
ivoni to Bact t refuse to H| The head of the Committee ‘ of Public : SOUL OF fi FREE MAN. me 55
i
eastern provinces from Livonia ieee
Moldavia to Russia, while Prussia | Safety tried to eliminate his
was given Great Poland, Torun, : | enemies, but he ended up dying
: and the port city of Gdansk. i | on the guillotine. : Toussaint Louverture, former slave and military leader
4 oh
A view of the island of Penang, north of the Dutch settlement o Malacca. The One of a series of portraits depicting the Persian Shah's family and harem. A painting of Marquis Wellesley
Strait of Malacca remains a key trade route linking Europe and Africa to China. It was commissioned by Fat’h Ali Shah, the second Qajar ruler. viewing an elephant fight.
a

THE SECOND PARTITION OF OVER A YEAR AFTER SETTING OUT Austria recognized the French | APERIOD OF AGGRESSIVE
POLAND had sparked an uprising to find the River Niger, Mungo ; puppet state, the Cisalpine EXPANSION of Britain's territorial
in 1794 led by Polish officer Park (1771-1806), a Scottish Republic, and ceded the Austrian claims in Bengal began when
Tadeusz Kosciuszko (1746-1817) .
After eight months of fighting, a
_ THE NUMBER surgeon and explorer, finally : Netherlands (Belgium) to France. Irish nobleman Richard Wellesley
located it. He had been sent on In Persia, a new dynasty - the (1760-1842) was appointed
Prussian—Russian alliance _OF NEWSPAPERS the expedition by the Association : Qajar - was established. The Governor-Generalof Bengal
defeated the Poles, and the Third
Partition of 1795 occurred. This
SOLD EACH for Promoting the Discovery of : leader, Agha Mohammad Khan } in 1797. He left for Calcutta in
the Interior Parts of Africa, in : (1742-97), had spent the past November and set about
saw the remaining Polish territory DAY IN order to “ascertain the course” : decade attempting to unite } increasing British territory
divided among Russia, Prussia, - REVOLUTIONARY of this large African river. He disparate factions in the region, | through both military and
and Austria. After this final
partition, Poland ceased to exist.
FRANCE embarked from the River Gambia
in 1795, and on 20 July, after
: eventually asserting his authority
: over territory as far as Georgia in
i
i
diplomatic channels.
During his term as governor
Elsewhere in Europe, the War of _AROUND 1795 } prolonged illness and four months : the Caucasus mountains. He | (1797-1805] some of the most
the First Coalition was drawing to | spent captive, he reached Ségou : declared himself shah (king) in | powerful rulers in India were
a close, negotiated partially with | (in present-day Mali), which lies : 1796, but died the next year. His defeated — including Tipu Sultan,
three treaties under the Peace of the whole island of Hispaniola, } on the river. : family continued to rule until 1925. who was known as the Tiger of
Basel. These agreements gave : although the fighting that had The first documented Further east, China was in the Mysore [see 1761 and 1799).
German lands west of the River : begun in Saint-Domingue showed | inoculation was completed by : throes of a rebellion. The White This period also saw efforts to
Rhine to France, and ended : few signs of abating. British physician Edward Jenner : Lotus, a secret Buddhist sect, professionalize the East India
Franco-Spanish fighting around In Jamaica, the peace that had (1749-1823} on 14 May. In an _ soughttooverthrow their Manchu | Company. These included setting
the Pyrenees mountains through : been established in 1739 between attempt to prevent the deadly : rulers and restore the previous | up acollege in order to teach
Spain's cessation of Santo : the British and former runaway smallpox virus, which had killed : ruling dynasty, the Ming. The
|
i junior clerks subjects such as
Domingo to France. This meant : slaves, known as maroons [from thousands across Europe, Jenner : White Lotus attracted much Indian languages, though some of
the French now had control of the Spanish word for runaways, experimented by using cowpox, a : support, but ultimately failed after these measures were considered
: cimarrén) ended. Maroons had similar but less lethal virus often : eight years of fighting. | controversial
atthe time.
: initially invaded and raided contracted by milking infected }
i
Maroon colony, Jamaica
This engraving shows a maroon ' colonists but, on signing a treaty animals. His experiment entailed NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1769-1821) _
settlement in Jamaica. Maroons : that granted them land and inoculating eight-year-old James
were former runaway slaves who : autonomy, had largely desisted. Phipps with cowpox taken from Napoleon Bonaparte was
had established their own autonomy. : However, in 1795, an incident in Sarah Nelmes, a dairymaid. The born in Corsica and educated
: which the British severely whipped early success of this experiment in France, where he became
: two maroons for stealing pigs, led to the development of the an army officer in 1785. His
triggered a revolt. Fearful that the | modern vaccine. successful campaign in Italy
island could follow the example of In Europe, French army (1796-97) was followed by
Saint-Domingue, the governor | commander Napoleon further military and political
brought in troops to suppress it. Bonaparte (see panel, right) took victories. In 1804, he was
Upon surrender, some maroons charge of the French army in declared emperor and led
: were shipped to Nova Scotia. northern Italy in March. He was France on to more battles,
Further afield, the Dutch- | given orders to seize Lombardy, though with diminishing
controlled Cape of Good Hope in and went on to win many victories success, draining the nation’s
South Africa and the port of over the Austrian army, resources and ultimately
Malacca in the Strait of Malacca, subsequently forcing Austria into leading to his downfall. He died
which connects the Indian and peace negotiations. The result in exile on the remote island of
: Pacific Oceans, were seized was the Treaty of Campo Formio, : St Helena, in the South Atlantic.
: by the British. | signed the following year, in which
 44:THE REVOLUTION
_ ISOVER. 1 AM THE
- REVOLUTION. 99
Napoleon Bonaparte, 1799
% &
mel
This painting shows the destruction of the French flagship, L’Orient, during the
Battle of the Nile, Egypt, where Britain's Royal Navy destroyed France’s fleet.

\ DESPITE THE TERMINATION OF ve y r _. : named the island off India’s coast ONCE NAPOLEON BONAPARTE had : While in Egypt, French soldiers
) the War of the First Coalition in ae : : Ceylon, and ran its administration | returned to France from Egypt, had unearthed an object that
} 1795, France still considered cee : from Madras. By 1798, the British | he began to focus on his political =: transformed the understanding of
| Britain an enemy. The French : had begun to realize the strategic | future, and was soon plotting a : the ancient world. A block of black
mooted the idea of a possible ima iG, 2 : importance of the island and | coup d’état that involved © granite inscribed with strange
| invasion but it was ultimately ; _ Frederick North (1766-1827) was | dissolving the Directory, the body : writing. It was named the Rosetta
rejected due to Britain’s superior ESTIMATED : sent there as the colony's first | that had been governing the : Stone after the town where it
| sea power and navaldefences. © MK[UJMBER : governor. Not all of Ceylon was } country since 1795. The outcome was found. It fell into British
| Seeking a way to get around the OF IRISH : under British control, however. i of the 18 Brumaire Coup of : possession by 1801, although
| Royal Navy - as well as disrupt : : The kingdom of Kandy, whose | 9 November was that the : it took years of study before
valuable trade - Napoleon DEAD AFTER : subjects occupied the interior of | Directory was replaced with the : anyone was able to translate it.
4 proposed to attack the Britishon | THE REBELLION : the island, remained independent. | Consulate, and Napoleon took ' Eventually scholars established
j the colonial front in India, via i : Their autonomy would become a { charge of France as First Consul. = arelationship between the
/ Egypt, which he also hoped to i : cause for concern for British | three scripts on the stone:
} conquer. Setting off from France, : French forces were completely : governors in Ceylon. | hieroglyphics, demotic script
he took 35,000 troops, capturing = destroyed by the British navy, : At the same time, in Ireland, (Egyptian handwriting used
the Mediterranean island of Malta. under the command of Horatio : resentment at British rule had in everyday life], and Greek.
along the way. Upon reaching - Nelson (1758-1805) at the Battle = turned to rebellion, led by It became clear that this
| Alexandria in July, Napoleon : of the Nile. Napoleon and his : nationalists called the discovery would permit
| quickly defeated Mameluke : troops were left stranded in Egypt, : Society of United the transcription of
| troops at the Battle of the » but the defeat and humiliation did | Irishmen. Headed by hieroglyphics, a type of
| Pyramids. However, on 1 August, : Little to hamper the French : Theobald Wolfe Tone communication not used
: commander's imperial ambitions. : (1763-98) and James since the 4th century CE.
: In 1796, the British hadtaken —_:Napier Tandy (1740- Deciphering the stone
| Irish Revolt
| Protestant prisoners, suspected of advantage of warfare in Europe to 1803), the group had provided a window into
| being loyal to British rule, were : wrest the island of Sri Lanka from | made numerous Egyptian antiquity.
| executed by Irish nationalists in : Dutch control, meeting with very =: attempts to enlist In India, soldiers
| Wexford during the revolt. : little resistance. The British the support of for the East India
: Revolutionary France, Company emerged
: but the British, victorious from a
* : learning of these violent battle with the
plots, had forced the fearsome Tipu Sultan
rebels to change their (1750-99), the ruler of
: plans. They decided Mysore. Tipu had
: to rise up, although made alliances with
lacking French French troops in India,
reinforcements, and and on this pretext the
managed to seize , British Governor-General
control of County : Richard Wellesley (see 1797)
Wexford. A French } authorized the Fourth Mysore
expeditionary force sent F The Rosetta Stone : War, intent on driving out the
to assist them was intercepted by | Ana tinal Aitans WANIE INARA French and annexing the territory.
British troops and the revolt soon | different scripts on this large piece Tipu was killed in battle, and the
collapsed. Tone committed suicide | of granite unlocked the world of : East India Company took half
: while awaiting his execution. hieroglyphics and ancient Egypt. : of his territory.
41. ions aml Faxsi
The Battle of Marengo was a victory
RAMS Bem i ih (ly
An engraving depicting p eace celebrations in Milan, Italy, after the Treaty of The mausoleum of emperor and
a
Jean-Jacques Dessalines who fought
for France over Austria. Lunéville, in which Austria was forced to recognize France's growing borders. Nguyen dynasty founder, Gia Long. for Haitian independence.

AS ANEW CENTURY BEGAN, unrest IN THE AFTERMATH OF THE IRISH AFTER 30 YEARS OF CIVIL WAR, IN SAINT-DOMINGUE (HAITI), THE
in Europe continued. Despite REBELLION (see 1798), British Vietnam was united under the ONGOING WAR TOOK A DECISIVE
previous treaties, French military prime minister William Pitt the leadership of Nguyen Phuc Anh | turn with the capture and exile of
action increased in aggression. Younger concluded that the (1762-1820), a powerful general General Toussaint Louverture in
Mistrust of France prompted the solution to the “Irish question” who, with the help of French 1803. He had joined the French
formation of the Second Coalition | was a political union. In 1800 a bill | mercenaries, was able to defeat Republican cause ten years
in 1798; by 1799, it comprised outlining these plans was the rival Trinh family. Nguyen Anh earlier [see 1793] and drove out
Austria, Britain, Russia, Portugal, presented to the Irish parliament. | declared himself emperor, | the remaining British forces on
Naples, and the Ottoman Empire. After much controversy, the bill taking the name Gia Long, and the island, before taking up the
On 14 June, Napoleon scored a was passed. The Act of Union, | re-established the Nguyen family title of governor in 1801.
significant victory against Austria also approved by the British as the ruling dynasty. Napoleon was, however,
in the Battle of Marengo, the Government, came into effect on Ongoing warfare in Europe displeased with Louverture’s
result of which was French control 1 January 1801. It saw the Irish and further afield came to successes and was infuriated
of northern Italy. parliament closed down and Virginia-born planter and an end with the Treaty of when he defied orders, riding into
Spain, meanwhile, had done representation moved to London, slave-owner Thomas Amiens. Signatories included Santo Domingo - then under
little to develop its Louisiana where 32 Irish peers were put in Jefferson was a leading Britain, France, Spain, and the French control - and freeing the
territory in North America, lacking the House of Lords and 100 MPs republican and one ofthe Netherlands (which was known slaves. In 1802, Napoleon
the resources to settle it. So when in the House of Commons. Pitt primary authors of the as the Batavian Republic from reinstated slavery and sent
Napoleon put pressure on Charles had hoped the move would allow United State’s Declaration of 1795 until 1806). 25,000 troops to reclaim the
IV to return Louisiana, the Spanish the granting of concessions to Independence. He remained Under the terms of the treaty, island. After months offighting
monarch obliged. Under the terms Catholics, but the bill maintained a politically powerful all Britain kept the colonies of Louverture was invited to
of the secret Treaty of San ban on their holding public office. through his life, serving as Trinidad, which had been taken negotiate a settlement. He was
Ildefonso, Napoleon agreed In Europe, Austria’s defeat at vice-president (1797-1801) from Spain, and Ceylon, which then seized and exiled. The battle
not to give the landto jew Marengo in 1800 forced them to and president (1801-09). Yet had been captured from the for abolition then fell to his deputy
a third power. e accept the Treaty of Lunéville, for all the influence of his Dutch. Egypt was restored to the | Jean-Jacques Dessalines.
which recognized France's frontiers |: | writings on issues like liberty, Ottoman Empire, and France With most of Napoleon's troops
to the Rhine, Alps, and Pyrenees. he did not free his own slaves agreed to relinquish Malta. This in Saint-Domingue killed on the
Russia, meanwhile, was ‘during his lifetime. state of affairs was short-lived. battlefield or ravaged by yellow
expanding to the south,
fever, Dessalines’ men drove out
ye encroaching on the kingdoms of
the remaining soldiers. French
7) Kartalinia-Kakhetia (present- In Vienna, composer Ludwig reinforcements were held up by a
We day eastern Georgia). In a 1783 : van Beethoven (1770-1827) British blockade of French ports
ok treaty, the ruling Bagratid - finished composing his Piano as part of the ongoing war, and
“ S. dynasty agreed to Russian : Sonata 14 in C-sharp Minor Op. 27 France abandoned the island.
protection, in return for » No 2, known as the “Moonlight The cost of fighting in Haiti had
assurances that its territorial : Sonata’, which became one of his put further strain on France's
-~ Integrity would be : most famous works and is troubled finances and it occurred
{Ne preserved. However, : thought to be dedicated to his
Napoleon's a=<. 4 Russian é emperor Paul to Napoleon that he could raise
: pupil, the Countess Giulietta revenue by selling the large and
sabre used at
(1754-1801), who had : Gucciardi, who did not return
Marengo HOY mostly undeveloped land
succeeded Catherine the : his affections.
Sabres were much >», controlled by France in North
? Great upon her death in France and Britain at the table
in use during The United States saw the America. The US had become
A political cartoon of Britain's
Napoleon's wars and 1796, decided to ~ election of Thomas Jefferson William Pitt and France's Napoleon interested in the Louisiana
were carried by both formally annex : (see panel, above] as the country’s Bonaparte carving up the globe territory, especially the port of
cavalry and infantry. “Ky the territory. : third president. | around the Peace of Amiens. New Orleans as more people
 fe Say .

y, Leek. Fhe 2 Sidecar as ae A QF Lo 2 wt

3

Gti» tit titaedy.

of Vln te a a =

| Asketch of an evergreen shrub leaf from William Clark’s diary. He and This painting shows the aftermath of the Battle o f Trafalgar, in which France
/ Meriwether Lewis spent years exploring the vast Louisiana territory. and Spain suffered heavy losses at the hands of Britain’s Royal Navy.

AFTER FINALLY : and William Clark {1770-1838} FRANCE’S DEFEAT IN THE

DRIVING THEFRENCH : - set off on an expedition through CARIBBEAN at Saint-Domingue
Samp Fortunate
OUT of Saint- : the newly acquired Louisiana was soon overshadowed by victory :
Domingue, : Territory {see map, left]. They against Russia and Austria, which
Jean-Jacques : were under instructions from had been pulled back into war.
Dessalines declared the : President Thomas Jefferson to Napoleon had also declared
independence of the new : find the River Missouri, establish himself the king of Italy, then
republic of Haiti on 1 : relations with the indigenous comprising Venice and northern
January 1804. The name :; people of the region, and find the Italian kingdoms. This act
> KEY was based partly on the : fabled Northwest Passage. They provoked the formation of a Third
__ Territory gained original indigenous name for : made detailed maps and recorded Coalition against France, with
by US from
France in 1803 the island. It was the first - ! the flora and fauna of the region. Britain, Austria, Russia, and
— Onward route of Lewis and Clark and only - former slave colony to : The two explorers finally returned Sweden as members. Deciding
throw off colonial rule and slavery. : tu St Louis in 1806. against an invasion of Britain, 0 | 1000 ©2000
Territory gained by the US Bonaparte sent forces to Ulm,
Despite this, its birth was met In West Africa, Usman dan CASUALTIES
The massive Louisiana territory
with a wary reception - some in : Fodio (1754-1817), a Muslim Bavaria (25 September-20
almost doubled the size of the : Casualties of Trafalgar
US. The following year, it was the slave-owning US did not : scholar and teacher, began a October), where he was victorious. ! This sea battle saw heavy losses for
extended south to New Orleans. want Haiti setting an example to © four-year jihad (holy war] However, the day after the Battle : France and Spain, though British
the southern states, a concern : that resulted in the creation of the of Ulm ended, France suffered a : Admiral Horatio Nelson was among
settling further west came to shared by Britain, whose slave » Sokoto Caliphate in 1808 and humiliating naval defeat at the the dead.
depend on trade along the colony of Jamaica was also in » the Fulani empire in Hausaland hands of the British in the Battle
Mississippi River. On 2 May a deal, close proximity. : (in present-day northern Nigeria). of Trafalgar, under the command : of Napoleon's old enemy, Horatio
the Louisiana Purchase, was The defeat in the Caribbean : Nelson (see 1798}. The battle,
signed in which the United States did little to weaken Napoleon's
stranglehold on power in
_ NAPOLEONIC COD fought near Cape Trafalgar,
: between Cadiz, Spain, and the
bought the territory stretching
from the Gulf of Mexico to the Europe. In 1804 he made influenced by Roman law, and : Straitof Gibraltar, saw the
CODE CIVIL : meeting of 18 French and 15
Rocky Mountains - an area of France a hereditary empire, | declared all men equal, ending
2,147,000 square kilometres ostensibly to ward off any FRANCAIS any hereditary nobility. Women : Spanish ships against 27 British
(829,000 square miles). The price assassination attempts, fared less well, as they were : vessels. Britain was victorious,

agreed was $15,000,000, but, but also to showcase his put under male control. : capturing or destroying 18 ships,
including interest, the total paid own might. The coronation The laws also dealt with : but Nelson, fatally wounded in
was closer to $27,000,000. ceremony on 2 December issues such as property rights, action, died before the end of the
: Napoleon faced further was remarkable as marriage, and civil rights. The : battle. Napoleon decided to
: challenges in Europe as Britain Napoleon was not Napoleonic Code was change tactics and turned to
: declared war on France, crowned by Pope Pius VII disseminated throughout : Europe, occupying Vienna and
- beginning the Napoleonic Wars. (1742-1823) who officated, but One of Napoleon Bonaparte’s French-controlled territory in : defeating Russia and Austria
Meanwhile, British East India placed the crown on his own head, : most far-reaching reforms was Europe and beyond, making it : at the Battle of Austerliz on
Company troops were waging crowning himself Napoleon I. In to codify French law. Enacted highly influential - an adapted : 2 December.
: another war involving the internal this year he also made sweeping in 1804, the Napoleonic Code version is still in force in the In Egypt, the Macedonian-born
: politics of the Maratha reforms to the legal system in (Code Napoléon) was a civil Dominican Republic today. : soldier Muhammad Ali (1769-
: Confederacy, the Second Maratha France and French territories, code created with the intention It was also later adopted by : 1849] was named viceroy, or
known as the Napoleonic Code of breaking from the some of the new Latin : pasha, to the Ottoman sultan.
: War (to 1805). The Company’s
attempt to gain control of the (see panel, right). institutions of the past. Based American republics, : Ali had arrived in Egypt in 1801
In the US, two explorers - on reason, it was also heavily including Bolivia and Chile. : as part of a regiment sent to
territory in India only laid the
Meriwether Lewis (1774-1809) : drive out the French.
: ground for further conflict.
 44 YOU MAY CHOOSE TO LOOK
THE OTHER WAY BUT YOU CAN
NEVER SAY AGAIN THAT YOU

William Wilberforce, to the English parliament prior

to the vote on the Abolition Bill, 1789

Napoleon after his victory at the | Francisco Goya's painting The Third of May depicts the French troops’
Battle of Jena in Saxony. _ execution of Spanish insurgents involved in the Madrid uprising.

PRUSSIA SUFFEREDA | ALREADY IN CONTROL OF MOST of LONG-STANDING ENEMIES, Spain

DEVASTATING defeat against | western and central Europe, | and Britain now fought alongside
France at the Battle of Jena on | Napoleon now turned towards the each other as they united against
14 October. Fought in Jena and Iberian Peninsula. Enraged by the France. British troops met early
Auserstadt in Saxony (southeast Portuguese refusal to back a defeat at the Battle of La Coruna,
Germany], 122,000 French troops French boycott against Britain, he
———
northwest Spain, fighting French
and 114,000 Prussians met in sent troops into Portugal via troops under Napoleon’s direct
combat. As a result, Frederick northern Spain. The presence of | command. Britain was
William III (1770-1840) decided French troops, as well as previous subsequently victorious at the
that internal reform in Prussia unpopular concessions to France, Battle of Talavera (27-28 July],
was necessary in order to bolster provoked the Spanish people to southwest of Madrid, under the
the country’s flagging fortunes. rise up, calling
ee for the abdication leadership of Arthur Wellesley
Among the numerous measures of their monarch, Charles lV, in (1769-1852), later known as the
taken, serfdom was abolished. favour of his son, Ferdinand VII Duke of Wellington.
————
Although the transition later proved (1784-1833]. Ferdinand took the The Spaniards, while fighting the
profitable for agriculture, it took throne, but it was to be very French, had also been establishing
years to implement the changes. | short-lived. provincial bodies, called juntas, in
In addition to his other Lured to Bayonne, France, by | order to organize their resistance.
conquests, Napoleon wanted Napoleon’s offer to mediate, The central junta in Spain had
control of the Holy Roman ee Ferdinand VII was forced to also issued a decree declaring the
Empire, which would expand his abdicate. As Charles VII had American territories to be more
territory in Germany. Emperor already abdicated, Napoleon was
=eeessts
| than just colonies, but still a part
Francis II (1768-1835) was in Elite force now able to declare his brother, | of the monarchy. Across the
no position to challenge France THE LONG BATTLE LED BY English : A Janissary, left, in Cairo. Initially Joseph Bonaparte (1768-1844), | Atlantic it was obvious that there
and abdicated, officially ending abolitionist and politician William : the bodyguards of the sultan, the the new king of Spain, triggering
: Jannissaries became the elite
was a crisis of legitimacy in
the empire, of which France Wilberforce (1759-1833] - and the Peninsular War. When news
eee
Spanish rule - without a king, with
took possession. : troops of the Ottoman Empire army.
the thousands of members of the of these events reached Spain's whom did allegiance lie? While
In the Middle East, the Islamic British public who supported his colonies, there were furious debates about this were under way,
holy pilgrimage site of Mecca was campaign - finally came to : the Treaties of Tilsit on 7 July, outbursts. In Santo Domingo, similar American juntas were set
invaded by members of the fruition in 1807 as the bill to : while Prussia signed the other loyalists mounted the War of up, and it soon it became clear that
Arabian Saudi dynasty who abolish the slave trade was » on 9 July. Under the terms of Reconquest (to 1809), driving out not all the colonies would stay on
practiced a strict version of the passed with an overwhelming : the treaties, France and Russia the occupying French troops, and } the path of loyalty to the Crown.
religion known as Wahhabi. In majority. The legislation, however, : formed an alliance, whiie the declaring the island once more
1805, they had captured Medina, only ended the trade in Britain. It _ territories of Austria and Prussia under Spanish control.
which, like Mecca, was under the did not end the practice of slavery. : were significantly reduced.
SS
SSS
ae Pistol from Peninsular War
control of the Ottoman Empire. Russia, alongside Prussia, had In the Ottoman Empire, hammer Flintlock pistols were widely used in
They also made incursions into ) re-entered the hostilities against this period. The term “guerrilla” also
: auxiliary troops called Yamaks
the Arabian Peninsula, sacking | arose, named for Spanish tactics.
France with the Battle of Eylau : erupted into a revolt over
the city of Karbala, in Iraq (also (7-8 February) in eastern Prussia. : attempts to introduce European-
under Ottoman rule}, and The battle was inconclusive and : style reforms to the military.
extending their influence south resulted in a stalemate, with both : They were soon joined by the SS
to Yemen, a cause for concern sides losing more than 20,000 : elite Janissary soldiers. The
among Ottoman officials. troops. After a decisive Russian : unrest culminated in the
defeat at the later Battle of : assassination of Selim III
Friedland, Russia signed one of : (1761-1808).
 pe as ae
by José Clemente Orozco (1883-1949) d epicting
Miguel Hidalgo, | Acaricature compares the Luddites When Napoleon Bonaparte’s troop 3 arrived in Moscow, they found the city
se anti-colonial document sparked the Mexican War of Independence. q to mobs of the French Revolution. | ablaze, as portrayed by this painting by Jean-Charles Langlois (1789-1870).
| |
|
KEY ON 5 JULY, THE SOUTH AMERICAN | RUSSIA, LIKE PORTUGAL, DECIDED = humiliating retreat in December.
| © Spanish territory TERRITORY of Venezuela joined )| to resist Napoleon's Continental : Only around 30,000 French
Portuguese territory UNITED STATES New Granada [see map, left) and |] System, measures intended to : soldiers survived.
ATLANTIC Mexico in declaring independence | damage the economy of Britain.
ig,
In North America, merchants
OCEAN
from Spain. One of the rebels Russia had withdrawn from it in : prospered in their trade with
Havana.e,
%. CUBA
Santo involved in the deliberations for , 1810, and Napoleon resolved to : France, claiming to be a neutral
) Latin America on the Domingo
independence, Simon Bolivar } mount an invasion in retaliation. party in the dispute between the
eve : of independence fs Guatemale Cityeu
Cartagena Caracas BRITISH GUIANA (see panel, below), hadrecenily | He sent more than 500,000 : British and the French. Britain
| Spain and Portugal still Pons FRENCH GUIANA
returned from England, where troops to Russia in June and won : refused to recognize this
| controlled the majority MICEROYRCTYIOR ‘i
| of Central and South NEW GRANADA he had tried to elicit British _ early victories at the battles of : neutrality and began to seize
support for their cause, but he | Smolensk on 17 August and : American ships, often capturing
i America during the VICEROYALTY
| early days of the PACIFIC Lima OF BRAZIL <3 Wvador was unsuccessful. Borodino on 7 September, : the American sailors and pressing
} Peninsular War. OCEAN Bolivar’s trip was confined arriving with his forces in Moscow : them into service with the British
Rio de Janeiro
e to Lundon, but had he travelled | on 14 September. There they Royal Navy. This triggered the
VICEROYALTY
OF PERU __VICEROYALTY OF THE | further north, he would have | found the city gutted, and its : War of 1812 (to 1814), which also
USING THE EXISTING POLITICAL RIO DE LA PLATA seen rebels of another kind: the | inhabitants gone. Russian troops : included battles on the mainland
BoM ontevideo
CHAOS as an opportunity for group known as the Luddites, } held off any further advance, and : where Britain persuaded
reform, Spanish politicians called who were attacking textile mills | as the brutal Russian winter set American Indians loyal to the
a congress, known as a Cortes, in the industrial north of England. | in, Napoleon's troops began to : Crown to attack settlements in
on 24 September in the port of The Luddites aimed to destroy the | falter. The Grand Armée was : the Northwest Territory.
Cadiz. Deputies numbered 104, new machinery in the mills. They || running short on food and In Spain, the Cortes had finally
with 30 representing the colonial feared the machines would many soldiers, unaccustomed : produced a constitution. It limited
territories, although more arrived : document calling for the end of eventually replace them, thereby to such extreme cold, died. the power of the monarchy -
_ later. The Cortes declared itself i Spanish rule, while advocating forcing them into unemployment Napoleon had no other option : although Ferdinand VII was still in
the source of national sovereignty racial equality and land and poverty. } but to make a : exile - and did not provide any
and began to draw up a : redistribution, an act known as I : special representation in the
/ constitution, though Spaniards © the Grito de Dolores (Cry of SIMON BOLIVAR (1783-1830) : Cortes for the nobility or the
| were divided as to the extent they : Dolores]. Thousands responded to clergy. Its liberal ideas provoked
wished the government to be : his call and set off for Mexico City, Simon Bolivar was born in an angry reaction among some
_ restructured. There was also the : where they were put down by Caracas to a wealthy family. : supporters of the Crown and
question of how much political : loyalist troops the following year. He was sent to Europe at 16, Church, and triggered
representation to allow overseas : But Hidalgo’s actions had sparked where he was inspired by the se = OG,
a long-running fight
territories. The colonies : the Mexican struggle for freedom. writings of Enlightenment between liberals
| represented a population far
greater than Spain’s, meaning
In other Spanish colonies,
: similar upheavals took place. The
thinkers on the issue of
liberty. Soon after returning
bi and conservatives,
which would continue
| they could, in theory, dominate the : viceroyalty of New Granada also to South America in 1807, for decades.
| Cortes. The peninsular politicians : declared its independence on 20 he became involved in In Egypt, Muhammad
wished to avoid this, yet needed : July, and there had been uprisings independence conspiracies. Ali was ordered ona
the colonies’ continued support. in Quito and Buenos Aires. Later known as El Libertador, campaign to re-establish
Some members of the public in Meanwhile, on the Hawaiian he led much of northern South Ottoman rule in the holy
} the colonies began taking matters : islands in the Pacific Ocean, King America to independence from city of Mecca, and drive
} into their own hands. In Dolores, : Kamehameha! (1758-1819) Spain. He also ruled Gran out the Wahhabis, who had
| Mexico, a parish priest named : became the first ruler of a united Colombia, but the political seized much of Arabia. His troops
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla : Hawaii, helping the islands union ultimately failed. took Medina in 1812 , and Jeddah
(1753-1811) distributed a ' withstand European incursions. : and Mecca the following year.
46 THE BULLET
THAT WILL KILL
ME IS NOT YET
CAST. 99
Napoleon Bonaparte, statement at
Montereau, 17 February 1814

A painting depicts the 17th-century Temple of Tooth, located in the kingdom of A native inhabitant in Alaska,
| being carried in Mauritius. | Kandy, where one of Buddha's teeth is preserved. territory which Russia had claimed.

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, AFTER ALLIED TROOPS PURSUED | ALTHOUGH HE WAS EXILED FROM : year. Napoleon had been on the | ARUSSIAN ORTHODOX PRIEST,
HIS HUMILIATING RETREAT IN Napoleon to Paris, where he was | FRANCE, Napoleon rallied enough : verge of victory, but the arrival of | Father Sokoloff, was sent to Sitka,
Russia (see 1812], began to captured. He abdicated on 6 April | supporters to help him mount his Prussian reinforcements secured in the Alaska territory, to build a
experience the rapid decline of | and was exiled to the island of return, and he entered Paris on : his defeat. Napoleon was forced to church in the town as part of
his military might. This was driven Elba, off the Tuscan coast of Italy. 20 March - just 11 months after : abdicate once again, but this time Russia’s bid to colonize the region.
home by the decisive defeat at the | To replace him, Louis XVIII his forced departure. Louis XVIII : he was to be exiled much further | Alaska had lingered as an outpost
Battle of Leipzig (also known as (1755-1824) - brother of the fled, and what became known as : away - the island of St Helena, | but settlements began to grow as
the Battle of the Nations) fought | beheaded Louis XVI - was placed | the “Hundred Days” began. Once : a British outpost in the South ! trade in sea otter furs flourished. :
from 16-19 October. France had on the French throne. Afterwards, he had an army assembled, : Atlantic, where he died in 1821. In southern Africa, Shaka
nearly 185,000 troops, but the the European powers convened | Napoleon mounted attacks At the same time, Britain’s | (c.1787-1828], a fierce
allies outnumbered them with the Congress of Vienna against his enemies, defeating : troops in Ceylon (Sri Lanka] | warrior, took over the
more than 300,000 soldiers from | (September 1814 to June 1815). | Prussia at Ligny (in present-day : had taken control of the kingdom | rule of the Zulus. He
Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Part of the resulting settlement | Belgium) on 16 June. He fared : of Kandy, which meant the entire | reorganized the army,
Sweden. Even after this loss gave Prussia two-fifths of Saxony; | much worse two days later at the : island was under British rule. leading his tribe to
Napoleon still refused to sign set up a German Confederation; | Battle of Waterloo, against | military victory, and
a peace deal that would put and allowed Britain to retain British troops led by the Duke of incorporated
Battle of Waterloo
France's boundary back to the | France's Indian Ocean islands | Wellington, who had brought the This clash was the definitive defeat conquered
River Rhine and the Alps. of Mauritius and the Peninsular War (see| of Napoleon Bonaparte, after which | tribes into
While Russia was caught up in | Seychelles, which it | 1808) to an end he was forced to abdicate and | the Zulu
the Napoleonic conflict, it was had captured. |_the previous go into exile. ) nation.
also entangled with territorial
deals further east; Russia and
Persia signed the Treaty of
Gulistan, in which Russia was
given a large area of Persian
Caucasus territory. The deal
brought to an end the Russo-
Persian War (1804-13), which
had been triggered by Russia's
annexation of Georgia and the
Karabakh (a region in present-
day Azerbaijan). The territories,
which had been a dominion of
Persia, had appealed to Persia’s
shah for help in resisting Russia.
In Venezuela, Simon Bolivar
(see 1811] had won an important
victory against the Spanish and
captured Caracas, though Spain's |
forces would later defeat him,
forcing him into exile for two
years. During this period he went
to Jamaica and Haiti to regroup
and enlist further support before
returning to Venezuela in 1816.
 D}
Argentine general José de San Martin with his A depiction of the Peterloo Massacrein which a peaceful political protest
horse and officers. in Manchester, England, was attacked by armed cavalrymen.

121 1,100 THE BATTLE IN ARABIA, ongoing ON 16 AUGUST,A POLITICAL : royalist forces. In 1819, he led his
dead or dead or since 1811 between Egypt and the RALLY of around 60,000 people on : troops from Venezuela over the
injured injured Wahhabi sect of Islam, drew toa St Peter's Field in Manchester, : Andes to launch an attack. The
3,500 - close in 1818. Egyptian forces led England, turned from a protest : Spanish were defeated at the
' by Muhammad Ali recaptured the about high food prices and lack : Battle of Boyaca on 7 August and
3,000~ holy cities of Mecca and Medina.
a of popular suffrage into the : Bolivar marched south to Santa Fé
2,500-, Wahhabi power had spread Peterloo Massacre. Magistrates, : de Bogota, which secured the
quickly, and from their Arabian concerned about the size of the independence of New Granada.
2,000~) base they had secured control crowd, ordered the Yeomanry : Bolivar was named the president
of Mecca, Medina, and Jedda. (voluntary cavalry officers} to : of the new Republic of Colombia.
wu ra)ro)
FORCES Syria was under threat when arrest the speakers, but they In a bid to challenge Dutch
1,000-) Muhammad Ali received his attacked the crowd when they dominance of trade routes
orders to defeat the Wahhabi refused to make way. A regiment, : between China and India (see 1795)
500- and return the cities to Ottoman the 15th Hussars, was then sent in, : the British East India Company
0 EE occa rule. A final siege of the capital and an estimated 15 people were sought a new base in the Malay
Rebels Royalists Diriyah (in present-day Saudi killed and more than 500 injured. : peninsula. Stamford Raffles
: Mary Shelley
Arabia) put a temporary end to : The English novelist Mary Shelley Upon his return from exile, : arrived in Singapore, which was
Battle of Chacabuco
A bold risk by rebel leader José de | Wahhabi ambitions. : published her first novel, Venezuelan general Simon : then part of the Riau-Johor
San Martin resulted in a highly In South America, the effort led : Frankenstein, in 1878, and it Bolivar, had begun to make : empire. He negotiated a deal with
successful ambush against the by José de San Martin at the : remains a literary classic today. considerable headway against : the local ruler and founded a port.
Spanish, who sustained heavy losses. Battle of Maipu on 5 April secured
independence for Chile when : including Briton Denis Johnson
THE FIGHT AGAINST SPANISH rule loyalist troops suffered a crushing : (c.1759-1833), a coachmaker by
took a decisive turn when defeat. With a small naval fleet of : training, who designed a
Argentine-born General José de seven ships under the command ! “pedestrian curricle”, later
San Martin (1778-1850) led of British mercenary Lord Thomas known as a dandy horse.
around 3,000 troops from Argentina Cochrane, the rebels also In England, Mary Shelley
into Chile through treacherous managed to break the Spanish : (1797-1851), the daughter of
passages in the Andes mountains, hold on the coastline. : writer Mary Wollstonecraft (see
and launched a surprise attack on In Paris, German inventor Baron : 1792) and wife of poet Percy
royalist forces on 12 February - Karl von Drais de Sauerbrun was : Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822],
the Battle of Chacabuco. He then impressing crowds with a published the novel Frankenstein;
moved on to take Santiago. He display of his draisienne, a : or, The Modern Prometheus. The
refused the offer of governorship two-wheeled machine that was : novel concerns a scientist who
of Chile, passing it instead to fellow the precursor to the modern : artificially creates another human ‘THE EAST INDIA COMPANIES
soldier Bernardo O'Higgins bicycle. Made of wood and ; being, and the consequences
(c.1776-1842], who became the propelled by pushing the feet : they both suffer. The work was an The East India Companies monopolized trade between Europe
territory's “supreme director”. along the ground, rather than by " instant success, and is considered and Southeast Asia, India, and the Far East from the early 17th
Serbia had also been fighting pedals, it was known in German : a classic work of Gothic literature century. However, the French Compagnie Francaise des Indes
once more for independence, as the Laufmaschine, or “running : as wellas one of the earliest Orientales ceased trading at the time of the French Revolution
after being invaded by the Turks in machine”. While testing the : examples of science fiction. (see 1789]. The charter for the Dutch Vereenigde Oost-Indische
1813. The Second Serbian design the previous year, he had —: Compagnie was revoked in 1799 when the government took
Uprising was successful, and managed to ride it 14km [9 miles). control of it. Sweden's Svenska Ostindiska Companiet folded in
most of their former rights were The idea was soon picked up 1813, while Britain's East India Company (above) traded until 1874.
regained by 1817. and modified by other inventors,
 —
Egyptian Mameluke soldiers were former slaves. By invading A woodcut illustrates the battle A depiction of the coronation of Pedro | as emperor of Brazil. Pedro, the
Sudan, Egypt hoped to add Sudanese captives to their ranks. for independence in Mexico. son of the king of Portugal, had declared the colony’s independence.

AS THE UNITED STATES began the 10,200 IN GREECE, A FIGHT FOR THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
settlement of western territories, Missouri INDEPENDENCE FROM THE TURKS PORTUGAL AND BRAZIL had been
the issue of slavery could not be began. Resentful at years of living fundamentally affected when the
ignored. Most of the northern under oppression, people from Portuguese court, fleeing
states had abolished the practice, across Greek society — including Napoleon, arrived in Brazil in
but the southern states had the Orthodox Church - began to 1808. After John VI (1769-1826)
become increasingly dependent plot their liberation. Some rebel returned to Portugal in 1821, he
on slave labour. When the 1,538,022 groups had been organizing left his son, Dom Pedro, (1798-
Southern States 1834) in charge of the kingdom of
Missouri territory petitioned for through secret patriotic societies
statehood in 1817, it caused a such as the Philiki Etaireia Brazil, as Prince Regent. Dom
political crisis over whether the (Society of Friends]. These Pedro, frustrated by the attempt THE NUMBER
federal government had the right organizations involved people of the Portuguese Cortes to
to restrict slavery in this territory. living on the islands, but also had reduce Brazil to its pre-1808 _OF FREED
The solution was the Missouri
Slave population
significant support from the large colonial status, issued his Grito
de Ipiranga (Cry of Ipiranga]
SLAVES
Compromise, which allowed Greek diaspora.
slavery in Missouri, but not in any
: Although the slave population was
small in Missouri, the question of At the same time, rebels in the declaring Brazil's independence, RELOCATED TO
new state north of 36°30’ latitude.
Much of Europe, meanwhile,
: permitting slavery in the state
: caused a political crisis in the US.
Americas were able to take
advantage of Spain’s internal
and crowning himself Emperor
Pedro |.
LIBERIA FROM
was convulsed by political unrest, crisis and weakness to make the Even the loyalist Santo 1G2Z—looe
with revolts in the Italian states, : had been restored to the throne final push for independence. Domingo, on the island of
Portugal, France, and the Low : (see 1815] - sent in troops to Mexico managed to secure its Hispaniola, was swept up in the : poorly guarded ports in Santo
Countries. In Spain, Ferdinand VII : “free” Ferdinand. These soldiers liberation after Mexican royalists, revolutionary spirit of the time, : Domingo and launch an attack to
had returned to the throne in 1814, - toppled the liberal regime, and upon hearing the news of events declaring independence in 1821, : recolonize and re-enstave the
rejecting the new constitution [see returned Ferdinand to power. in Spain (see 1820], decided that though it failed to realize a plan to : island. With this pretext - and the
1812] and arresting liberal leaders. Egypt invaded its southern self-rule was the only way to join Gran Colombia. Santo : fact that slavery still persisted in
Following public unrest, Ferdinand neighbour, Sudan. Pasha avoid a liberal regime as had Domingo’s neighbour, Haiti : Santo Domingo - Haiti's president,
was forced to accept the 1812 : Muhammad Ali wanted Sudanese happened in Spain. On 24 August, (previously Saint Domingue), grew Jean-Pierre Boyer (in office
Constitution, marking the start of :; gold and slaves for his army. By a treaty was signed recognizing concerned that France or Britain : 1818-50) arrived in Santo
the Trienio Liberal - three years ; 1821, Sudan had fallen and the Mexican independence, and on might sneak through the now : Domingo with his forces. The
of a liberal regime {1820-23}. In : Egyptian Empire extended down 19 May the former royalist Agustin : provisional government turned
1823, France's Louis XVIII - who : the Nile to what is now Uganda. de Iturbide (1783-1824) crowned : control over to Boyer, who united
himself emperor Augustin I. ARRICA : both sides of the island under
Further south, the Congress of ' Haitian rule.

44. THISMOMENTOUS Cucuta was formed and formally

established Gran Colombia, &
LIBERIA
The issue of slavery remained
: contentious in the US, and there
QUESTION, LIKE A FIRE consisting of present-day
| Colombia, Panama, Venezuela,
: arose the additional question of
: how to treat freed slaves. The
BELL IN THE NIGHT, and Ecuador. Simon Bolivar was
named president and Bogota was
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
» American Colonization Society,
: founded in 1816, advocated they
AWAKENED AND FILLED made the capital.
In Peru, José de San Martin
: be returned to Africa. The society
: secured agreements with local
ME WITH 'TERROR. 99 led his troops into Lima and
Liberia
Located on the West Coast ofAfrica, : rulers in West Africa, near Cape
declared Peru independent, alongside slaving ports, a colony for : Mesurado, establishing a
Thomas Jefferson, third president of the US, on the implications though fighting to secure its freed slaves was established by the : settlementthat would become
of the Missouri Compromise in a letter to John Holmes, 22 April 1820 freedom continued. American Colonization Society. : known as Liberia.
 ‘a
oe ox Ne * Teese i ~ 2 4

The Alaungpaya dynasty’ s invasion of n orthern India led to Britain declaring This print depicts the Ottoman siege of Missolonghi, where the Greeks had
| war and eventually capturing the coastal city of Rangoon, pictured. established a provisional government during their war for independence.

IN HIS ANNUAL MESSAGE TO THE : America, which was composed i THE TERRITORY OF UPPER PERU Technological innovations in the
US Congress on 2 December, : of Guatemala, El Salvador, i received a much-needed boost : use of steam (see 1775 and 1786]
President James Monroe (see : Nicaragua, Honduras, and Costa | with the arrival of Simén Bolivar to power engines had led to
panel, below) outlined a new : Rica. They had achieved | (see 1811) and Antonio José de the development of railway
diplomatic policy: the Monroe : independence from Spain in 1821, | Sucre (1785-1830), whose troops : locomotives, such as the one
Doctrine. Concerned about the ' but were joined to the empire of helped to defeat the Spanish. : designed by English inventor
possibility of European incursion : Mexico. The local leaders decided | Bolivar wanted this territory to : John Blenkinsop in 1812.
into the new republics of Latin : to break away and establish a | unite with the rest of Peru, but George Stephenson [1781-1848],
| America, Monroe attempted to : federal republic, with the capital | Sucre had already agreed with the : acolliery mechanic, improved
,
set boundaries between Europe : in Guatemala City. | rebel leaders that it would : on that design and caught the
j
and the Americas. The doctrine The Alaungpaya Dynasty of i
i| become a separate republic. In attention of a group of investors
stated that the US would not : Burma [present-day Myanmar, i
| honour of Bolivar’s help the rebels = wishing to link the towns of
interfere in the internal affairs or : see 1752), had been making ) named the new nation Bolivia, : Stockton and Darlington.
i
wars of European powers, nor in incursions into the northern |i{ and they invited Sucre to be its : Darlington was in the middle
any colonies in the Americas, but : Indian state of Assam, bringing ), first president, which he accepted. : of acoal mining region and the
likewise declared the western : them into contact with the British,
$
| With the creation of Bolivia, all the : Pennine mountains made
hemisphere now closed to any : who were occupying the region. In | former Spanish colonies - with : transportation difficult. The 40-km
| further European attempts at : an effort to protect their interests | the exception of Cuba, Puerto : (25-mile} line opened the way for
Lord Byron
colonization. Interference with in India, Britain launched the First | Rico, and the Philippines - had © further railroad development.
The Romantic poet Lord Byron was
territories in the Americas would : Anglo-Burmese War the inspired by the Greek struggle for become independent nations.
now be viewed as hostile acts © following year (1824-26). This independence from the Ottoman In England, there was great
against the US. : resulted in the British capture of Empire, and went to Greece to fight.
' Crowd puller
| excitement over the opening, on
: The opening of the Stockton to
Earlier in the year, another : much of the territory of Burma, | 27 September, of the Stockton to : Darlington rail line marked the first
republic had joined the Americas: : Including Rangoon, which was AS THE FIGHT FOR GREEK Darlington railway line, in the : time that a locomotive was used to
the United Provinces of Central : taken in 1825. INDEPENDENCE INTENSIFIED, i| industrial north of the country. : pull a passenger train.
it attracted the public's attention }I
Beoveansee =
| across Europe, especially among
uSIS 2 =
writers and artists. One such
James Monroe (1758-1831, see } person was the English Romantic
right) was the fifth president of | poet Lord Byron (1788-1824),
the United States, serving from | famed for his poem Don Juan.
1817-25. His time in office was Byron had arrived in Greece the
a period during which the US } previous year to help fight in the
began to emerge as a serious }| struggle. However, while he was
global power. This period was abroad he contracted a serious
known as the “era of good } illness and died on 19 April in
feelings”, and was marked by | Missolonghi.
significant economic growth In Peru, a decisive victory at the
and general public optimism. Battle of Ayacucho, 9 December,
With its aversion to interference meant the end of Spanish rule,
in other nations affairs set out though to the north, in the
in the Monroe Doctrine, the US | territory known as Upper Peru,
began to pursue a policy of loyalist forces were still holding oe
isolationism. } out against rebel troops, in one of
the last bastions of fighting.
 THE TOP SPEED
OF THE FIRST
¢ US STEAM
| LOCOMOTIVE
| Adepiction of the uprising that led:
The signing ceremony at the Treaty of Turkmanchai, in which Persia
to the Belgian independence.
returned contested land in the Caucasus region to Russia.

TENSIONS BETWEEN RUSSIA AND | AS GREECE'S BATTLE AGAINST | DEBATE OVER IRELAND HAD EUROPE HAD SCARCELY
Persia restarted [see 1813] over the Ottoman Empire continued, | intensified after the Act of Union | RECOVERED from the unrest of the
the Caucasus region, with the neighbouring powers began to | (see 1801). Daniel O’Connell, a _ previous decade {see 1820) when
Persians attempting to take back | call for an end to the conflict. | | Catholic lawyer, called for England | France was convulsed by the July
the territory of Georgia in 1825. | Britain, France, and Russia joined ' to repeal its anti-Catholic laws, ' Revolution, an insurrection that
However, a crushing defeat at the | together to sign the Treaty of | arguing that it could not claim to | forced the abdication of Charles X
Battle of Ganja on 26 September / London on 6 July, which } be representing the people of + (r.1824-30), who was replaced by
1826 halted the Persian advance. demanded the establishment | Ireland. In addition, he staged | Louis-Philippe, duke of Orléans
Russian troops then marched into | of an independent Greek state. | mass meetings about the issue of _ {r.1830-48). The rebellion had
Persia, eventually taking Tehran, | The Ottomans refused, confident | Catholic emancipation. In 1828, | been triggered by Charles's
leaving the Persians no option but they had the land and sea power | O'Connell stood for parliament and | attempt to enforce repressive
to accept defeat. They negotiated to defeat the Greeks. | won, though he was not allowed | ordinances, such as suspending
the Treaty of Turkmanchai, By autumn, the Ottoman | to sit in government because | the freedom of the press and
José Gervasio Artigas
which put the Russian border resources were put to the test as | of his Catholicism. His victory, modifying electoral law so many
Artigas was the father of the
at the Aras River, returning the a Turkish-Egyptian fleet went up Uruguayan independence movement, | however, attracted the attention of | people lost their right to vote.
Caucasus territory to Russia. | against a naval force comprising but had been in exile for several | the British prime minister, Arthur Louis-Philippe’s succession to
In Hawaii, US missionaries had British, French, and Russian ships | years when it was finally liberated. | Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington | the throne signalled the arrival of
started to settle on the islands _ at the Battle of Navarino on (see 1815), who was Irish though | power for the bourgeoisie, who
and America had become one | 20 October. The Russo-European THE TREATY OF MONTEVIDEO ) not Catholic. He oversaw the | were his chief support, rather
of the kingdoms largest trading | ships sunk three-quarters of RECOGNIZED the independence of | Catholic Relief Act 1829, which ) than the aristocracy, and he
partners. The US was looking | the Ottoman fleet, and this Uruguay in August 1828. The area, | allowed Catholics in Ireland | remained in power until 1848.
to protect its growing interests | humiliating defeat led to the then known as the Banda Oriental, | and England to take seats in Around the same time, revolts
thereby formalizing trade | eventual withdrawal of Turkish | was disputed between Brazil and Parliament and hold public office. were taking place in the Italian
arrangements in the face of | troops from Greece, which won Argentina. It had been under Elsewhere in England, inventor and German kingdoms; in the
possible European competition, | independencein 1832. Spanish control but during the | George Stephenson (see 1825] Netherlands; and in Russia, as
so it convinced the regency wars of independence in South | unveiled a new locomotive engine, | the Polish living under Russian
government of King America, under the leadership of known as the Rocket, which rule rose up against the tsar.
Kamehameha III (1813-54) to José Gervasio Artigas (1764- could reach speeds of about
sign the Hawaii-United States 1850), the territory established | 58km (36 miles] per hour. He
Treaty of 1826. The treaty its independence from Spain and had entered the Liverpool
and
stipulated that there would be Argentina in 1815. However, the | Manchester Railway competition
peaceful and friendly political and following year, Brazil invaded and | for best new engine. The Rocket
trading relations between the two. occupied it. This led to a further | was the clear victor.
In France, inventor Joseph- war, led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja This year also saw progress of
Nicéphore Niépce [1765-1833] (1784-1853) and his group known the railway in the US, with the first ii
took the world’s first photograph, | as the ‘thirty-three immortals’. | American-built steam locomotive,
i
8,000
known as View from the Window Lavalleja, with Argentinian support, Tom Thumb. In 1830, a race was PEOPLE DEAD
at Le Gras, which was of defeated Brazilian troops and | staged against a horse-drawn cart |
a barnyard in France. His founded an independent Uruguay. | to prove the superiority of steam
technique involved making an Territorial disputes were power. Although the horse won
eight-hour exposure onto a | also behind another conflict on this occasion due to a techinal
| A one-sided battle Cherokee deaths on Trail of Tears
pewter plate using a camera
| A Turkish warship burns fiercely at | between the Ottoman Empire | fault with the train, the point was Thousands of American Indians
obscura, which was a dark box | the Battle of Navarino, in which the | and Russia, with the Russians made and the owners of the
were forcibly relocated from the
with a tiny hole - a forerunner | Ottoman fleet was devastated but capturing Vidin and Varna | Baltimore and Ohio Railroad southeast of the US, travelling a
of the modern camera. | nota single allied ship was lost. _ {in present-day Bulgaria). agreed to switch to steam trains. route later called the Trail of Tears.
 44 NO MINISTER
| EVER STOOD, OR
COULD STAND,
AGAINST PUBLIC
OPINION. 99
' Robert Peel, British politician,
® on the Reform Act, 1834

: Also during this period, French : blockade of Algiers, matters : the era of the wagon train. THE KINGDOM OF
: troops arrived in Algiers, with : escalated. By 5 July, the French : Settlers, travelling in groups of | THE NETHERLANDS
: the intention of taking control. : had raised their flag over the : horse-drawn wagons Carrying | was caught up in
om Ps Ot

A few years earlier, in 1827, the : kasbah in Algiers and this marked all of their possessions, headed | the turmoil across
provincial Ottoman ruler, or dey, the start of French control over : out to unknown territory to set Europe. The
: Husayn (r.1818-38), had struck a » this North African territory. up farms and settle the land. Congress of Vienna
: French consul with a fly whisk, In South America, political Meanwhile, to facilitate (see 1815) had
: giving the French a pretext for : alliances were also fragile. Before : settlement in the east, the US forced the Belgian
: war. The source of the tension was | his death in 1830, Simon Bolivar : government passed the Indian territories, which
: an unpaid debt between France : (see 1811) had witnessed the : Removal Act in 1830. This | had been under
and the dey. During a French : secession of Venezuela and _ stripped American Indians of legal | French control,
: Ecuador from Gran Colombia, :: rights, and forced them to leave to unite with the
© which ended his dream of political : their desirable territory in the | Dutch, thereby
: Liberty ieading the people
: This famous painting by French : unity among the newrepublics. : southeast of the country and | creating a buffer The English Reform Act
: artist Eugéne Delacroix (1798- 1863] Further north, more settlers : relocate to sparsely populated ) between Russia and France. A cartoon shows the reformers’
: was inspired by the July Revolution, : in the US were making their way land west of the Mississippi. The This move proved unpopular | attack on the “Old Rotten Tree",
: and depicts “Liberty” as a woman. : west, and this was known as moves resulted in many deaths. _|_ and tensions grew over the | which symbolizes the corrupt “rotten”
| boroughs. They wanted a fairer
a ozs | intervening years. | distribution of parliamentary seats.
| By August 1830, inspired by
| events in France, the Belgian
| Revolution had begun. The result BRITAIN ALSO SAW UPHEAVAL
| was a clear break from the AND SOCIAL CHANGE in the 1830s.
| kingdom of the Netherlands. There had been growing public
Later that year a constitution discontent over the outdated
| was issued, which created a voting system (see 1819].
| constitutional monarchy and A bill was drafted, aimed
| a parliamentary system. On 20 at transferring votes and
January 1831, the new state of redistributing seats from small
| Belgium was officially recognized “rotten” boroughs controlled by
| by Britain and France, though not the nobility to the more populous
| the Netherlands. The Belgians industrial towns. The first
| were forced to choose a monarch | Reform Bill, failed to be passed
| with no direct connection to other in parliament. This caused
major European powers. They | serious riots in many cities, as
finally elected Leopold of well as a political crisis with the
| Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld - the uncle prime minister, Charles Grey
| of Britain's Queen Victoria - and (1764-1845), who threatened to
| he ruled as Leopold I until 1865. step down over the matter. The
| The same year, Syria was bill finally became law on 4 June
| annexed by Egypt until 1840, 1832. This legislation allowed
} when the latter was finally more middle-class men the vote,
| forced to return the region but the working class and
| to the Ottomans. ) women were still excluded.
 \ *\
J

This engraving shows children working in an English mill. The size of the first | A Galapagos cactus finch, one of the | The Alamo, the site of a key battle i A painting of Queen Victoria's
cotton spinning machines meant they were best operated by children. | species noted by Charles Darwin. | for Texan independence. | coronation in Westminster Abbey.

| IN THE PACIFIC OCEAN, almost | AS SETTLERS IN THE US MOVED

THE MAXIMUM | a thousand kilometres from | WEST, many decided to live in
HOURS PER WEEK | the coastline of South America, ! the Texas territory, which was
part of Mexico. However, Mexican
| English naturalist Charles
», CHILDREN AGED Darwin (1809-82) took extensive | authorities wanted tighter control
/ 9-12 COULD WORK | notes on the nature of the | over this large territory and the
| Galapagos Islands. Darwin had | settlers rebelled in October 1835,
IN ENGLISH MILLS | accepted a post ona scientific | launching the Texas War of
} voyage aboard the Beagle, which | Independence. The following
IN BRITAIN, INDUSTRIAL : the able-bodied. The Poor Law | left England on 27 December | March, after months of unrest,
development and urban growth : Amendment Act of 1834 1831, arriving in the Galapagos in | General Antonio Lopez de Santa
progressed rapidly. Laws were ‘ stipulated that the poor could only | September 1835 (see also 1839]. It } Anna 1794-1876] marched into
introduced to address exploitation ' receive assistance if they went to | was in the Galapagos where | Texas with 5,000 Mexican troops.
of labour and the growing cost of : workhouses, which were to be } Darwin first noticed the difference } Although massively outnumbered,
providing for the poor. The 1833 : built in every parish. Conditions in i in the species of wildlife on the | the rebels managed to hold them
Factory Act appointed inspectors : the workhouses were deliberately | island compared with mainland | off during a battle at a San i
to monitor factories and limited : harsh and the legislation | South America. This discovery laid | Antonio fortress, called the |
the hours that children could work. : immediately proved unpopular. i the foundation for his later ) Alamo. The rebels were eventually i
In England, local parishes > |n China, British merchants } scientific work on the evolution of | defeated but the Alamo proved a |
provided some relief for the elderly, : were granted permission to | different species (see 1859). | rallying point for Texans benton =| 4
ill, and impoverished. Out of this : engage in trade after legislation In Britain, the National | revenge. Soon after, General |
grew a system of workhouses, : ended the East India Company's | Colonisation Society had been set | Samuel Houston (1793-1863]
aiming to give employment to * monopoly. Although there had up to facilitate the settlement in } led a Texan army with the
| Long-distance communicator
: been private traders in Canton j Australia of people who were not | battle cry “Remember the
before the act, now more were | convicts. Founder Edward Gibbon ; Alamo!” and beat Santa Anna ||| telegraph
This is a single-needle electric
machine, which later
: allowed to sell their wares and | Wakefield (1796-1862) - who had | at the Battle of Jacinto on 21 | developed into double-needle and
‘export Chinese goods, such » served time in prison —- came up } April, forcing Mexico to recognize }| four-needle instruments.
% as tea, the imports of which | with a scheme for populating | the new republic of Texas.
rose 40 per cent after the | colonies based on the sale of land | EXPERIMENTS had been taking
beginning of free trade. | anda tax on the price, which { place for decades over the
In 1832, Egypt invaded } would pay for the transportation } question of how to transmit
_ Syria. Muhammad Ali, the | to the colony. A fleet set off for electric current through wires.
_ pasha, was angered by a | South Australia, where the city | In 1837, two British inventors,
failed promise from the ! of Melbourne was established in | William Fothergill Cooke and
Ottoman sultan to give him | 1835, and Adelaide a year later. | Charles Wheatstone, made
the territory. Ali took Gaza |a breakthrough and secured a
and Jerusalem in the First ! patent for an electric telegraph
Turko-Egyptian War, and by |44 IT SEEMS TO | device that allowed for
: 1833 the Ottoman government | BE A LITTLE | communication through wires
: begged Russia for help, and
| WORLD WITHIN | and had needles that could point
Texans
! 18,000 troops were sent to | to specific letters and numbers.
| Battle of the Alamo
Commemorative coin
The Slave Emancipation Act outlawed
the buying or selling of people, set
: Constantinople. Britain and ;
: France got involved, demanding
| ITSELF. 99 Texans were vastly outnumbered by | At the same time in the US,
| Samuel Morse received a
| Mexican forces in the battle fought
free young children, and compensated | a settlement, in which Egypt was Charles Darwin, from Journal of | between 23 February and 6 March patent on an electromagnetic
planters in most of the British Empire. : given Syria, and Russia withdrew. \ Researches, September 1835 | and there were very few survivors. | transmitter that could transfer
 Sas

The East India Company's steamer, Nemesis, attacks Chinese war junks in
Anson's Bay, at the mouth of the Pearl River, China, during the First Opium War.

_ information using dots and WHILE BRITISH TRADE IN CHINA growing influence over the Afghan
- dashes. Morse’s telegraph CONTINUED TO EXPAND, so too : emir, Dost Muhammad Khan
_ was far simpler than the Cooke did the Chinese opium problem. : (1793-1863), Britain attempted to
_ Wheatstone design, and soon Decades earlier, the East India replace him with an emir more
became the standard instrument Company had started exporting sympathetic to British interests
- worldwide, revolutionizing the the druy, produced from poppies in northern India, including the
global movement of information. grown in Bengal, to China in order protection of overland trade routes
When Britain’s King William IV to trade it for tea, which it then through the region.
died on 20 June, he had no sent to Britain. Despite numerous In England, naturalist Charles
surviving legitimate heir, so the attempts to ban the importation of : Darwin (see 1835) published an
crown passed to Victoria, his the substance, British ships account of the diary he kept while
niece (see panel, below]. She was continued to import it. On - on the Beagle. The journey had
the daughter of Edward, Duke of 30 March 1839, one frustrated : taken Darwin around the world.
Kent, and granddaughter of Chinese commissioner ordered : He had set off from Plymouth in
George Ill. Her reign was viewed British warehouses and ships in : 1831 for the Cape Verde Islands,
Brunel's Great Western
as a time of growing prosperity, TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGY Canton to be destroyed. Britain then Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay,
: The Great Western steamship
technological innovation, and was rapidly changing. Along with shown off the west coast of England. sent warships in retaliation, : and Tierra del Fuego. He then
colonial expansion. the expansion in rail transport, : The sails helped to propel the ship attacking China's coastline in the : sailed north along the Pacific
In Japan, Tokugawa leyoshi travel by sea was also being and keep it on an even keel. First Opium War. : Coast of South America, stopping
{1793-1853} became shogun. revolutionized by many Meanwhile, tensions between : at the Galapagos Islands, before
At the time of his rule, Japan innovations. The power of steam in New York 15 days later; the Egypt and the Ottoman sultan » going onward to Tahiti, New
was experiencing social and was finally harnessed in an paddle-wheeled steamship had erupted again in the Second : Zealand, Australia, Mauritius, and
economic decline. He introduced efficient way that allowed for " cut the voyage time in half and Turko-Egyptian War. This time finally back to England, arriving in
measures known as the Tempo much quicker sea crossings (see : arrived with fuel to spare. The it was triggered by an Ottoman © October 1836. Darwin's account
Reforms, restricting migration 1786). On 8 April 1838, the Great : ship had been designed by leading attempt to invade Syria, which helped make his name in science.
- to urban areas and instigating Western left Bristol for its maiden : British civil engineer Isambard it had previously ceded to Egypt
price controls, but they failed. transatlantic voyage, and arrived : Kingdom Brunel (1806-59), who (see 1833).
Galapagos
had also been involved in other At the same time, Islands
engineering projects, including British political
oe
=
a
: the Great Western Railway. The meddling in Afghanistan oe
Ruling for 63 years and 216 |» idea for the steamship started as triggered the First cee SOUTH :
Te AMERIC
days, Queen Victoria remains | ; a suggestion by Brunel to Great Afghan War (to 1842). Lima & ; coe
the longest-reigning monarch | | Western Railway directors that Worried about Russia's Planalto de iBeDia
Mato Grosso
of Britain. In 1840, she married _ the train line could be extended to PACIFIC
ae
Iquique se Bs
her cousin, Albert of Saxe- : New York by way of a regular OCEAN q ves rail : de Janeiro
DARWIN’S JOURNEY
Coburg and Gotha (1819-1861). : transatlantic service. Soon after, Copiapo@ os
Feb 1832 —»>—p>—»—>—»—-» Sep 1835
She adored him and they had |. the Great Western Steamship J A
nine children together. The : Company was set up to facilitate Buenos Aires
Victorian era contrasted | + the construction of the ship. Darwin's Beagle Montevideo
sharply with the excesses of In the Americas, Guatemala, voyages
ATLANTIC
Charles Darwin's five-year
previous Hanoverian rulers, Honduras, and Nicaragua Isla de Chiloe OCEAN
voyage [1831-36] on
and Victoria's domestic life was : became independent nations. the Beagle, a warship
Chonos
Archipelago
held up as the model for carrying ten cannons, led Falkland Islands
families in this period. him to consider scientific South
Georgia
evidence in new ways.
 A by Wea)
voy
Horse and coach at a London station leaving to deliver mail. The development The port of Hong Kong was key to An illustration depicting a caravan of African slaves. The slave trade remained
of stagecoaches meant post could be delivered all over Britain. Britain's trade in the East. prevalent in many parts of the world despite a growing effort to eradicate it.

EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT OF New AS CHINESE AND BRITISH TROOPS THE OPIUM WAR between Britain : driving force for the Mines Act of
Zealand had gradually increased continued to fight in the Opium and China finally came to an end : 1842, prohibiting children under
over the previous decade, and War, Britain's ships sailed up the after British troops took further : ten and women from working in
included the introduction of many Pearl River, capturing forts around territory, reaching Nanking in > mines. In the US, the state of
missions. Settlers traded with the Canton, followed by the ports of August. Chinese officials sued for Massachusetts passed legislation
Maori who were already living on Amoy and Ningpo. The British peace, resulting in the Treaty of : to limit a child’s work day to ten
the island - exchanging European also occupied the key port of Hong Nanking on 29 August. China was : hours. Belgium’s King Leopold |
muskets for Maori crops and Kong. A preliminary agreement to forced to pay an indemnity of $20 : also tried to regulate child and
livestock. This had led to an arms end the war, drafted in January million to the British and officially : female labour conditions, but his
race between rival tribes in the and known as the Convention of cede Hong Kong. It was also made : plans were rejected.
Maori Musket Wars (1820-35). Chuenpee, ceded Hong Kong to to open the ports of Canton, Amoy, : The slave trade and the practice
The British wanted to establish a the British, but the document Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai : of slavery still persisted in many
colony and the New Zealand was written amid continued to British trade. These cities : countries. France had brought
Company was set up, selling land hostilities and was never ratified. became known as ‘treaty ports’. : slavery back to its colonies [see
for settlement (see 1835). A ship Egypt and the Turks, meanwhile, Industrialization and the mining 1803}, and while Spain had signed
of settlers left for New Zealand in ended their second war over industry resulted in many children : a treaty over abolition in 1817 with
1839. All involved were aware of Syria (see 1839), with Egyptian finding themselves in dirty and : the British, who had abolished the
_ Tamati Waka Nene
potential hostility from the Maori. troops withdrawing from Syria. dangerous working conditions. In : Slave trade in 1807, it was not
: Nene was a warrior and chieftain of
In 1840, William Hobson (1792- : the Maori Ngatihoa tribe in the early Britain, social reformer Anthony : enforced for decades. Likewise,
1842], lieutenant-governor of New i 19th century. He spoke out in favour Ashley Cooper, seventh earl of : Portugal's 1818 treaty with Britain
Zealand, approached Maori chiefs : of the Treaty of Waitangi. Shaftesbury (1801-85), became a : and subsequent treaties were not
with the Treaty of Waitangi. This honoured, nor was
offered protection by the British in : The Maori would keep their land ™ slavery abolished in its
exchange for ceding sovereignty. : on the basis that if they sold it only colonies. However, in

‘
: the British Crown could buy it. 1842, a further treaty
: There was much opposition to j allowed British ships to
2,050
» the treaty but some Maori chiefs @ attack Portuguese slave
non-Maori
population
: believed that the British presence q@ ships off East Africa.
: would bring stability to the The Portuguese colony
: country. On 21 May sovereignty of Mozambique was a
was proclaimed over the territory. huge slave port, with
In Britain, the postal system 15,000 slaves a year
was reformed. Improved transport
Fe
¥WY
oe
4Pay)
a
payne _ taken from 1820 to 1830.
: meant that mail could be delivered

af
: all over the country, but costs rose
: as postage was paid for on receipt,
: based on distance travelled. A
: “penny post” system was
: proposed, whereby any letter ay

, Se os : | Treaty of Nanking
: could be sent anywhere in the | This treaty ended the
AMisaer LORS EE
: country for a penny, and postage | three-year Opium War,
New Zealand's population in 1840
The European population was still : would be pre-paid using stamps. | gave Britain control of
very small at the end of 1840, though : These measures came into force _ Hong Kong, and opened
the Treaty of Waitangi opened the : in 1840 and was the first system | up five “treaty ports” to
way for further settlement. : of its kind in the world. - traders.
 |46 WHAT
HATH GOD
|WROUGHT? 99
Samuel Morse, American
artist and inventor, in his
telegraph message

peers q Ba 7 i a Ak
A portrait of Abdul Rahman. His | With the backing of the US Congress, Samuel Morse managed to have } A painting depicts sufferers of the Irish famine. One million died when the potato
father, Faisal, revived Saudi fortunes. |wires built that could transmit messages. | crop failed over successive years, while millions more left the island for ever.
;
| THE OTTOMAN DESTRUCTION OF | : described working-class life. | wo 10- relations between the Irish people
the first Saudi state (see 1818), | : Around this time he also began 5 and the British government. Many
} established by the Wahhabi | : a lifelong friendship with fellow = Irish decided to emigrate and
| movement and Saud family, did | : writer and philosopher, Karl i= more than two million people left
| not prevent the founding of a | Marx (1818-83), and the two went |= . for Britain, Canada, and the US,
i second Saudi state in 1824. After | » on to publish hugely influential ie * contributing to the decline in
| initial upheavals, Faisal al-Saud, i » works about capitalism and is : population from 8 million to 6.5
| second leader of the second state, i > communism. az million between 1841 to 1851.
resumed his rule in 1843, and led { : In the Caribbean, a group of ea — On the other side of the Atlantic,
the state successfully until 1865. conspirators known as La j 1851 1901 - the Republic of Texas had been
In South Africa, afteraseries | : trying unsuccessfully to join the
Reinitec
le led oy Juarer able : 1 Population decline in Ireland
of victories against the Zulu j ! US since 1836. When it became
_ Duarte (1813-76), launched their | Partly due to famine deaths, but
people, Boer settlers (see 1880) , Friedrich Engels : fight
for the independence of the | mostly due to massive emigration to clear that Britain had a stake in
established the Republic of Natal The Prussian philosopher wrote
: Spanish-speaking side of the escape deprivation, Ireland's : keeping Texas independent, to halt
in the southeast of the country. about the condition of the working : island of Hispaniola (see 1822). population had halved by the 1900s. US westward expansion, the suit
The territory was annexed by the classes in England. His work with : With neighbouring Haiti distracted | was finally approved in December.
Karl Marx made him famous. by its own civil war, Duarte and his |} SUCCESSIVE FAILURES OF THE
: fellow rebels were able to eject | potato crop in Ireland triggered a
| FRIEDERICH ENGELS (1820-95) the Haitians and declared the new | famine that lasted five years and
| was the son of a prosperous : Dominican Republic independent | left more than one million people
businessman who owned textile from Haiti on 27 February. dead. The crop failure, due to late

THE NUMBER mills in Prussia and a cotton mill Meanwhile, Samuel Morse [see
in England. He went to work at the : 1837] had managed to get funding
| blight (see panel, right), was
| particularly devastating because
OF BOERS WHO |family firm in Manchester in 1841,
but he lived a double life. In his
; from the US government to build
' the first telegraph line in the US
| for millions of the rural poor, the
| potato was their staple food. The
MIGRATED spare time he met workers and © from Baltimore to Washington. | British government's response

FROM THE | studied the economic conditions

| of people in England, and the
:
:
The line was completed in 1844.
In his first public demonstration
_ was limited. Rather than intervene
directly, it directed landlords to
CAPE COLONY | result of his work was a book, The : of the telegraph that year he sent shoulder the burden. However, as
| Condition of the Working Class in : a message which famously read many small tenant farmers had
British in 1843. Many Boers _ Englandin 1844, in which Engels - “What hath God wrought?” no crops to sell, rents went unpaid :
decided to move further north to and landlords ran their tenants off The blight responsible for the
Se
SSS
SS
2S
ST
SS
a
what later became the Transvaal | the land. Landowners soon were failure of Ireland’s potato crop
and the Orange Free State, joining | unable or unwilling to provide was Phytophthora infestans, a
the emigration of Boers from the | local poor relief. To compound mould that caused rot within
Cape Colony, ina move known as Glass and iron matters, many larger farms two weeks. Blight spreads
the Great Trek. The Palm House at | continued to export grain, meat, quickly when humidity stays
Despite the treaty between the ithe Royal Botanical | and other foods to Britain as there : above 75 per cent and
Maori and the British in New Gardens, Kew, UK, | was no market for them in Ireland, temperatures above 10°C
Zealand (see 1840), the issue was built in 1844, | given that there was little extra (50°F) for two full days; both
constructed with
of illegal land sales caused money available for the purchase factors were present during
plate glass and iron.
increased tensions, culminating in | Mé It was the first
of such goods. The fact that these the summer of 1845. By
the Wairau Massacre on 17 June, large-scale structure foods were not given to the autumn the crop was lost and
in which a chief's wife and 22 to be made using | millions who were starving in people abandoned the land.
Europeans were killed. wrought iron. | Ireland, served to further strain
SSS
a
 em J re mn >
The Battle of Palo Alto, the first b attle Of the Mexican War, fought near A poster from 1848, showing the Parisian public facing the municipal guards
Brownsville, Texas. The war was triggered by a boundary dispute. during the February revolution against the government.

DIPLOMATIC RELATIONSBETWEEN : for decades. Poor harvests, FRIEDRICH ENGELS AND KARL In February, only a couple of
MARX (see 1844) joined a : weeks after the manifesto’s

“100,000
MEXICO AND THE US became : blockades, and disruption to
WA yk
strained after Texas became supplies during wartime had revolutionary group of Germans : publication, the streets of Paris
the 28th state (see 1845]. The : led to fluctuating wheat prices. known as the League of the Just : erupted into revolution. Although
Mexican government did not want | Legislation to protect domestic who soon changed their name to : it was dramatic and violent, it was
to accept this annexation and : agriculture by limiting the import the Communist League. Engels : nota socialist insurrection.
refuted the US claim that the new : of cheap grain and fix prices had FRENCH TROOPS and Marx were charged with : France had been suffering an
state’s southern border was at the : proved unpopular and led to the developing a programme of action : economic depression and a
Rio Grande, stating it lay further - establishment of the Anti-Corn for the group, and the result was : minister named Francois Guizot
north, at the River Nueces. A : Law League in 1839. The League a pamphlet which became known : had come to symbolize the
diplomatic mission was sent to : argued that the laws impeded as the Communist Manifesto. : government's inability to alleviate
Mexico City in 1845 to settle the : prosperity as restrictions on grain Algerian troops This called for the overthrow of : the situation. The monarchy fared
matter, as well as to attempt the : Imports caused a price increase the bourgeoisie, with the cry of ® little better as the king, Louis-
Rebellion of Abd al-Qadir
purchase of the New Mexico and anda consequent rise in the cost
Although the Algerian troops were “working men of all countries, Philippe [see 1830], was also very
California territories, but these : of wages. The control of exports hugely outnumbered by the French, unite”. Marx believed the gulf : unpopular with the public. Fighting
efforts were met with a snub. : also limited the external market Abd al-Qadir made effective use of between rich and poor in Europe : broke out on 22 February and
The following year, on 25 April, : for British goods. A combination | guerilla tactics. meant conditions were ripe fora : quickly became violent, with
Mexican troops crossed the Rio : of pressure from the League and socialist revolution. soldiers opening fire on the
Grande and attacked soldiers : the failure of the potato crop in IN THE YEARS FOLLOWING
stationed there. The US President, : Ireland {see 1845) led to the Europe in revolt SWEDEN
FRANCE’S ATTACK and
Republican uprisings in 1848 saw AVA Yr
James K. Polk (1795-1849] : repeal of the laws. colonization of Algiers (see 1830), an end to the monarchy in France,
declared war, and fighting lasted In Japan, there was the French faced much resistance although revolutionaries in DENMARK oo
until Mexico surrendered in 1847. : international pressure for the from Algerians, including emir other countries were less
The US also faced boundary : isolationist nation to open up its Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza’iri (1807- successful in their aims.
est
disputes with the British, over : ports to foreign trade. The Dutch, 1883). He gained the support of PRUSSIA
the Oregon Territory, which lay : who were the only Europeans Algerian tribes who aided him RUSS
between 42°N and 54°40’ N. The : allowed limited access to trade in his fight against the French.
US claim for land as far north : in Japan, sent a mission in 1844 After a series of defeats, he was
as 54°40’ N gave rise to Polk's © urging the country’s rulers to forced to surrender in 1847.
campaign slogan of “Fifty-four open up trade. This was followed He was taken prisoner, but
Bay of
Forty or Fight!”. However, under : by the French and British was later freed. Biscay
the 1846 Treaty of Oregon the : requesting trading rights. In 1846, In Germany, a telegraph line
boundary was set at 49°N. : a US delegation arrived and was connecting Frankfurt to Berlin
In Britain, the control of the : also sent away empty-handed, but was installed by a firm owned
import and export of grains - : the US would soon try again in its by Werner Siemens (1816-92),
known as the Corn Laws - had : quest for access to Japanese who had developed a technique Lucca_/ \_MODENA
been the source of controversy ' ports (see 1853). for seamless insulation of TUSCANY PAPAL
STATES
copper wire. CORSICA

44 FIFTY-FOUR
Romee®
Meanwhile, English author,
Emily Bronté (1818-48), KEY SARDINIA
Naples o@

FORTY OR FIGHT! 99
published Wuthering Heights.
© Small German states
Though not met with much critical
®) Areas in revolt against
acclaim it later became one of the Louis—Napoleon in 1851 Palermae® 2.9
~)
most influential literary examples — German Confederation
William Allen, Governor of Ohio, during his election campaign of the Romanticism movement. @ Revolution in 1848-49
 me ag
ie
Merchant ships crowd the bay at San Francisco during the gold rush years, when
tens of thousands of fortune-seekers arrived in California.

SF a WITH THE END OF THE WAR : been triggered by the death

ee fe BETWEEN THE US AND MEXICO in : of their ruler Ranjit Singh
1847, the US gained - through the : (1781-1839). Previously, the
With the publication of the Communist Manifesto Marx and Engels Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) : Company considered Singh's
laid the foundation of a political movement that sought to share — a vast area of land that included : force of 100,000 Khalsa
the means of production, such as land or factories, equally among California. The following year, a warriors far too powerful
the public. Communists aimed to create a classless and stateless carpenter named James Wilson : to confront. But after his
society, as well as abolish the capitalist trappings of private Marshall noticed shiny metal : death, British troops
property and wage labour. nuggets in a river near present- : moved in and took areas
day Sacramento, which he soon : near the border, seizing the
realized were gold. News of this : city of Lahore by 1845. A
crowds.The following day, Guizot ; success. In some places, discovery spread throughout the : treaty between the two forced
was forced out of office and Louis- : they amounted to large-scale country — aided by President : the Sikhs to give up even more
Philippe abdicated from the throne. ' protests, such as the Chartists’ James K. Polk's announcement : territory. A revolt against the
: Livingstone’s compass
A provisional government was : demonstrations for changes to — and by 1849 the rush had : British in 1848 triggered the
: The magnetic compass used by
: set up and the Second Republic : the voting system in Britain, or the begun. That year some 40,000 : Second Sikh War, and by 1849 the :| David Livingstone, who spent much
: established, eventually producing : call for institutional reforms in people arrived in San Francisco : Punjab region had been annexed : of his time as a missionary exploring
a constitution and extending the : Belgium and the Netherlands. by boat and another 40,000 by : by the British. ! Africa's interior.
vote. However, internal power It was in France, the Austrian wagon train from around the US Yemen, at the foot of the
struggles led to a workers : Empire, Germany, and the Italian and other countries. Most of the : Arabian Peninsula,
was fighting : the British East India Company
rebellion in June. By the end of : states where the real agitation prospectors ended up empty- against imperial advances from : had already taken control of the
the year, another Bonaparte was : lay. In the Kingdom of the Two handed but many stayed in : the Ottoman Empire, which was : port of Aden a decade earlier
in power - this time Napoleon's : Sicilies (see map, left}, the king California, making the West : trying to reassert its authority in : in order to set up a coaling
nephew, Prince Louis-Napoleon : was forced to grant a constitution. Coast a booming region in the : the Tihama region, on the Red : station for British ships en
Bonaparte, (1808-73), who had : Germany saw street fighting in mid-19th century. :; Sea. In the south of the country, : route to India.
been elected president. : Berlin in March, with the king In southern Africa, a British
This unrest was not limited to : of Prussia promising to grant explorer and missionary named _PRE-RAPHAELITES
France. The rebellions had started Germany a constitution. Austria, David Livingstone (1813-73) had
in Sicily in January, and spread : too, saw fighting break out in finally reached a lake in the Three young artists frustrated
from there. There were a number : Vienna, and a new government interior that he had heard about with the state of British
of factors involved: high food : was appointed, while many of its - known today as Lake Ngami. painting at the Royal Academy,
prices, economic depression, : territories, such as Hungary, He had been living in South where they were students,
nationalist movements, desire : called for more autonomy. In Africa since 1841 and had been decided to create a movement
for constitutional reforms, and broad terms, however, the events travelling extensively in the to bring a moral seriousness
frustration with monarchies. The : of 1848 ended in failure and region. In order to find this body into art - in contrast to the
revolutions varied in intensity and : further social repression. of water, Livingstone had to cross pomposity and frivolity they
the Kalahari Desert, where he perceived in Victorian art.
also encountered the River Known as the Pre-Raphaelite
44 DISGRACED BY THE Botletle, which he thought could
be “the key to the Interior”.
Brotherhood, Dante Gabriel
Rossetti, William Holman Hunt,
STINK OF REVOLUTION, In India, the past four years and John Everett Millais painted

BAKED OF DIRT AND MUD. 99

had seen two wars between the religious and romantic subjects
British East India Company troops : with realist clarity, although
and the Sikhs in the northwest. _ _ their work was also symbolic.
Frederick William IV of Prussia, on the Crown after the 1848 Revolution The First Sikh War (1845-46] had
See ae
A depiction of one of the many bloody A hand-coloured lithograph shows the Crystal Palace at the Great Exhibition of The Royal Navy played a significant Commodore Matthew Perry brought
battles during the Taiping Rebellion. 1851 in London's Hyde Park. Some six million people visited it in six months. role in the Anglo-Burmese War. Japan a railway carriage as a gift.

IN THE SAME WAY CHINA HAD HOSTILITIES HAD ONCE AGAIN US COMMODORE MATTHEW PERRY
TRIED TO KEEP European ships 44 IT IS AWONDERFUL flared up between British troops {1794-1858} had been charged
and the Burmese. After making with opening up trade with the
PLACE — VAST, STRANGE,
from its ports, it had also tried to
drive out Christian missionaries extensive territorial gains in the secluded Japan. Japan had been
thereby limiting the influence of
Christianity. Despite this, by the NEW, AND IMPOSSIBLE last war against Burma [see
1823), Britain was eager to control
under international pressure to
open up its ports to foreign
mid-19th century some 200,000
Chinese had been converted, and TO DESCRIBE. 99 more of the area. Wider control
would create an overland coastal
merchants for years. The Dutch,
who were the only Europeans
thousands more were familiar connection from Calcutta in allowed very limited access to
with the religion. Charlotte Bronté, English novelist, on her visit to the Great Exhibition
Britain's Indian territory to the trade in Japan, sent a mission in
In 1850, officials sent troops to British port in Singapore. The East 1844, urging the country’s rulers
disband a religious society whose IN LONDON, THE WORLD WAS ON surged from about one million in India Company also wanted to allow in more ships. This was
beliefs were loosely based on DISPLAY. An exhibition had been 1801 to over two million by 1851. access to the teak forests in followed by French and British
Protestant ideas. This sect was organized, billed as the “Great In Australia, the discovery of Burma. In 1852, the British seized requests for trading rights. A
led by Hong Xiuquan (1814-64) Exhibition of the Works of Industry gold in Victoria and New South a ship belonging to Burma’s king, delegation from the US arrived
who, believing himself to be the of all Nations”. The Great Wales the same year prompted a and this was enough to start the and was also sent away empty-
younger brother of Jesus Christ, Exhibition, as it became known, © gold rush that tripled the country’s Second Anglo-Burmese War. handed (see 1846). However, the
launched a revolt that became the was housed in the Crystal Palace, population over the next ten years. Lasting only a few months, British US government was eager to
Taiping Rebellion. Drawn by his an exhibition hall made of glass In Siam (Thailand), King Mongkut troops were able to take southern secure trading rights in East Asia
call to share property, many and tron built for the occasion. (1804-68) began his rule. His reign territory, ousting the reigning and so sent Perry to further
starving peasants joined the ranks Some six million people pored » saw increased relations with the king, Pagan Min (1811-80), and negotiate. He arrived on 8 July
and fighting went on for 14 years, over the 100,000 exhibitions West. During this period, he installing his brother, Mindon Min and refused to leave until he had
claiming millions of lives. between 1 May and 31 October. employed an English governess, (1814-78), who was willing to delivered his letters. The
Of the 14,000 participating Anna Leonowens (1831-1915), accept British control of the Japanese relented after a few
exhibitioners, almost half were whose memoirs inspired the 20th- southern portion of the kingdom. days and took his papers, which
from overseas. An enormous : century musical The King and/. In West Africa, in present-day requested a trade treaty. They
variety of agricultural and Senegal, Muslim Tukulor chief eventually consented to the
manufactured items were 25 Umar Tall (1797-1864) capitalized terms, and the Treaty of
on display, ranging from the on unrest between the Dinguiraye Kanagawa was concluded the
Koh-i-Noor diamond from India and Bambara people to wage a following year.
20
to tapestries from Persia, and jihad (holy war] on part of upper As China was contending with
British engineering equipment. Senegal, taking control of the the Taiping Rebellion (see 1850),
In the same year as this global 15+
territory. His empire would another uprising broke out in the
event, a telegraph cable was laid eventually stretch to Timbuktu in central and eastern provinces.
r=)
THE NUMBER across the English Channel,
facilitating rapid internationa
present-day Mali. His rule was a
time of further entrenchment of
The rebels were composed of
many outlaws, as well as
OF PEOPLE communication. Islam in West Africa. peasants from famine-stricken
Britain by this point had seen
KILLED OVER a large population boom and
MILLIONS)
(IN
POPULATION
0 bal
In South Africa, the British
acknowledged the independence
areas. With the government
otherwise engaged, the rebels
THE COURSE became more urbanized as
agricuitural workers moved to
1801 1851 of the Transvaal after refusing to were able to form armies and
accept the previous Boer Republic
OF THE the cities to work in the growing
Rise in Britain's population
The population of England, Scotland, of Natal {see 1843]. This was
begin the Nien Rebellion. Over
the course of the next 15 years
TAIPING number of factories (see 1771
Detailed censuses showed that
and Wales almost doubled in fifty followed two years later with a they gained control of much of
: years, from 10.6 million in 1801 to similar acceptance of the settlers’ northern China, though they
REBELLION the population of London had almost 21 million by 1851. new Orange Free State. were eventually defeated.
44 MEN, REMEMBER THERE IS NO
RETREAT FROM HERE. YOU MUST
DIE WHERE YOU STAND. 99
Colin Campbell, Commander of the Highland Brigade, at the Battle of Balaclava, 25 October 1854
;) s*
t
Pe fyhip. joe
4§| Bip! \ (Fa
A painting of King Mongkut of Siam, , US filibusterer William Walker i
who was also known as Rama IV. surrenders to Costa Rican troops.

THE TENSIONS THAT HAD BEEN Wallachia, and the Ottoman Austria threatened to enter the MISSIONARY DAVID LIVINGSTONE IN NICARAGUA, US-BORN WILLIAM
mounting between Russia and Empire declared war. By March : war against Russia in 1856 and a was exploring the interior of WALKER (1824-60), who had
the Ottoman Empire in the 1854, Britain and France had also : preliminary peace was arranged Africa (see 1849) on his second arrived in the country in 1855
previous year spilled over into a : declared war on Russia, and in on 1 February, followed by the 30 expedition. He was convinced a ) with 58 men, declared himself
war. Britain and France joined the : September they landed troops in : March Treaty of Paris. | trade route to the sea existed, and | president. He was initially invited
fight from October. The conflict Russia’s Crimea territory and The Crimean War was the | sailed up the Zambezi River in by Francisco Castellon (1815-55),
| was fuelled by the decision of Tsar : began a siege of Sevastopol. In : first conflict to be covered by | November 1853 to find it. Two who had been trying to organize a
| Nicholas | (1796-1855) to declare : October, a brigade of British : newspapers, which were taking years later, he and his party came liberal revolt. This was a period of
the right to protect Orthodox : troops at the Battle of Balaclava advantage of the new telegraphic across a gigantic waterfall, known filibustering: attempts by
Christians living under Ottoman : misinterpreted orders, charging and photographic technology. The as Mosi-oa-Tunya, the Smoke privately funded mercenaries to
rule. When this claim was rejected : down a valley instead of up it, war also established the that Thunders”. He was the first take over small countries and
by the Ottomans, Nicholas sent : allowing Russians to bombard the ' reputation of the “Lady with the | European to see the falls and | annex them to the US. Walker
troops into Moldavia and : 673 soldiers on all sides. Had it : Lamp’, British nurse Florence | renamed them Victoria Falls. intended to establish Nicaragua
: not been for French intervention, Nightingale (1820-1910), whose To the East, in Siam (Thailand), as a Slave state; southern US
: the casualty rate would have reforms to field hospitals caused King Mongkut {see 1851), known states wanted to enlarge slave-
The Crimean War
: been higher than 40 per cent. This a dramatic reduction in deaths for his interest in the West, signed holding territory as abolitionism
Brigadier Scarlett leads the British
Heavy Brigade uphill at Balaclava, incident was memorialized in the from disease during wartime. She commercial agreements with | grew. Walker was eventually
on 25 October 1854 against the : poem by Lord Alfred Tennyson, : helped promote nursing as a | Britain and the US in an effort | captured by invading Costa
| Russians during the Crimean war. The Charge of the Light Brigade. : respectable career for women. | to open up Siamese trade. | Rican forces and later shot.
 f *

English painter Thomas Jones Barker's The Relief of Lucknow completed in 1859, depicts British
forces defending this colonial city after the end of a prolonged siege during the Sepoy Rebellion.

44 A FREE NEGRO OF THE

IN 1857, ARUMOUR SPREAD growing suspicion that the British
THROUGH THE INDIAN TROOPS : were also trying to undermine
- known as sepoys - in the
Bengal Army stationed at Meerut,
: Indian culture and traditions.
The soldiers refused to use the AFRICAN RACE...IS NOT
Northern India. Their new rifle
cartridges were reputed to be
cartridges, and the subsequent
row that broke out between Indian A ‘CITIZEN’ WITHIN THE
greased with pork and beef fat.
The cartridges were for a new
troops and British commanders
sparked the revolt known as
MEANING OF THE
type of rifle, the Enfield, and to
load them the ends of the paper
the Sepoy Rebellion (also known
‘as the Indian Mutiny).
CONSTITUTION OF
cartridges needed to be bitten off.
For Hindu and Muslim soldiers,
The unrest lasted for more than
a year as the mutineers were
THE UNITED STATES. 99
allowing beef or pork fat in joined by peasants angry at their Chief Justice Roger Taney in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case, April 1854
their mouths went against their exploitative landlords, as well as
: Dred Scott
respective religions beliefs. Added those who resented the recent : in Britain, and the East India : Anglo-French forces attacked : Aslave in the US, Dred Scott sued
to this rumour were various other British annexation of the north Company was stripped of its Canton in 1857. By the following : his owner for his freedom. The case
grievances, together with a Indian region of Oudh. The rebels power to control India. The year, the Treaties of Tianjin were : went to the US Supreme Court
managed to capture Delhi and Company by this point was hated negotiated between China, where his emancipation was denied.
ee Indian “restore” an ageing Mughal throughout India, and the British ' Britain, and France, as well as
emperor, Bahadur Shah Il government thought it could with Russia and the US. These : Missouri. Scott, with the aid
(1775-1862), to power, while ' no longer be relied on to keep agreements called for China to : of abolitionists, filed a lawsuit
: killing the British in Delhi and stability [see panel, 1858). The : open more ports and to legalize : claiming the move from slave to
the nearby cities of Kanpur and Mutiny had shown the level of : opium importation. In addition, : free state had broken his chain of
Lucknow. The retaliation by the Indian discontent and anger, i foreign diplomats were given : servitude. The case reached the
: British army was similarly brutal, » which would continue to grow the right to live in Peking. The : Supreme Court in 1857 where
: and they recaptured Delhi in under British rule, while at the : Chinese refused to ratify these : the justices voted against freeing
September and Lucknow the : same time helping to fuel the agreements until 1860. : Scott on the grounds that he was
following March. The revolt was : independence movement. In the US, the abolitionist cause : not entitled to rights as a US

311,000
suppressed by June 1858. In additon to the conflict in India, : suffered a serious setback when a : citizen, including the right to sue
This conflict was the culmination British troops had returned to Supreme Court ruling in the case : ina court of law. The judges also
of frustration with the East : battle in China. Britain demanded - Dred Scott v. John F.A. Sandford : declared the Missouri Compromise
: India Company’s rule as well : greater freedom of trade in China declared slavery to be legal in : (see 1820] unconstitutional
: as creeping westernization as . in the wake of the Treaty of Nanjing all US territories. The case was because Congress could not
British-Indian army in 1857
A much larger proportion ofIndians Britain annexed more territories (see 1842), but the Chinese brought by Dred Scott. He was : deprive citizens of their property.
than British served in the army, : and sent out more officials. The : resisted. In 1856, the British sent taken by his owner, John Emerson, : It was up to the states to decide
making an uprising involving the uprising provoked deep concern : an expedition with the French to from the slave state of Missouri : to ban slavery, and there was
Indian troops a serious threat. ‘ attack China's ports, culminating ' (see 1820) to the “free” Wisconsin : nothing to stop new territories
in the Second Opium War. : territory, later returning to becoming slave states.

[ea ypeeeesoniciceeenennnsenee

Enfield rifle and cartridges

muzzle-loading paper cartridges The paper cartridges contained powder and a bullet. After
barrel
containing removing the cartridge’s end, the powder was poured out into
powder and bullet the barrel. The cartridge and bullet were then rammed in.
 44 THE CRIMES
OF THIS GUILTY
LAND WILL NEVER
BE PURGED BUT
WITH BLOOD! 99
John Brown, American abolitionist,

Ad pm SS
= Sa #4 Re : Ae
before his execution, 2 December 1859

A contemporary oil painting illustrates the 1860 Battle of Guadalajara of Colonel Robert E. Lee smash the armoury
| during the Mexican Reform War between liberals and conservatives. door at Harper's Ferry, behind which John Brown and his men were besieged.

AFTER MEXICO’S DEFEAT BY THE However, the Catholic Church : and the rebellion was finally
US (see 1846), many Mexicans : and the military refused to accept RUSSIAN ie ended by federal troops, led by
} were in favour of reform, including : these reforms, and the antagonism | : Colonel Robert E. Lee. Of the 22
| the middle-class liberal Benito : turned into the War of the OUTER MONGOLIA
Khabarovsk
= men who participated in the raid,
g eC
: Juarez (1806-72). Installed in the : Reform (1857-60). With the Vladivostok 10 were killed, including Brown's
Port Arthur >
/ government asjustice minister, : conservatives in charge of the Ta shkent
Peking My JAPANESE © two sons. Brown himself was
i Juarez and other liberals, : military, the liberals found BALUCHISTAN
Men
y CHINA
Tientsin 4s EMPIRE : later hanged.
Kiaochow. }
| including president Ignacio themselves pushed out of Mexico AFGHANI
2 Tibet NB Wei i Meanwhile, in England,
Nanking
Comonfort {1812-63}, drafted : City, and were eventually forced Lhasa naturalist Charles Darwin
| anew constitution curbing ; to make a new capital at the port © (see 1835, 1839] cemented his
| military and ecclesiastical : of Veracruz in 1858. The US : reputation with the publication
t privileges, such as the allocation : decided to intervene in the ' of On the Origin of Species by
{INDOCHINA
| of special courts for civil trials, : conflict, recognizing the liberal ¥Sy- Manila : Means of Natural Selection. The
and some landholding rights. The : government at Veracruz in 1859 China #
a %
& PHILIPPINES : work explained the process of
constitution, which also prohibited : and sending them much-needed SARAWAK evolution and he set out his ideas
slavery and called for a democracy : arms. This aided the rebels Celebes
: about species adaptation and the
4 a es
in Mexico, went into effect in 1857. : in their retaliation, and they INDIAN : j Eaten : survival of the fittest.
b
managed to defeat conservative OCEAN DUTCH EAST a gees In the US, Abraham Lincoln
DIE
INDIES PBB 2 tinh ss $
forces. Juarez returned to Mexico KEY : (1809-65) won the race for
City on 1 January 1861 as & Great Britain @@ France i Russia : presidency as the candidate
president, taking control of the Bi Netherlands Bi Spain Japan : for the newly formed Republican
: whole country, and he once again party, which had been established
: put the constitution into effect. _: to curtail the power of existing
France, meanwhile, was slave states and stop the creation
embroiled in battles not only in Throughout the 19th century European powers vied for control ' of new ones. The Democrats had
China, but in other kingdoms in of the profitable trade routes from China through Southeast Asia. : split and fielded two candidates.
: East and Southeast Asia where Goods such as spices were imported to Europe from colonies in
: the French sought a foothold in Asia, while textiles were exported. The opening of the Suez Canal 18% 40%
: trade. France was concerned in 1869 made trade between Europe and Asia quicker and cheaper. Breckinridge Lincoln
: about the rise of Siamese power,
:; as wellas the continuing attacks
on French missionaries in CONSTRUCTION WORK HAD : Canal Company (Compagnie
| With the end of the East India : Vietnam. By the end of 1858, i FINALLY BEGUN ON A CANAL that : universelle du canal maritime de
Company's administration in : a Franco-Spanish expedition ! would link the Mediterranean Sea Suez} was set up and given the
} 1857, India was governed : had seized the city of Da Nang in and the Red Sea. It would cut : right to run the canal for 99 years
directly from London by the : Vietnam, starting the Cochinchina | voyages between Europe and Asia : after its completion. 30%
Viceroy. This was brought : Campaign. |n 1859, the coalition by thousands of miles by allowing In the US, abolitionist John Douglas
about on 1 November 1858 captured the key port of Saigon, ships to avoid sailing around the : Brown (1800-59) attacked a
by governor-general Charles where a garrison of 1,000 troops | Cape of Good Hope. In 1854, : federal armoury in Harpers
John Canning (1856-62) who : later faced a year-long siege from | French official Ferdinand de : Ferry, Virginia on the night of
became the first Viceroy of : 1860 to 1861. The war finally | Lesseps (1805-94) managed 16 October. He also took more
A clear majority
India. The period, known as : ended in a settlement with ! to obtain permission from the ; than 60 slave owners hostage,
The Democratic candidates, Douglas
the Raj, lasted until Indian : Vietnam's king, Tu Duc (1829-83), | khedive (viceroy) of Egypt, Said : hoping that the slaves of these : and Breckinridge, combined had
independence in 1947. : in 1863, in which three provinces | Pasha (1822-63], to construct a : people would join his cause. They ; More of the popular vote, but Lincoln
: were ceded to France. | canal at Suez. In 1856, the Suez : were attacked by the local militia : won the necessary electoral votes.
@ oe
=<
z
ge
wiry t &

The Confederate battery at Fort Moultrie firing on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbour
on 12 April 1861. The attack triggered the Civil War which devastated the US.

: was being compromised. So, at

THE SPLIT IN THE US DEMOCRATIC SOUTHERN CONFEDERAC\
PARTY ahead of the 1860 election : 4:30am on 12 April, Brigadier-
precipitated a much larger, more General P.G.T. Beauregard gave
dangerous fracture that came in the order to fire on the soldiers The Southern Confederacy
1861 - the secession of Southern : stationed there. These would be equated to a new nation, and
states to a confederacy. Many ' the opening shots ofthe as such, needed a flag. The
northerners, President Lincoln : American Civil War. national flag of the Confederacy,
included, initially thought that Meanwhile, the second Italian known as the “Stars and Bars’,
slavery might just die out if it were : War of Independence, which closely resembled the northern
not allowed in any new territories. began in 1859 and was part of the states’ Union flag. To avoid
But a gradual approach was not wider struggle for unification of confusion on the battlefield,
possible as abolitionism kept : the Italian states, was coming to a new battle flag [right] was
growing, with more of the public ' aclose. France and Piedmont- adopted, first by the Army of
supporting it over the 1850s. Sardinia had formed an alliance to Northern Virginia, and later,
Union cap by all Southern forces.
The US was economically : drive out Austrian rule in Italy,
: Forage cap, with regiment badge,
divided, which intensified the as worn by northern Union soldiers which they achieved through a
debate over slavery. The South : during the Civil War. Confederate : series of victories in 1859. But
was mostly rural, and slave labour soldiers wore the colour grey. : during negotiations of the Peace : Sicilies, seizing Palermo in 1860. In Russia, serfdom was
was used to grow cotton, tobacco, : of Zurich, Napoleon Ill of France : With most of the Italian kingdoms : abolished in wide-reaching
and rice. The more urban Northern months, it was followed by allowed Austria to retain Venetia : in a degree of upheaval, Victor : changes by Russian emperor
states, in contrast, had a high + Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, ' (mostly Venice), causing uproar » Emmanuel Il (1820-78] of : Alexander II (1818-81] who, after
population of immigrant workers. Mississippi, Texas, and Florida. * among supporters of Italian : Piedmont-Sardinia was declared : defeat in the Crimean War (see
Lincoln's presidential victory These states formed the independence. In the south, : “king of Italy”. The struggle was 1854], wanted to reform the
proved the last straw for southern : Confederacy, and elected : Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82), not yet over, however, as France : country, starting with labour. He
slave owners, and by December : Jefferson Davis (1808-89) as their an Italian military commander, occupied Rome while Venice was : set out the Edict of Emancipation
1860 South Carolina had seceded president. They were soon joined attacked the Kingdom of Two : under Austrian rule. Garibaldi’s in 1861, despite opposition from
from the Union. Over the next few by Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, : attempt to liberate the Papal : landowners. Earlier attempts to
and North Carolina in the spring, : States [Rome] in 1862 at the : abolish serfdom had been made
though the slave-holding states : Battle of Aspromonte on : around 1818, but with little
Confederate
of Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, : 29 August ended in defeat, : success. Some 10 million people
Army
and Delaware did not secede. leaving the project of unification : were freed on 19 February, and
One of the underlying causes of : still incomplete. were promised their own land.
secession, besides slavery, was
: the issue of the states’ rights
Union
versus that of federal government. : (44 IT IS BETTER TO ABOLISH
-SERFDOM FROM ABOVE
soldiers South Carolina and the other
killed : Confederate states argued that

360,000 Confederate 258,000

states held the right to own slaves
: and to leave the Union. THAN TO WAIT FOR IT
TO ABOLISH ITSELF FROM
soldiers killed _—.
The situation grew increasingly
: tense. The continued presence of

BELOW. 99
Costly civil war Alexander Il
: Union forces at Fort Sumter, in
The conflict between the North's : Alexander was the emperor of
federal government and 11 Southern : the harbour of Charleston, South Russia from 1855-81, He freed the
states was brutal and bloody with a Carolina, made many people there : serfs, and reformed thejudicial and
high rate of casualties and deaths. feel that their new sovereignty education systems. Tsar Alexander II of Russia
44 POLITICS IS THE ART
OF THE POSSIBLE. 99
| Otto von Bismarck in a remark to Meyer von Waldeck, 11 August 1867

ahs) ry ecat
Workers hurry to catch their morning train at the Gower Street station | Prussia and Denmark went to war
on the Metropolitan (underground) railway in London. ' over Schleswig and Holstein.

IN MEXICO, AN EXPEDITION OF : early on, but reinforcements IN THE ONGOING AMERICAN CIVIL
British, French, and Spanish : eventually reached Mexico City. WAR, President Lincoln made
forces arrived to collect payment : Napoleon III saw an opportunity to THE NUMBER OF General Grant commander-in-
on the money they were owed. : establish an empire in Mexico. | | chief of the Union forces. A few
| After the War of the Reform (see Further north, in the American PASSENGERS ON THE | months later, Union general
1858) President Benito Judrez had : Civil War, Union troops attempted, | FIRST DAY OF THE | William T. Sherman (1820-91),
declared in 1861 that he was : but failed, to capture the | began his “march to the sea”.
placing a moratorium on the : Confederate capital, Richmond, by
METROPOLITAN LINE Sherman pursued a “scorched
payment of interest on foreign advancing up the peninsulaeast | | earth” policy, destroying railway
debt for two years. The lending : of Yorktown. This was followed by ; THE SITUATION IN MEXICO became : the option of abolishing slavery | lines and setting towns on fire
countries disputed his decision, : the Second Battle of Bull Run | more complex as conservative gradually, rather than immediately. | from Atlanta to Savannah, on the
and soon resorted to armed © (28-30 August), which saw 70,000 | Mexicans, still angry about their Not one state took up his offer, so } coast of Georgia.
conflict. France sent in troops, : Union troops defeated by 55,000 f defeat in the War of the Reform : on 1 January, he followed through | Relations between Denmark
\\. which faced a defeat : Confederates. A few weeks later, | (see 1858}, capitalized on the : with his plan and issued the and Prussia, part of the German
on 17 September, one of the | fighting between French and : Emancipation Proclamation, Confederation, had soured. A brief
: bloodiest battles of the war took Mexican troops (see 1862) and : abolishing slavery in the South. war was the result of a revolt by
: place at Antietam, in Maryland, conspired with Napoleon III to On the battlefields, Union troops \ the Germans in the duchies of
|: where Union troops suffered | overthrow the government. As were making serious gains in the | Schleswig and Holstein, who
around 12,000 casualties and | aresult, Austrian archduke © south, as General Grant captured | were living under Danish rule.
the Confederates around 11,000. | Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph : the Mississippi port of Vicksburg | Prussian troops occupied the
Further west, Union troops (1832-67) was invited to become : in July, giving Union forces control | territory and by 1 August, Denmark
under General Ulysses S. Grant emperor of Mexico. He accepted, : over key parts of the Mississippi | gave up rights to the duchies,
(1822-85] won a crucial victory at thinking that he had been voted in : River. The Union Navy, meanwhile, which were to be placed under |
the Battle of Shiloh, Tennessee. by the people, and became : had captured the port of New | joint Austrian and Prussian rule
In Japan, the Tokugawa regime | Maximilian | the following year. : Orleans, and occupation of the | -asituation that would become a
: had become increasingly In the US, Abraham Lincoln tried city followed. Further north, } future source of conflict (see 1866).
suspicious of foreigners [see to persuade Confederate states to : Confederate defeat at the Battle
= 1853), taking measures that return to the Union by giving them : of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, 38,000
Danish troops
cae : _ | included the passing of anti- from 1-3 July, had
OTTO VON BISMARCK : foreigner acts and efforts to marked a turning
{1815-98} + expe people. This precipitated point in the war.
: attacks on ships from the US, In Britain,
One of Prussia’s most Britain, France, and Holland. In Londoners were 61,000
influential leaders, Otto von | retaliation, in 1863 the US fired on thrilled by the German
Bismarck came into power : two Japanese ships and French opening of the Confederation
as prime minister in 1862 : warships fired on - and Metropolitan
and he masterminded the _ : subsequently burnt down - a Railway, which ran
unification of Germany [see | = small village. The following year, underground, from
1871). Bismarck built up the France, Britain, the Netherlands, } x
Farringdon Street
pn) ‘
army and also tried to develop and the US sailed into the Straits to Paddington. This
a German national identity; : of Shimonosekei and destroyed Emancipation proclamation
was the first part of
The Prussian-Danish War
he fought against the Catholic : Japanese batteries along its Abraham Lincoln reads the : what would eventually become | The war began when Prussian |
Church and tried to stem the ' coast. They eventually secured a | Emancipation Proclamation before : the London Underground, also | forces crossed the border into |
growth of socialism. |= treaty giving them free passage his cabinet members. The decree : known as the Tube. Other train | Schleswig, and Denmark was forced
' = and the right to trade. abolished slavery in the South. companies soon followed suit. } to relinquish control of the duchy.
 t EAs oedae c ! wns
he Triple Alliance devastated Paraguay. T his painting byCandido French painter Edouard Manet’s
Lopez depicts the arrival of the Allied Army at Itapiru, Paraguay. The execution of Maximilian |.

THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR DREW : government under Andrew IN 1866, PERU DECLARED WAR ON
| SPAIN, JOINED BY CHILE. The
| 44 A SPECTRE
TO ACLOSE. By the spring, Union
troops had captured the
: Johnson (1808-75) objected to
French intervention in Mexican | cause of the war dated back to IS HAUNTING
Confederate capital of Richmond, : affairs (see 1863). | the Talambo Affair in 1862, when EUROPE; THE
and after several other defeats,
Confederate general Robert E.
Further south, a war had
erupted between Paraguay and
| Spanish immigrants were
attacked by Peruvian workers on SPECTRE OF
Lee (1807-70) saw no other option : its neighbours Uruguay, Brazil, } the Talambo estate in northern COMMUNISM. 99
but to surrender on 9 April, » and Argentina. Brazil invaded
signalling the end to the bloodiest : Uruguay in 1864 to assist in the Alliance of __{
26,000 | Peru. Spain's demand for
| compensation was ignored, so Karl Marx, from the Communist
conflict the US had seen. The war : overthrow of the ruling party. In Argentina, Brazil, | it seized the Chincha Islands off | Manifesto, 1848
had left the US intact, but more response, the president of and Uruguay | the coast of Peru in 1864. These
than 600,000 men had been killed Paraguay, Francisco Solano Lopez | were valuable as a source of
: Forces in War of Triple Alliance
and half a million wounded. The {1827-70}, declared war on Brazil, ) guano, used as fertilizer. Spain | FRANCE’S ATTEMPT TO GAIN
: Although Paraguay had the far
new peace was soon marred: only : and shortly after, on Argentina. : larger force at first, it was untrained | demanded 3 million pesos in CONTROL OF MEXICO (see 1863)
a few days after the Union's Uruguay aligned itself with Brazil and without a chain of command as | exchange for the islands in 1865. seemed doomed with the arrival
victory, President Lincoln attended ~ and the War of the Triple : leader Lopez made all decisions. Peru's General Mariano Ignacio of US reinforcements. France
Ford's Theatre in Washington DC. : Alliance (also Paraguayan War) Prado declared war on Spain i abandoned Mexico’s emperor,
There, Confederate John Wilkes began. Lopez was killed in battle : courthouse in Morant Bay during | in January 1866. Chile, fearful of | Maximilian I, who had been
Booth crept into the state box and ' on 1 March 1870, and a peace : ameeting of the parish council, | a renewed Spanish presence in | installed at their behest as well as
shot him. Lincoln died the : treaty was negotiated. The war » and 19 white people died in the South America, joined Peru. They | that of Mexican monarchists. He
following morning on 15 April. : devastated Paraguay, reducing the | altercation. In retaliation, tried to close their ports, but was captured by liberal forces,
The American Civil War was population of 525,000 to 221,000. : governor Edward Eyre led a | Spain managed to bombard | court-martialled, and executed on
over, but the situation in Mexico In Jamaica, a group of peasants : ruthless attack on the black | Valparaiso in Chile on 31 March 19 June. Benito Juarez then
remained complicated. US troops who had been denied government : community, declaring martial law, and Callao in Peru on 2 May | returned to his post as president.
were deployed there as the US : land for planting stormed the : and killing hundreds of people before a ceasefire the following Further north, the size of the US
while imprisoning week. This was the last attempt | received a huge boost with the
hundreds more. | by Spain to recapture South | purchase of the vast Alaska
When news of this ! American territory. territory from Russia. For the price
reached Britain | of $7.2 million, the US received
there was a public 1,717,856 sq km (663,268 sq miles}
outcry and Eyre was | of territory.
recalled to England. In Europe, Karl Marx (see panel,
| right) had published the first of
three volumes in what would
H} | become one of his most influential
| works, Das Kapital. The book,
j | through an examination of the
| capitalist system, tried to address
_ larger economic and historical
| questions about the nature of
Lincoln’s death | class and social relations.
This painting by Alonzo Battle of Callao
i A detail of apainting shows Peruvian In Prussia, tensions with
Chappel depicts the
death of Abraham | troops defending the fortified port of Austria had led to the Seven
Lincoln, 16th President | Callao, Peru, while being bombarded | Weeks War the previous year.
of the United States. | by the Spanish navy. | Under the resulting Treaty of
 |44 REJOICE THAT I HAVE LIVED
|TO SEE THIS DAY, WHEN THE
|COLORED PEOPLE... HAVE
EQUAL PRIVILEGES WITH THE
] MOST FAVORED. Jy
Thomas Garrett, American abolitionist, on the
passing of the 15th Amendment

This painting shows battleships in the Ten Years War (1868-78), which was
part of the long-running struggle for Cuba's independence from Spain.

WITH THE FALL IN 1868 OF THE In the same year, there was
TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE in Japan ' alsoan uprising against Spanish
| and the rise of the emperor Meiji : rule in Puerto Rico. The Lares
| Tenno (1852-1912) the island ' uprising, or El Grito de Lares, was
reversed its policy of isolationism shortlived and, like the Cuban
and began a programme of : uprising, also ended in failure.
: | Westernization,
with the aim of In South Africa, British control
being able to stand up to the : was spreading. Boer settlers had
| Western powers that were : moved away from the Cape
| demanding access to Japan (see : Colony, taking land from local
) 1853). This period, known as the © tribes, including the neighbouring
Meiji Restoration, was a time of : Basutoland. Sotho leader
|| long-lasting fundamental social : Moshoeshoe | (c.1786-1870)
| reforms, such as the ending of : asked Britain for help against
Karl Marx was a German feudalism, formation of a national : further incursions into Sotho
philosopher, political Grand opening
army, and implementation of tax : territory, and the result was that | AS RECONSTRUCTION CONTINUED
: The opening of the Suez Canal, Port
economist, historian, political systems, with a constitutional : the kingdom was annexed to the in the war-torn southern US, | Said, Egypt. The project took a
theorist, sociologist, and government being convened : British Crown in 1868, becoming a_ | Congress enacted an amendment : decade to complete but its impact on
communist revolutionary, by 1890. There was a boom in ' protectorate. On Moshoeshoe’s | to the Constitution — ratified by the : global trade was immediate.
whose ideas played a infrastructure modernization : death in 1870, it was made part of | states in February 1869 - that
significant role in the } throughout
this period, with : the Cape Colony region without | extended the right to vote to all : Immigrant labourers. The
development of modern } the arrival of railroads and : consulting the Sotho people. black men, whether they had construction of this line allowed
communism and socialism the telegraph. been enslaved or not. The : rapid coast-to-coast travel in
— theories collectively known In Cuba, discontent with the Fifteenth Amendment declared » the US, further facilitating
as Marxism. His critique of Spanish regime had been that “the rights of the citizens of : western settlement.
capitalism, Das Kapital, | growing. When Queen Isabella II the United States to vote shall not Another feat of engineering also
remains influential today. (1830-1904) was deposed by a be denied or abridged by the opened around the same time -
military rebellion in Spain, Cubans | United States or by any State on the Suez Canal (see 1859). After
seeking independence took the | account of race, color, or previous a decade of construction, this
Prague, Prussia received opportunity to launch a war | condition of servitude”. : canal linked the Mediterranean
Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, against the Spanish rulers on Meanwhile, westward expansion : and Red seas, and provided a
Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, and their island. Led by Carlos in the US continued to grow, aided » much quicker passage to the
Frankfurt, allowing it to organize Manuel de Céspedes, this | by the arrival of railways. By 1869, : Indian Ocean.
the North German Confederation. uprising, Known as El Grito | the first transcontinental In South Africa, diamonds had
The king of Prussia, William | de Yara (The Cry of Yara), } railway had been completed by : been discovered in the Northern
(1797-1888) was at its helm, resulted in The Ten Years War | the Central Pacific Railroad. : Cape province in 1866, and soon
backed by Prime Minister Otto (1868-78), a campaign of | The project was supported by : arush was on between the Boers,
von Bismarck (see 1862]. Austria guerilla warfare that ended in 1 government bonds. Part of : British, and native people to mine
also gave up control of the Venetia i failure for the Cuban rebels. | the track was started from : them. The British swiftly stepped
(Venice], allowing the region to be {
| Sacramento, California, heading : into annex the territory while
unified with Italy. } east and joining with existing lines » thousands of prospectors
Meiji vase
) in Promontory, Utah, on 10 May ; arrived to try their luck.
| A Japanese Satsuma cabinet vase
| from the Meiji period. Art was well | 1869. Much of the work on this
| supported by the Japanese | stretch of railway was done by
) government during this period. | more than 10,000 Chinese
 ie & te
x g ¥ ake, 2: P: co =

This 19th-century painting depicts Prussian hussars firing up at a French | Menat their battery during the war between the Third Repub lic and the Paris
observation balloon during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. Commune that erupted at the end of the Franco-Prussian war.

44 THE ARMY minister, however, wished to

provoke France into war. To these
Copenhagen
Baltic
Sea
IS THE TRUE "ends he published the Ems
NOBILITY » telegram [as it was later known),
: editing it to appear as though
Amsterdam i

OF OUR
The Haguee @ fein
rc) NETHERLANDS ms
insults had been exchanged
Ny

RUSSIA
COUNTRY. 99
Hepes
WI
between King Wilhelm | of Prussia
PERCENTAGE eWarsaw
» and the French Ambassador.
Napoleon III, Emperor of the French France declared war on Prussia SAXONY. POLAND
: on 19 July. Prussia was victorious o-
: at the battles of Gravelotte 1869 1889 1909 1929
PRUSSIA’S VICTORY IN THE SEVEN : on 18 August, and Sedan on eStuttgart
Immigration in Argentina
WEEKS WAR (see 1867) gave the 1 September, where an ill
This graphic shows the steady rise
Strassburg_7~/ 2 WURTTEMBERG
impetus to further pursue plans Napoleon surrendered to FRANCEX 6% Munich
e

: in the percentage of Spanish and Basle

for German unification, this time German forces and was taken : Italian immigrants who arrived in “SWITZERLAND |
by bringing the southern German prisoner. While Napoleon was : Argentina between 1869 and 1929. German unification KEY
states into the union. Attempts held captive, a provisional This map shows the newly ray Prussian gains > Prussian invasion
had also been made to place : government for national defence agreed and Germany was given unified German Empire, by 1866 of France in
Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern- : was set up in Bordeaux where it : the regions of Alsace and which was organized after other states in Franco-Prussian
Prussia‘s victory in the North German War of 1870-71
Sigmaringen (1835-1905) on the : was decided to depose him and Lorraine.
Franco-Prussian War. Confederation 1867 — boundary of
Spanish throne, left vacant after : establish the Third Republic. By Meanwhile, a steady stream of German Empire
other German
Queen Isabella II's deposition in mid-September, the Prussians immigrants escaping poverty and states 1866 1871
1868 (see panel, 1872]. Intense had besieged Paris. The city was war in Europe flowed to the Austro-Hungarian
French diplomatic pressure from : forced to surrender in early 1871 : Americas. In the US, the empire 1867
Napoleon III prevented this. Otto after severe food shortages. By : population hit 40 million and by
von Bismarck, the Prussian prime March, an armistice had been : the end of the century it would | ITALIAN TROOPS HAD ENTERED : radical Paris Commune. A council
nearly double to 76 ROME the previous September : of citizens — including republicans,
million. Likewise, in _ and in October a plebiscite, or : Jacobins, socialists, and anarchists
Argentina the 1870 referendum, made Rome the : - governed Paris for over two
population of 1.8 _ capital of the united Italy - which = months. The retaliation of the
million would reach | became official by 1871. The National Assembly, which had
8 million by 1914, with | pope, however, was not pleased : relocated to Versailles, was swift.
many immigrants from | with his settlement offer and : Troops were sent to Paris and
Italy and Spain - both _ excommunicated Italian king : 20,000 people were killed.
places that had been Victor Emmanuel tl, entrenching : Following victory against France
seriously affected by himself in the Vatican while Rome : Wilhelm | of Prussia declared
years of warfare. developed as the new capital. The himself Emperor of Germany
tension between the Vatican and and named Bismarck (see 1862]
| the Italian government would not as Chancellor.
Siege of Paris be resolved until the 20th century. In South Africa, a diamond rush
The siege resulted in q

the capture of the city by

While France and Prussia were (see 1869] in the Northern Cape
Prussian forces, leading ) negotiating the end of the was followed by the discovery of
to a humiliating French Franco-Prussian war in 1871, : gold in the Transvaal region. This
=, defeat in the Franco- | angry Parisians had risen up over : sparked the arrival of thousands
Be Prussian War. the surrender and established the : of prospectors to the region.
 44 THE MAIN THING ISTO
j MAKE HISTORY, NOT
| TO WRITE IT. 99
| Otto von Bismarck, 19th-century German statesman

|Aherportrait of the US women’s suffragist leader Susan B. Anthony, who brought

campaign to public attention by illegally voting in 1872.
| A depiction of Garnet Wolseley’s
| reception among the Asante people.

: presidential election, marched up IN MARCH, BRITISH ARMY OFFICER

: to the polling station in Rochester, | CHARLES GEORGE GORDON
: New York and cast her vote in (1833-85) arrived in the province
: defiance of the law. She was | of Equatoria, in the south of
' arrested and fined. Although she | Egyptian-occupied Sudan. He was
: refused to pay the fine, the court to take control of the territory but
case did not continue and Anthony | under the auspices of the khedive
: carried on with her crusade. (viceroy) of Egypt. Gordon was

|THE FINE
Meanwhile, in New York, Captain | tasked with establishing way
aes
i?
: Benjamin Briggs set out to cross stations up the White Nile and to
Omak :
: the Atlantic on the ship Mary i attempt to suppress the ongoing
IMPOSED ON : Celeste on 7 November. By 4 OB dGah. AVG ele YOYF | slave trade. He mapped parts of
SUSAN B.
| ANTHONY FOR
: December, the crew of the De/
Gratia spotted the Mary Celeste
drifting around the coast of
Syekel | the Nile and set up outposts along
the river as far as Uganda. He
became governor-general of

| VOTING : Portugal completely deserted.

: The lifeboat was missing and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police
Sudan in 1877.
Meanwhile, in West Africa,
: ship had drifted some 1,110km | “Mounties”, as they became known, announced in May 1873, although | a British expedition led by Sir
| IN THE AFRICAN KINGDOM OF : (700 miles) from the last point | wearing their distinctive uniforms at an apprenticeship system was | Garnet Wolseley (1833-1913]
ETHIOPIA, Yohannes IV (1831-89) : entered in the log. Its crew was | an annual sports event at Regina, put in place, extending slave defeated the Asante Empire
Saskatchewan, Canada.
| was crowned emperor. He was ; never seen again, and the conditions for some until 1876. (present-day Ghana) and
considered a strong ruler, staving maritime mystery was In Canada, the North West asserted control over the
off the increasing incursions from never solved. EAGER TO PROTECT GERMANY’S Mounted Rifles was formed to southern part of their territory,
Europeans as well as from African : In France, physicist Louis Ducos | GROWING POWER, Bismarck enforce the law on a national and | known as the Gold Coast.
neighbours. By the end of the : du Hauron had been working on | proposed the Three Emperors’ : local level. The force was charged
following decade, Ethiopia had : creating a colour photograph | League, an alliance between with policing the largely rural
defeated invasions by Egyptian ; using a three-colour principle. He Germany, the Austro-Hungarian provinces of the huge Canadian
forces, as well as Italian forces. : patented his process in 1868 and Empire, and Russia, with the territory. The initial few hundred
In the US, pressure was growing : went on to produce some of the purposeful exclusion of France. officers had some 800,000 sqkm
for women to be given the right to earliest colour photographs. Formed in 1873, the league lasted (300,000 sq miles) under their
|
vote. One of the leading advocates : | for three years, was later jurisdiction. But the US was
was Susan B. Anthony (1820- | re-established in secret in 1881 : uncomfortable with the idea of
1906), who, during the 1872 and renewed in 1884, and finally armed troops patrolling the
collapsed in 1887. At issue were border, so the force’s name was
the continued conflicts of interest changed to the North West
between Austria-Hungary and Mounted Police — though later the
The 19th century in Spain was dominated by the Carlist Wars. Russia in the Balkan territory. name would be altered again to
These civil wars began in 1834, triggered by the death of In the Caribbean, the island of the Royal Canadian Mounted
Ferdinand VII. The conservative Carlists did not want the king's ) Puerto Rico finally abolished Police, which is still in use,
daughter, Isabella (1830-1904), to take the throne, but rather slavery. Although the slave trade : along with the famous
Ferdinand’s brother, Don Carlos (1788-1855). After three wars, had been suppressed earlier, the abbreviation of “Mounties”.
Charles George Gordon
the dispute was resolved in 1876 with the accession of Isabella's practice had continued on the A British general and colonial
son Alfonso XII (1857-85) to the throne, who drove some 10,000 island and in neighbouring Cuba. administrator, Gordon was invited
Carlists out of Spain. Both were still under Spanish | by Egypt's khedive to govern part of
_ control. The end of slavery was | Egypt's Sudan territory.
 b
wh = —
during the Russo-Turkish War.
A painting entitled The Victor by Russian war a rtist Vasily Vereshchagin (1842-1904) depicts Tur! ks celebrating a victory
battle many times over the previous two centuries.
Hostilities between Russia and the Ottoman Empire were long-running and the two had gone to

: who lived near the border with | IN CHINA, FAMINE SPREAD

THE RIFT BETWEEN THE OTTOMAN | ANGER AND UNREST HAD BEEN
Mexico. They too were angered by | through the northern provinces.
EMPIRE AND ITS SUBJECTS IN growing among American Indians
| in the US, many of whom had attempts to move them on to a | A drought the previous year
Bosnia and Herzegovina grew
reservation, and attacked white | affecting the Yellow River
wider as Christian inhabitants of been forced off their land. This
: settlements. This conflict — a vital source of water - was
the two territories rebelled | issue often resulted in armed
: continued for another decade compounded by a lack of rain in
against Ottoman rule, requesting | conflict with US troops. One of the
until their leader, Geronimo 1877 and the arrival of locusts.
aid from neighbouring Serbia, / most infamous confrontations
was the Battle of Little Bighorn (1829-1909), surrendered in 1886. | When the rains returned towards
which had a much higher degree
where, on 25 June, Lieutenant Elsewhere in the US, a Scottish- the end of the following year,
of autonomy. Buoyed by Russian
born inventor named Alexander | some 9 to 13 million people had
promises of support and inspired | Colonel George A. Custer (1839-76]
Graham Bell (1847-1922) died in a region of 108 million.
by the nationalism sweeping
' patented his device for | In South Africa, the discovery of
| 44 THE NATION
through the region, Serbia too
declared war on the Ottoman “transmitting vocal or other PORFIRIO DIAZ gold (see 1871} had exacerbated
Empire on 30 June 1876; THAT SECURES sounds telegraphically” - the first (1830-1915) | tensions between the Boer
telephone. This development settlers and the British, who by
CONTROL OF
Montenegro followed suit the
would change for ever the way the Mexican general, politician, | this point governed much of the
next day, leading the weakening
empire into another destabilizing | THE AIR WILL world communicated.
In Mexico, former soldier Porfirio
and president, Porfirio Diaz
was of mixed European and
country. By 1877 the British
managed to annex the Transvaal.
| ULTIMATELY
conflict. Montenegro was initially
Diaz (see panel, right) tried to indigenous descent. From | However, the Afrikaners rebelled
successful, with a victory in
Herzegovina, but Russian support |CONTROL THE : launch a revolt against president
Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada. His
a humble background, he
made a name for himself
against this move and regained
| their independence a few years
in Serbia did not materialize and
the Turks won the battle of | WORLD. 99 attempt in early 1876 failed and he : in the military. After he was later (see 1881).
Aleksinac on 9 August 1876. This fled to the US. He returned in elected president, he shored
12 Pages a
_ Alexander Graham Bell, November and defeated the up his support and created a
forced the Serbs to appeal to
other nations for help.
Scottish inventor
government's troops. In May 1877 political machine that kept Le Petit Journai
In other parts of the Ottoman | he was elected president and him in power and the
world, Egypt continued to make | and his men were killed by a controlled Mexico for decades. opposition divided and
incursions into Ethiopia, leading ) coalition of Eastern Sioux and Explorer Henry Morton Stanley suppressed, leaving him
its king, Yohannes IV (see 1872], Northern Cheyenne Indians. : (1841-1904), meanwhile, was to control politics in Mexico
to declare war on the Egyptians. Around the same time, US forces trying to follow the uncharted for more than 30 years.
The conflict arose because were fighting the Apache people, : Lualaba River in the Congo to
Ismail Pasha (1830-95), the
khedive [viceroy] of Egypt, wanted : establish which river it joined.
| Early telephone mouthpiece
to put settlements on strategic Stanley's African exploits were
} This early example of a telephone - known as
: already famous; he had been
points along the Red Sea , | a box eign has a peenite mouthpiece
coastline in Ethiopian territory and it transmitted sound through the use of previously sent by
(present-day Eritrea). By 1875 ) an electromagnet. a US newspaperto
Egypt had succeeding in find fellow explorer
occupying many coastal towns, David Livingstone (see
as well as the inland city of 1855) and in 1871, on
Harar. The fighting lasted the shores of Lake
Famine in China
until 1877, by which time Tanganyika, he had | An illustration in a French magazine
Ethiopia had managed to : supposedly uttered shows the state of poverty during the
defeat two Egyptian : the celebrated words “Doctor ) famine years in China, when millions
campaigns. Livingstone, | presume?”. died in the northern region.
 4 ra SF Poe X Bs 7 te Fe 5 4, ‘ ¥ : aN ¥

Vasily Vereshchagin’s Mass for the Dead (The Defeated) shows the aftermath of This oil painting shows the defence of Ro rke’s Drift on 22 January, where a
a Russian defeat during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. | handful of British soldiers faced an attack by of 4,000 Zulu soldiers.

RUSSIA DECIDED TO ONCE AGAIN IN SOUTH AMERICA, PERU, 139

DECLARE WAR on the Ottoman BOLIVIA, AND CHILE began a British forces
Empire on 24 April 1877, in an dispute over who had control over 4,000
attempt to aid the Serbians in the Atacama Desert region, ZULU
their fight against the Ottomans running along the Peru-Chile FORCES
(see 1875). Russia was aided by border. In the previous decade the
Romania [the united Moldavia and valuable mineral sodium nitrate
Wallachia}. The Russo-Turkish had been discovered there.
War of 1877-78 included a Initially Chilean companies went
five-month siege of the Ottoman into the desert to extract the
Bulgarian town of Plevna, which mineral and issues over territorial 550
eventually fell to Russian forces. _ control soon arose. Chile and i
Russia also managed to take Bolivia at first agreed that the British Zulu
some key fortresses and a truce 24th parallel was their boundary. : casualties casualties
was Called. A settlement was But Bolivia, dissatisfied with the
Battle of Rorke’s Drift
reached on 3 March 1878, known deal, entered into a secret : Although the Zulus had some rifles,
as the Treaty of San Stefano, | agreement with Peru to defend its : these were put to little effective use,
which gave Serbia, Romania, and | interests in the desert. Bolivia : and superior British firepower won
Montenegro their independence, Afghan fighters later seized the property of out despite overwhelming numbers.
while Bulgaria was granted Britain's desire to curb Russian : A photograph of Afghan soldiers Chilean companies, prompting
some autonomy and put under : expansion into Bulgaria - which at : holding hand-crafted rifles, at Chile's president to send in : (1826-84) who organized some
: Jalalabad, Afghanistan, during the
Russian authority. : this point reached the Aegean sea
second Anglo-Afghan conflict.
troops. Chile formally declared © 60,000 warriors. The British
However, European powers were - by refusing to let Russia extend | war on Bolivia and Peru on 5 : established a depot at Rorke’s
not satisfied with this settlement : naval power in the Mediterranean. April. The war of the Pacific took Drift, which was later attacked by
as there were many competing : Austria-Hungary wanted to : was ignited when British agents place on land and sea, and was : Zulus after their victory in
interests. Prussia backed Great : continue occupation of Bosnia and : learned of negotiations between not resolved until 1883, with Chile : Isandlwana. The Zulus were
Herzegovina to keep its regional : Afghan leader Sher Ali Khan keeping control of the mineral- : successfully repelled after 550
200 : influence intact and stem growing : (1825-79) and Russia. This was rich Antofagasta region. : warriors were shot by the handful
40,000 : Slav nationalism. : compounded by Sher Ali’s refusal In South Africa, British forces : of British troops stationed at the
casualties Meanwhile, Britain had signed : to receive a British delegation. In came up against the Zulu nation : depot. After seven months of
150-4 : the Cyprus Convention with : November 1878, British forces , in the Anglo-Zulu War. The : conflict, the British managed
Turkey. This deal would allow : invaded the region. Sher Ali British wanted to expand into Zulu _ a final victory over the Zulus in
British administration of the ' turned to Russia for support, but | territory, but this was met with : the Battle of Ulundi on 4 July,
S oO
: island while it remained under : was told to make peace with | resistance by King Cetshwayo : and took control of their territory.
30,000 : Ottoman sovereignty. This allowed : Britain. Sher Ali died the next year | DUET EE
casualties Britain to establish a presence : and his son, Mohammad Yaqub
oaoO

FORCES
(IN
THOUSANDS) : anda naval base in the eastern : Khan [1849-1923], signed a treaty | Sunken ship in
part of the Mediterranean, with the : ceding the Khyber Pass to the | War of the Pacific
_ = aim of blocking further Russian British. Soon after, a British envoy This scene from
: incursions into the region. : was murdered and British troops | the Battle of
Turks Russians
Iquique, during the
Away from the European : returned to take Kabul. Yaqub was
Siege of Plevna War of the Pacific,
Although the Russians eventually
diplomatic bargaining table, the : forced to flee. He was succeeded shows Chilean and
overcame the Turks, the small : British were once again caught up : by Abdur Rahman Khan (c.1844- Peruvian ships.
Turkish force heroically held up the : in warfare with Afghans. The : 1901), who ended the conflict and The dispute also
Russian advance into Bulgaria. : Second Afghan War (to 1880} : supported British interests. included Bolivia.
 ‘44 THE DOOR THAT NOBOD'
ELSE WILL GO IN AT, SEEM
ALWAYS TO SWING OPEN —
| WIDELY FOR ME. 99
Clara Barton, American humanitarian
| ot.
Fj 2 sais 5

West Indian labourers cutting a channel during the first - and failed - attempt Clara Barton was the founder of the
to construct a canal in Panama connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. American Red Cross organization.

————
BUOYED BY THE SUCCESS OF THE i : “suzerainty” over it. This did little going to instruct the public to take
SUEZ CANAL (see 1869), Ferdinand : to rectify the situation, and the : their revenge on Jews. The violent
de Lesseps (see 1859) began to ‘| simmering resentment between attacks caused many Jewish
draw up plans for a waterway : the British and Boers would ' people to emigrate to Western
connecting the Atlantic and : erupt again before the end of Europe, the US, and Palestine.
Pacific oceans through the : the century (see 1899). In the US, teacher and nurse
isthmus of Panama. However, the France, meanwhile, was : Clara Barton (1821-1912)
project got off to a difficult start attempting to extend its influence > organized the American Red
the following year in 1881. There : in North Africa. With Algeria Cross, a part of the growing
were disagreements over the : under its control, it looked to the © International Red Cross relief
canals plans, the machinery did : neighbouring Ottoman territory of : organization that had been
not function well in the terrain, : Tunisia. The past 50 years had : founded in 1863.
and many workers died of disease : seen Tunisian rulers caught in Meanwhile, in New Mexico,
in the tropical heat. | between Ottoman demands and "sheriff Pat Garrett (1850-1908)
AN Re i ) %
Meanwhile, the development of
commercial refrigeration began
| VU ee ; European creditors, especially
"=: after the government went
captured one of the United States
: most notorious outlaws, Billy the
to alter the relationship between The Boers (“farmers” in Dutch) in South Africa were settlers of : bankrupt in 1869, after which a © Kid (c.1859-81)} on 30 April. Born
consumers and producers. Dutch, French Huguenot, and German descent that left the Cape : British, French, and Italian William H. Bonney Jr. Billy the Kid
Cheese and meats could now Province in search of autonomy further north. They spoke : financial commission was : became an infamous gunfighter,
be exported long distances. On Afrikaans, a language that evolved from Dutch. The earliest : Imposed on the territory. France : and was rumoured to have killed
2 February, the first shipment of settlers arrived in the Cape of Good Hope after the Dutch East : decided to send in 36,000 troops at least 27 men by the age of 21.
frozen meat to survive the journey India Company established a port in 1652. The Boers had a strong in 1881, under the pretext that After his arrest he was jailed and
intact arrived in London from ethnic identity and clashed often with the Zulus and the British. : Tunisians had been moving into : sentenced to death, but he escaped
Australia. The following years saw |\)
: Algerian territory. Under the : until Garrett tracked him down
I
i}
Treaty of Bardo that same year, and shot him dead on 14 July.
|
1,150,000 2,370,000 a boom in shipments of meats | IN SOUTH AFRICA, TENSIONS : Tunisia became a French
Germany, _US and other agricultural goods i BETWEEN BOER SETTLERS (see protectorate. French military

|
740,000 7,010,000 from Australia, New Zealand, | panel, above) and the British over : occupied the territory anda
Russia , Britain and Argentina to Europe. | the annexation of the Transvaal : French minister was
Around the same time, the | (see 1877} had tipped into : installed to liaise with the
problem of creating a safe means } violence. Boers had established Tunisian bey (ruler), who
: of artificial light was solved by the | the South African Republic in the : now only had limited control.
: US inventor Thomas Edison | Transvaal area and begun to use In Russia, there was an
Ieoo0 : (1847-1931). He had perfected arms to support their claim, * outbreak of anti-Jewish
France : existing designs on lightbulbs starting the First Anglo-Boer War : violence culminating in
: of the day by preventing them in 1880. British troops suffered a : pogroms in the south of the
from overheating and making ) defeat at the hands of the Boer : country, including Kiev, which
: them much safer to use. Almost | settlers in the battle at Majuba : continued until 1884. This was
as soon as he had patented Hill on 27 February 1881, bringing : triggered by the assassination of
the:design, lighting systems the dispute to an end by March. : the reformist AlexanderII
began.to spring up on the The Convention of Pretoria © (1818-81) who was killed by a Garrett’s gun
Shipping tonnage 1881 A replica of the
This chart shows total goods shipped
: streets, in businesses and ; treaty granted the South African : group known as People’s Will.
holster that held Pat
by country in vessels over 100 tonnes. hotels, and in homes. i Republic independence over its : False rumours circulated that Garrett's gun around
Refrigeration sparked a rise in food | affairs, although Britain was ; Jewish people were responsible the time he captured
transport and the use of vast ships. | allowed to maintain an unclear : and that the government was Billy the Kid.
—
This illustration shows the bombardment of Alexandria - a sea battle won by A hand-coloured woodcut showing the island of Krakatoa, Indonesia, before
the British, who succeeded in destroying the port's fortified batteries. its destruction, when its volcano erupted in 1883.

OVER THE COURSE OF THE : Germany, Austria-Hungary, and BRITISH TROOPS SUFFEREDEARLY : Meanwhile, France had seized Triggered by the ongoing Berlin
PREVIOUS FEW YEARS, the power : Italy. The first two members had DEFEATS IN THE WAR IN SUDAN : more of theterritory around the > Conference on Africa (see 1885)
of French and British interests : signed previous unions (see 1873], at the hands of the Mahdi : Niger River (Niger) and became : Germany claimed territory
had grown substantially in Egypt. : which included Russia. Italy joined revolutionary army [see 1882]. involved in conflict on the island of in southwest Africa (Namibial,
This led to increasing European : after disputing France’s territorial At the beginning of the year on | Madagascar off the coast of East : Togoland (Togo), Cameroon, and
interference in Egyptian affairs : claims in North Africa. 26 January, Ahmad and the : Africa ina bid to protect French : part of the island of Zanzibar off
- something that was considered Meanwhile, in France, scientist Mahdi troops captured the city : territory. In 1883, France invaded : the coast of Tanzania, East Africa.
legitimate because of the financial : Louis Pasteur (1822-95) - well of El Obeid, situated in the centre : the island in the Franco-Hova : Italy took control of Eritrean
debt Egypt owed to Britain and : known for his development in of the territory. Mahdi troops : War against the Hova people - : coastal towns along the Red Sea,
France. By 1882, Egypt was : 1863 of the pasteurization continued their march towards : the largest Malagasy group ; though made no further inroads
bankrupt and the khedive (viceroy) process which reduced harmful Khartoum, which had earlier : on the island - and bombarded : into Ethiopian territory.
was scarcely able to hold on to his © germs in food and drink - had been placed under British : the coastal towns of Majunga and In the Pacific, Britain and
own authority. Ismail Pasha : turned his attention to vaccines administration by the Egyptian : Tamatave from the sea. In 1885, Germany divided up more
(1830-95) had been deposed by the : (see 1796}. He investigated anthrax, khedive [see 1874), capturing the they reached a settlement : territories. By the 1870s, Britain
Ottoman sultan in 1879 - under : a bacterial disease that had killed city after a siege of nine months. : allowing the French occupation : had established settlements
pressure from Britain and France many sheep in Europe and also : at Diégo-Suarez in the north. : along the coast of the eastern half
Brooklyn Bridge
- in favour of his son, Muhammad : affected humans. By 1881, he had : However, tensions continued and : of New Guinea (present-day
The Great East River Suspension
Tawfiq Pasha (1852-92). This Dual | conducted successful large-scale Bridge in New York City was built ; the French sent in 15,000 troops ' Papua New Guinea], annexing it
Control by the French and British : experiments with animals, and between 1870 and 1883. It stretches : in 1885, landing at Majunga and by 1884. Germany took control of
persisted while there was growing © vaccines were produced. 1825m (5, 988ft) across its span. : capturing the capital. > the northeast part of the island.
internal nationalist unrest.
Britain was fearful of what a
nationalist uprising might mean
for the Suez Canal, in which it had
a substantial interest. So British
forces decided to mount an attack
to stifle any further action; the
Royal Navy bombarded the forts
of Alexandria on 11 July 1882.
Egypt was then placed under
military occupation, becoming a
British protectorate.
Further south, in Sudan, British
troops were continuing to fight the
Sudanese War (1881-99) against
the followers of the powerful
Muhammad Ahmad bin Abd
Allah (1844-85) who had declared
a holy war after taking the title
Mahdi. His mission was to restore
justice to the world, believing it
was soon going to end.
In Europe, an anti-French union :
was being formed, known as the
Triple Alliance. It consisted of
 ~ Ve 4 YEN oenscrtn Mitue’ Ma |
A village in the valley of the River Congo in Africa in the 1800s. Congolese British troops of the Somersetshire Light Infantry cross a river in Burma, during
territory was put under the control of the Belgian king, Leopold Il, in 1885. the Anglo-Burmese War.

AS SOME OF THE NATIONS IN

EUROPE became more powerful
44 BESIDE Meanwhile, in Germany,
: engineer Gottlieb Daimler
EMANCIPATION FINALLY ARRIVED
FOR SLAVES IN CUBA in October
oor 2,500
casualties
- especially the new nations of LEOPOLD, NERO, : (1834-1900) patented a high- 1886, after a long struggle. 50-4 roman
Germany and Italy - they were
eager to participate in the growing
CALIGULA, speed internal-combustion
: engine. Daimler and partner
Although Britain had decided to
end the slave trade in 1807 and ao 4,000
European colonization of overseas ATRIA, > Wilhelm Maybach {1846-1929} abolish the practice of slavery in
30
' casualties
territories, notably in Africa. To ~TORQUEMADA, : conducted further research with
: the engine, placing it on bicycles
1833, Spain and other European
colonial powers did not follow suit.
this end, the Berlin Conference
on Africa was held from 15 _GENGHIS KHAN : and carriages. Around the same In 1817, the Spanish agreed
20+

November 1884 until 26 February _ AND SUCH : time fellow German Karl Benz
: (1844-1929) had also been
a treaty with Britain to stop the
slave trade - and then ignored it.
THOUSANDS)
(IN
FORCES
10 -
1885. Later known as the meeting
that triggered the ‘Scramble for KILLERS OF : experimenting with engines. He With the loss of most of its Central 0 = > = 2

Africa’, competing powers jostled MEN ARE MERE : came up with the idea for the and South American colonies, British Burmese
: Benz car, and in 1885 assembled Spain turned to its remaining
for territory - though no African
leaders were even consulted,
_AMATEURS. 99 _ the first automobile in the world. sugar islands of Cuba and Puerto
COUNTRIES

' Third Burmese War

much less invited. The meeting : He set up Benz & Co, which would Rico to refill its coffers. To this : Although the war lasted a few weeks,
Mark Twain, American author,
was initiated by Portugal in the : later merge with Daimler to make end, slavery not only continued, : the Burmese insurgency that followed
on Leopold II's regime in the Congo
interests of protecting its claim to : Mercedes-Benz cars. but increased over the course of : lasted until 1899, claiming many
part of the Congo estuary. This In India, a growing political the 19th century, although British : more lives - as shown in this chart.
claim would, however, be rejected : awareness and the burgeoning anti-slave patrols tried to stop
and the river basin was declared nationalist movement led to ships between the west coast of : The annexation was the
neutral in order to protect trade the establishment of the Africa and Havana. Despite their : culmination of the Third Anglo-
in the region. A group of Indian National Congress, efforts, the numbers continued to : Burmese War in 1885, which had
European investors were which held its first meeting rise. In 1840, around 14,500 slaves : only lasted a few months. The war
given part of the Congo region, in December. were brought to Cuba; by 1859 : was triggered by Burmese king
which was put under the control this number reached nearly 30,500. : Thibaw's negotiations with
of Belgium's King Leopold II By 1866, slave imports had : France over a political alliance
{1835-1909}, and named the fallen to just over 1,000 and the : and the construction of a railway
Congo Free State. following year, the slave trade : line to the Indian border. Britain
was finally outlawed by the : was unable to air its concerns as
Spanish legislature. : Thibaw refused a visit from the
However, this act did not : British envoy. Britain had already
free the considerable : annexed Lower Burma after the
number of slaves on : previous war (see 1852) and the
the island. Years of : British decided to react by now
x gradual abolition : seizing Mandalay and northern
culminated in a : Burma. Thibaw was deposed
royal decree that : and the territory was annexed to
Early Benz e| Z emancipated the : India, giving Britain control of the
Aside view of a Np slaves in 1886. ; former kingdom. Although this
petrol-driven,
Meanwhile on : marked the end of the official war,
three-wheeled Benz
Motorwagen. German 1 January, Britain : there was a sporadic guerrilla
engineer, Karl Benz, annexed Burma, : campaign by the Burmese which
patented his design in1886 heralding a long : would continue to cause unrest in
and the motor car was born. period of insurgency. : the region for another four years.
 GIF THERE BE A GOD, I THINK THAT WHAT HE
|WOULD LIKE ME TO DO IS PAINT AS MUCH OF THE
MAP OFAFRICA BRITISH RED AS POSSIBLE... 99
Cecil Rhodes, British politician, on colonization

A crest belonging to Tsar Ferdinand | n engraving depicts slaves washing

- who was elected ruler of Bulgaria. a iamonds at a Brazilian mine.

BULGARIA HAD BEEN CAUGHT UP | IN PARIS, ENGINEER GUSTAVE

in the wave of nationalism that ) EIFFEL (1832-1923) DAZZLED the
swept through Europe in the | city and all of Europe with his
earlier part of the 19th century | tower, which was opened to the The late 19th century was
(see 1848). Bulgaria’s | public on 31 March. Eiffel won a a time of extensive colonial
independence struggle - during design contest to build the tower rule by European powers.
which 15,000 Bulgarians were as part of the International “The Rhodes Colossus”
massacred by Turkish troops in | Exposition of 1889 in honour (right) from an 1892 Punch
1876 - had attracted Europe’s BRAZILIAN CUBAN } of the centenary of the French i magazine depicts British
attention. A couple of years later | Revolution. With its 300-m (984-ft) colonizer, Cecil Rhodes,
Slave population
a small Bulgarian principality was At the time of their respective
| tower - twice the height of the : straddling the continent after
established and Britain and abolitions, Brazil and Cuba had large | Great Pyramid in Gaza - nothing the announcemount of his
Austria-Hungary ensured Russia slave populations. Freedom was | like it had ever been seen. The proposed telegraph line from
would not have influence there. initially slow in coming to slaves. | tower attracted almost two Cape Town to Cairo. But this
By 1885, Bulgaria had merged million visitors in its first six was also a period infamous
with Eastern Rumelia, and after | BRAZIL, LIKE CUBA, CONTINUED | months of opening. for European exploitation of
a coup d état, the two states were TO MAKE USE OF SLAVES much Brazil, meanwhile, faced natural resources, as well
unified. This altered the Balkan later than other former colonies. | political upheaval as a military as the indifferent or cruel
balance of power and Serbia In South America, the republics / coup overthrew leader Dom treatment of native peoples.
declared war. The conflict was that emerged from the Spanish | Pedro ll. The military, clergy, and
brief and peace was restored | Empire had abolished slavery by aristocracy had been angered by
by 1886. On July 1887, Prince the middle of the century. And like : some of Pedro's reforms and, : aim was to acquire territory in
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Spain, Brazil had been put under : although still popular with the : Southern Africa and continue the
(1861-1948) was elected ruler | pressure by the British to end the : public, he abdicated anda : extraction of valuable minerals.
of Bulgaria. trade, which eventually occurred ; republic was declared. : Rhodes came to symbolize the
in 1850. Over the next thirty years, Further north, in Panama, : excesses of colonial greed.
| growing abolitionist sentiment the canal project {see 1880)
reached the highest level, as the : had collapsed, and work on it
| emperor Dom Pedro Il (1825-91) : came toa halt. The Compagnie
| became sympathetic to these Universelle du Canal
ideas. He was interested Interocéanique and the French
in the gradual abolition of slavery public had lost faith in the
THE NUMBER
OF WORKERS
but was aware of the dangers of : enterprise as the death toll
a slaveholder backlash. He had : mounted and construction was
! observed not only what had : plagued by endless problems.
WHO DIED
‘DURING
happened in Cuba, but also in the In Africa, British rule was
US Civil War (see 1861). In 1871, : expanding apace as Cecil John
a gradualist measure known as
the Rio Branco Law, which freed
: Rhodes (1853-1902) - who had
" already established his reputation -AFAILED
children born to slave mothers, : in the gold and diamond mines in
ATTEMPT
Tsar Ferdinand |
| was enacted. Later measures
lig
| iy eee ieee claves woul
| Eiffel Tower
: South Africa - received a charter
: for his British South Africa TO BUILD
THE PANAMA
Postage stamp, with Tsar Ferdinand. | Initially criticized by the Parisian
older than 65. Eventually, a { public who thoughtitunsightly, : Company in 1889. The company
He was elected to the postion after

‘CANAL
political infighting led Bulgarians proclamation in May 1888 | the tower has come to be an : was expected to respect local law
to look further afield fora leader. ) completely abolished slavery. iconic Parisian landmark. : and beliefs. However, Rhodes’s
 ‘The Trans-Siberian railway during its | The Great Mosque of Djenne, Mali, was
A coloured engraving depicts the massacre of Sioux Indians at Wounded Knee
Creek, South Dakota, by US soldiers of the 7th Cavalry Regiment. construction in Russia. | built after the French took control.

IN THE US, TENSIONS AND : US soldiers were also left dead, Protectorate. This became
SPORADIC FIGHTING in the west ? many due to friendly fire from known as the ‘British Central
between US troops and American : US machine guns. This was Africa Protectorate” in 1893
Indiams had continued since the : the last major conflict and was then officially
Battle at Little Bighorn (see 1876). between American Indians designated as “Nyasaland”
: and the US Army, though in 1907. Part of this territory
In addition to this, American
Indians faced increasingly harsh : poor relations persisted lay along Lake Nyasa and THE DISTANCE
living conditions: poverty, disease, ' between the two groups.
In Europe, a small island
the Shire valley in present-
day Malawi.
BETWEEN OFFI
and crop failures were rife. By the
1880s, a new mysticism called the : off the North Sea coast of BS MOSCOW AND al
SF)
Ghost Dance had emerged among
the Sioux people, based on the
: Germany, near the
: territory of Schleswig-
VLADIVOSTOK <
Ned
belief that an Indian messiah ' Holstein, Heligoland, ON THE TRANS- zZ
i “Tt
Sioux weapon
would come in 1891 and unite all : had formally come into
SIBERIAN Oe
the displaced native peoples. This : British possession in
A 19th-century style knife
and beaded rawhide sheath,
OCCI DENTALE bechees

new-found belief manifested 1814, having been as carried by American RAILWAY

in trances, dances, and a mass : seized by the Royal Indian Sioux warriors.
| French in Africa
frenzy, which worried the : Navy seven years A postage stamp from French West
US agents who oversaw the earlier. However, as IN RUSSIA, CONSTRUCTION | Africa shows an illustration ofa
reservations. They attempted to : Germany's European HAD BEGUN ON AN EXTENSIVE | native mask. France managed to
stop the dances, and the Sioux » and African expansion RAILWAY SYSTEM across its vast gain control of much of the region.
people rebelled, with US army : continued, a deal was territory. The project was the idea
troops being called in by the : struck for Britain to of Alexander III (1845-94), and it | BRITAIN AND FRANCE WERE
end of the year. : hand over the island was known as the Trans-Siberian _ CONTINUING THEIR PUSH into
The reservation of Wounded : to Germanyin Railroad. It stretched from | West Africa. The British had
Knee Creek in South Dakota was : exchange for the Moscow to the port of Vladivostok, secured ports along the coast,
the scene of a massacre on : islands of Zanzibar 9,198km (5,715 miles) to the east. } annexing Lagos in 1861. Lagos
29 December when around 150 : and Pemba, near Russia received permission from provided a key point from which
American Indians - men, women, : Tanzania's port of China to run tracks through parts | to seize control of surrounding
and children - were killed and 50 : Tanga off the East of Manchuria, allowing the | Yorubaland, situated around the
were wounded by US troops. : African coast. Germany completion of a trans-Manchurian lower parts of the Niger River,
During disarmament of the Sioux : developed Heligoland line by 1901. The work began from corresponding with much of
tribe a scuffle had broken out, and _ into a large naval base. west and east ends and eventually modern southwest Nigeria. The
in the ensuing carnage around 25 Zanzibar was added met in the centre. By 1904, the British took advantage of existing
: to Britain's substantial sections linking Moscow and internal divisions among Yoruba

RARRMM
' territoryinAfrica, Vladivostok were connected and rulers, and in 1892, they overthrew
; building on earlier running. The railway facilitated the Ijebu government, part of the
: deals struck with pSthe quicker movement of people Yoruba political system.
: Germany, as well as through Russia and allowed for Likewise, the French exploited
: claims made following | the further settlement of sparsely divisions in the Muslim Tukulor
Wounded Knee dead
- the Berlin Conference | populated Siberia. Empire by signing treaties with
6 a 1 The massacre left 150
= Sioux dead, while 25
: (see 1885]. In the following its neighbours and building forts
troops from the US army were killed. : year, Britain formally within Tukulor territory. By 1892,
A further 50 Sioux were wounded _ established the the French controlled much of the
during the conflict. : Nyasaland Districts region around the Senegal River.
SEE
a

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at
= RACE, CLASS, CREED, |
OR SEX, IS INHUMAN, AND
MUST BE OVERCOME. 99
Kate Sheppard, suffragist, in the pamphlet Is itRight?, 1892

a :f
An engraving showing the coronation ceremony of Eriwpater Nicholas ll and
the Empress Alexandra, who would be Russia's last ruling monarchs.

4 1AM NOT YET READY

f ALTHOUGH FRANCE HAD MADE
IN RUSSIA, AFTER THE DEATH
| GAINS IN THE WEST AFRICAN OF ALEXANDER III, Nicholas ||
INTERIOR, the coastal territories
} around the kingdom of Dahomey 25,000
(1868-1918) became the next,
TO BE TSAR. | KNOW
NOTHING OF THE
and last, emperor of Russia. He
Jamaica
(present-day Benin) had proven presided over an increasingly
889, Britain
BUSINESS OF RULING. 99
difficult to subdue. In troubled country, and would not
1,000,000
had handed over to France the Cuba be able to withstand the social
i coastal city of Cotonou in revolution that engulfed Russia
| Dahomey without consulting the in the early 20th century. > Tsar Nicholas II, on becoming ruler of Russia, 1894
Dahomeans. The result was the Russia's neighbour, China, had
First Franco-Dahomean War become entangled in a local
(1889-90), which concluded with conflict in Korea that escalated conflict broke out, with Japan : throughout the empire, resulting
: Sugar production in tonnes
a treaty that ceded Cotonou and into the Sino-Japanese War. The ; declaring war on China on : in the collapse of the independence
: In 1893, Cuba, then the dominant
Porto Novo to France in exchange : world sugar grower, produced confrontation had started over an : 1 August. ' movement a few years later. The
| for payments to the king of 1 million tonnes ofsugar, four times internal revolt in Korea. The In the Ottoman Empire, the death toll has been estimated to
Dahomey. However, tensions : as much as Jamaica. monarch asked both nations for : Christian Armenian people were » be around 250,000 Armenians
remained, and by 1892 another help, and both sent troops. Yet : also caught up in the nationalist : killed out of a population of 2
) war had begun, this time over Halfway around the world, in they also refused to leave once : spirit
ofthe time, and they tried : million, between 1894 and 1897.
the issue of slavery. The king, » the British colony of New Zealand, the rebellion was suppressed. : to assert their independence.
Behanzin (1844-1906), was still : women won the right to vote. The Japan was allied with the However, their efforts met with a
:; Sino-Japanese War
allowing slave raids, despite the : push for women’s suffrage was modernizing government in : particularly brutal suppression,
A painting of the Sino-Japanese War
abolition of slavery. In addition, © gaining momentum in many Korea, while China backed the : ordered by Sultan Abdul Hamid II shows the Japanese forces
he attacked a French gunboat. » places, but these islands were royal family. Tensions between : (1842-1918]. This saw systematic : conquering Jiuliancheng after |
| France retaliated, this time with : the first to grant the right, after China and Japan mounted and : massacres of Armenian people defeating the Chinese at Pyongyang. |
an army of French and Senegalese " formidable efforts by suffragists
| troops, and they overpowered the and tireless campaigners, such
t kingdom, bringing it under French : as Kate Sheppard (1847-1934).
} controlin 1893. : Shortly after this act was passed,
; there was a general election in
: which 65 per cent of women cast
| their votes.
Meanwhile, Cuba was
experiencing a sugar boom,
ew
: with profits of $64 million in 1893.
However, a US tariff the following
: year would cause profits to drop
1 to $13 million by 1896.

Ruler of Dahomey
A painting of Behanzin, king of
Dahomey (modern Benin], shows
him holding symbols of kingship
while surrounded by attendants.
44 EVERY DAY SEES HUMANITY
MORE VICTORIOUS IN THE
STRUGGLE WITH SPACE AND TIME. 99
Guglielmo Marconi, Italian inventor

i” ©
This scene from the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1896
shows the Abyssinian forces routing the Italian troops.

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS | GREECE SAW THE MODERN

WERE PROLIFERATING RAPIDLY | REBIRTH OF THE ANCIENT
all over the world. In Italy, OLYMPIC GAMES, which was
physicist and organized by an enthusiastic
inventor Guglielmo Frenchman, Baron Pierre de
Marconi (1874- Coubertin. In 1890, he met
1937) invented a | William Penny Brookes, who had :
wireless telegraph. orchestrated a British Olympic
In his initial Games in 1866. Coubertin and
Marconi’s wireless Olympic
experiments, using a The wireless telegraph (replica
Brookes wanted to create an
telegraph key to operate a international festival of modern Games
shown] developed by Guglielmo
transmitter, he was able to ! Marconi paved the way for the sport. After years of campaigning, : and their
send electromagnetic waves in : development of radio technology. Coubertin was finally able to Revival
bursts that corresponded to organize the event in Athens from
Morse code. He then used a the device the following year, and 6-15 April, which was a success.
transmitter to ring a bell that had laid the foundation for radio There were almost 300
been placed 9m (30ft) away. He » technology. Meanwhile, German contestants competing in
worked on the receiving antennae | physicist Wilhelm Conrad athletics, gymnastics, tennis,
and by the end of the year he : ROntgen (1845-1923) had been | swimming, cycling, fencing,
could transmit a signal 2.5km (1.5 : experimenting with electric | shooting, weightlifting, and
miles}. However, he found little : currents and cathode-ray tubes. | wrestling, while 40,000 Lord j
enthusiasm for his work, so he The outcome was a type of spectators cheered them on. Leighton
went to Britain, where he patented radiation that allowed objects to However, Brookes did not live to
appear transparent on be present at the games, having Cathode
: photographic plates. Rontgen died the previous year. Photography
: called this X-radiation, an early Meanwhile, Italy was trying to
version of the modern X-ray. extend its reach in Africa with an
Quarrel of
In Korea, the clash between invasion of the Abyssinian
: Japanese and Chinese forces [see Empire (modern Ethiopia]. Its the English
; 1894] came to an end after the previous attempt to annex the Speaking
: Chinese defeat in Pyongyang, kingdom had ended in failure by Peoples
: and subsequent naval victories by 1889 (see 1872]. Under the terms
: the Japanese fleet. China sued of the Treaty of Uccialli, Italy
: Olympic revival
: for peace on 12 February and the thought it had the right to : The cover illustration for the April edition of Scribner's Magazine
: resulting Treaty of Shimonoseki establish a protectorate over : celebrated the revival of the Olympic Games, being held in Athens,
: — which had involved Russian, Abyssinia, but this was contested. : Greece. There were 43 events, in nine different sports.
; French, and German intervention
: - forced China to give up the 1896 OLYMPIC GAMES By 1895, the disagreement
: island of Formosa (modern THE NUMBER : between Italy and Abyssinian
: Taiwan) to Japan, as well as the OF EVENTS emperor Menelik II (1844-1913)
Early X-ray
: nearby Pescadores (Penghu)
: Islands. China also had to | THE NUMBER
: had turned into an armed conflict.
: The turning point was the Battle THE NUMBER OF
ITALIANS KILLED
One of the first X-ray photographs « OF COUNTRIES
made by German professor Wilhelm : recognize Korean independence, : of Adwa on 1 March 1896, at
| THE NUMBER
AT ADWA
Conrad Rontgen [1845-1923] : open more ports to Japanese ; which 80,000 Abyssinians
captured a woman's hand with rings. : trade, and pay a large indemnity. » OF ATHLETES defeated 20,000 Italian soldiers.
 4 we
ae
"ja s @ 8:: Rare on Sa! s
A cartoon entitled “The cone ert of nations”, in an 1897 edition of Le Petit Four soldiers raise their rifles over the brush of San Juan Hill, Cuba, | Cyclists of the Lancashire Fusiliers
Journal, satirizes the Thirty Days War, also known as the Greco-Turkish War. as they fight from trenches during the Spanish-American war. took part in the South African War.

| ALTHOUGH THE TEN YEARS WITH THE DESTRUCTION OF THE HOSTILITIES BETWEEN THE
WAR HAD BEEN UNSUCCESSFUL USS MAINE - blown up while | BOERS AND BRITISH were once
| (see 1868], many Cubans were docked in Havana's harbour - | again heading toward conflict.
| unwilling to accept continued the US made the decision to go They had already clashed in the
control by Spain. Leading the to war against Spain. Cuba's First Boer War (see 1880). This
renewed cries for independence struggle for independence had time Boers were demanding that
was the Cuban Revolutionary already attracted much support in British troops protecting mining
Party. It declared a republic in the US. The government blamed interests should withdraw from
eastern Cuba and began a guerilla : the Maine incident - in which 260 the Transvaal, but this request
)} war, known as the Cuban War of i crew members were killed - on was ignored. So the South African
Independence. Soldiers managed : ; Spain. Although Cuba and Spain Republic and the Orange Free
to reach Havana by the following had agreed an armistice on State declared war on Britain in
year, although they were driven 9 April, the US began the October. The South African War
back. The US would end up Spanish-American War only would last less than three years
getting involved when the
battleship Maine was blown up
"JOSE MARTI (1853-95) a few weeks later, on 25 April. but, for the British, it would
Battles were fought in two become the largest since the
in the Havana harbour (see 1898). A writer, philosopher, theatres: the Atlantic and the Napoleonic Wars, as its forces
Trouble was brewing between | journalist, and political : Hawaii annexed
Pacific. US navy ships sailed into reached some 500,000 men.
: Inacontemporary illustration,
Greece and the Ottoman Empire theorist, José Marti became Manila Bay, in the Spanish : Hawaiians in Honolulu receive The war was fought across a
over the situation in Crete. There a key figure in the Cuban Philippines, while another fleet
eeeeeee
aeeee : news of their annexation by the US.
Seiesaresisisianeeinesieemeeememmememeesnesssamnaenesaetseaenee hostile terrain, which the
SS
had been a brutal suppression of revolutionary struggle. He is made incursions into the southern : The US would also take control of Boers - whose
a Christian uprising on the island considered a national hero harbour of Cuba, Santiago, where : Guam and the Philippines. troops numbered
} the year before, and Greece was for his planning and troops then disembarked. By 25 less than 90,000
| determined to annex the territory. leadership during the Cuban July, Spain had capitulated. It Meanwhile, in Egypt, Britain and — could use to
However, the Thirty Days War did War of Independence. He would pay a steep price for what : France became embroiled in the their advantage.
not have the outcome Greece died on the battlefield at Dos the US Secretary of State John : Fashoda Incident, which involved ee The war became
ooo
desired. When an armistice was Rios, in the east of the island. Hay (1838-1905) called “a : territorial disputes over their infamous
agreed in August, it was forced to splendid little war” in a letter to : respective attempts at expansion because of
| pay an indemnity and it lost part his friend and future US president : in Africa. The British wanted to the treatment
) of the territory of Thessaly. The Meanwhile, Britain was a Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919), : build a railway linking Egypt and of Boer
Turks withdrew their troops from : undergoing a remarkable boom who had led the First Volunteer ; Uganda while France wanted to civilians, who
Crete and the island was made an in coal mining. The level of coal Cavalry {known as the “Rough ‘ continue its eastward drive into saw their
oe
international protectorate. : production had doubled since Riders’). Under the terms of the ' the Sudan. Although their troops farms burned
: the 1860s. The mining industry Treaty of Paris of 10 December, ! met in Fashoda on 18 September, and women and
250-) was also a major employer - | Spain had to give up its remaining : the situation did not escalate into children put
: in 1897 the number of miners in colonies, allowing Cuba its : war, as all sides wanted to avoid | into camps
200-1 : Britain was around 695,200, rising independence, and ceding Puerto : battle. Instead they decided that where up to
© from about 216,200 in 1851. Rico, Guam, and the Philippines : British, French, and Egyptian flags | 25,000 died.
150~ to the US. However, the US : should fly over the fort that the
continued to occupy Cuba, and the : French had occupied. Eventually,
Coal mining in Britain
following year tried to exclude : they agreed that their boundaries
By 1897, Britain was the world War medal
leader in coal production. Its output
Cubans from governing, and : would be marked by where the
50 The Queen's South Africa Medal,
of 200 million tonnes put it ahead disbanded the army. Around the : Nile and Congo rivers divided. awarded to military personnel who
OF
(MILLIONS
TONNES)
COAL of the US and Germany, who same time the US also managed served in the war, is engraved with
1865 were also large coal producers. to annex the islands of Hawaii. a Jubilee bust of Queen Victoria.
ee
 Lark
My ve
Queen Victoria's funeral procession Prince Saud Ibn Abdul-Aziz, the first
jing by the international force which monarch of the modern Saudi state.
makes its way through London.
arrived to fight the anti-Western attacks during the Boxer uprising.

THE MANY COLONIES THAT HAD THE SOUTH AFRICAN, OR ANGLO-

THE GROWING PRESENCE OF : continued to burn down churches
BEEN FOUNDED IN AUSTRALIA BOER, WAR between Boer settlers
WESTERNERS - especially : and kill Christians. After the
— Victoria, New South Wales, and the British ended on 31 May.
Christian missionaries - in China : international troops seized
Queensland, South Australia, The end of the war was hastened
was starting to cause public several forts, the empress
Western Australia, and Tasmania when the British adopted a
anger. This eventually erupted into dowager, Tz’u Hsi (1835-1908),
— ushered in a new era on “Scorched Earth” policy, which
the Boxer Rebellion, which was a : ordered all foreigners to be killed,
MILLIONS 1 January, after the drafting and involved destroying crops and
peasant uprising that aimed to : and many foreign ministers were
approval of the constitution and livestock to limit Boer supplies.
eject all foreigners from China. : murdered. After the arrival of
official establishment of the The dispossessed Boer women
The group behind the attacks had : reinforcements, the international
Commonwealth of Australia. and children were rounded up into
earlier founded a secret society : force made its way to Beijing,
1800 1850 1900 A few weeks later, Great Britain concentration camps. Under the
known as the Righteous and : which it captured. The empress
and its colonies mourned the loss Treaty of Vereeniging, the Boers
Harmonious Fists’, hence the : dowager fled, and a truce was
: Growing nation of Queen Victoria, who died on 22 were forced to recognize British
sobriquet “Boxer”. Members of : negotiated with the imperial : Thanks to decades of immigration,
January. She had ruled over the sovereignty in South Africa, ending
the group were also found among princes in September 1901. This the population of the US had
: put an end to the violence and nation and empire for 63 years, the independence of the Orange
the Qing court, and so the ‘ soared, reaching more than
75 million by 1900. making her reign the longest by Free State and the South African
movement's violent attacks on provided for reparations to be
: made. While these events were a British monarch. Her son, Republic. The whole territory was
foreigners and Chinese converts
: taking place, the Russians took - areas of the Congo, but the many Edward VII (1841-1910), took the now under British control.
to Christianity were
! the opportunity to occupy an : Africans employed performed ) throne, and the largely peaceful Meanwhile, Ibn Saud (c.1880-
officially sanctioned.
: area of northeast China that : the dirty and dangerous work - though very socially stratified - 1953) recaptured the Saud
An international
: bordered southern Russia. : in the mines for very little pay. period under his rule was known dynasty’s formal capital of Riyadh,
relief force of
In Africa, mining began in Meanwhile, in West Africa, as the Edwardian era. after decades of civil war {see
2,100 troops
: Katanga, a southern region of the : British troops faced a rebellion 1843]. In 1901, Saud, who was
from Britain,
present-day Democratic Republic : by the Asante, which took eight living in Kuwait, set out to take
France, ltaly,
! of the Congo. The discovery of : months to subdue. Unrest in the back the territory he had been
Germany,
: rich copper deposits — as well as » Gold Coast region continued forced to leave by the rival
Russia, Japan,
: other minerals, including zinc, : throughout the following decade Rashids. He and his men reached
and the US was
: cobalt, and tin - led to the rapid ‘as Africans continued to resist Riyadh in January 1902 and crept
eventually sent to
: establishment by Europeans of : British rule. into town, waiting to ambush the
the port of Tianjin
in June 1900, but © mining infrastructure, such as Across the Atlantic, in the US, Rashidi governor the following
railway lines, and towns began to : decades of immigration had morning. Soon Saud had taken
the Boxers
spring up in this : caused the country’s population the city and the territory, with the
region. As mining © to nearly double. There were help of a growing number of
companies : around 35.5 million people living supporters. This became the
proliferated, : in the US in 1870 and by 1900 kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932,
Katanga was soon : that number had reached more and it remains under the Saud
one of the most : than 75 million. Much of this family’s rule to the present day.
highly : growth had been in urban On the Caribbean island of
industrialized : areas - some 40 per cent of the Martinique, the violent eruption of
: population were living in cities Mount Pelée killed around 30,000
: rather than settling in rural people and destroyed the port of
Going underground Commonwealth stamp
! communities. Saint-Pierre on 8 May. The
A Metro sign built into a lamp post This stamp showing Queen Victoria
is from Australia, which brought its volcano had previously erupted in
in Paris, France. The first
underground trainline was opened colonies into a federation the same 1792 and 1851, but on nowhere
in Paris in 1900. year the monarch died. near the scale of the 1902 eruption.
The original 1903 aeroplane, designed by Wilber and Orville Wright, makes
S
The French newspaper, Petit Journat, shows how the Russian sick and
its first flight on 17 December 1903 in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. wounded were transported on skis during the Russo-Japanese war.

TWO BROTHERS IN THE US, WILBUR : Lion in the path JAPAN AND RUSSIA HAD BEEN : north over the course of the year.
(1867-1912) AND ORVILLE (1871- The United States COMPETING to expand their : Apeace deal was brokered by US
1948) WRIGHT, became obsessed publication, Judge, influence in northeast China and : President, Theodore Roosevelt
with the growing science of depicts the Panama
Korea. Russia had built its (1858-1919), and on 5 September
aviation and were determined to Canalas the ‘lion in
the path” in this Trans-Siberian railway (see 1891], : atreaty was signed that forced
fly. They pumped the profits from which now had a line running into
political cartoon. : Russia to leave northeast China,
their bicycle shop into their northeast China, annexed during : cede part of the island of Sakhalin
experiments and built a bi-plane. the Boxer crisis in China (see : to Japan, and recognize Japan's
In the town of Kitty Hawk, on the however, were 1900). During this time, Japan had " interests in Korea, as well as grant
coast of North Carolina, they : intertwined with begun to build up its army and : fishing rights off the coast of
began to conduct experiments. On ° the infamous navy, and approached Russia in ; Siberia. Japan's victory against
the morning of 17 December, their Dreyfus Affair. 1903 to suggest they recognize » Russia marked its emergence as
work paid off when Orville made: This was a scandal each other's mutual interests in "a major world power.
what is considered to be the first involving Alfred these regions. The talks broke : In Africa, German troops were
successful flight in an aeroplane: Dreyfus (1859- down on 6 February 1904, and : facing rebellions in their colonies.
that the pilot had complete control : 1935), a French three days later Japan attacked : Revolts broke out in German South
over [as opposed to earlier i officer who was Russian warships, sinking two of : West Africa [Namibia], where the
attempts with gliders]. He travelled accused of treason. them, and triggering the Russo- » Khoikhoi people had risen up in
60m (197ft) in 12 seconds. Later Evidence came to Japanese War. Japan then sent : 1903, followed by the Herero in
that day Wilbur flew 259m (850ft) light that cleared troops into northeast China and : 1904. Many Africans were rounded
in 59 seconds. Dreyfus, but it was Korea, forcing the Russians further : up and put into concentration
Further south, in Panama, the suppressed. : camps, where the work conditions
US had resurrected the idea of Dreyfus was were so dire that more than half of
building a canal between the Jewish, and France Russo-Japanese War
: the prisoners died. By the time
Atlantic and Pacific, the first This map shows the course of the
than a decade before (see 1889). : became divided over the issue : Germany had suppressed the
conflict in which a victorious Japan
attempt at which had failed more : The US wanted to purchase the : of anti-semitism. During the drove Russia out of northeast China, : rebellion, in 1908, about 80 per cent
: assets of the former French : scandal, the sport newspaper forcing Russia to give up its : of the Herero and 50 per cent of the
: holding company and begin : Le Vélo supported Dreyfus. Angry expansionist policy in the East Asia. > Khoikhoi peoples had been killed,
: construction, but talks with the : advertisers decided to set up a either in the course
: Colombian government (which rival periodical, LAuto-Vélo, later of the conflict or
: still controlled the isthmus) broke : called LAuto. Cycling promoter while interned in
down. Soon after, in 1903, Panama, : Desgrange was hired as editor, the camps.
© with the backing of the US, However, LAuto's sales were
' declared its independence. By initially poor, and so a race KEY
: 1904, Panama and the US had was organized to promote it.
™ Japan
: agreed on the terms of the : Desgrange devised a month-long Aug 1904-
© Qing China
: Panama Canal Zone, in which the » cycling contest (though it was B to Russia 1897,
US would be permitted to exercise : later shortened) which followed
THE DURATION |its jurisdiction until 1979, and the route of Paris-Lyon-
to Japan 1905
"> area leased
OF THE : work on the canal began.
In France, cyclist Henri
Marseille-Toulouse-Bordeaux-
: Nantes-Paris. On 1 July, 60 -»
to Japan 1895
Japanese advances
WRIGHT : Desgrange (1865-1940) organized competitors set off. The event's 1904-05

BROTHERS’
~» route of Russian
: arace that would become one of : first winner was Maurice Garin.
Baltic fleet
: the most prestigious in the world:
FIRST FLIGHT : the Tour de France. Its roots,
% Japanese victory,
with date
44 THE ETERNAL
MYSTERY OF THE
WORLD IS ITS .
COMPREHENSIBILITY. 99 a

Albert Einstein, in the Franklin Institute Journal, March 1936

ae: Se * % ‘ce sla
————
The ruins of the San Francisco City Life for Romanian peasants was
German-born Albert Einstein became one of the world’s most famous harsh and many wanted land reform.
Hall after the 1906 earthquake.
scientists after the development of his Special Theory of Relativity.

: province of Bengal, joining SAN FRANSISCO EARTHQUAKE | PEASANT UNREST THAT HAD BEEN
IN RUSSIA, DISCONTENT WITH THE = equation E=mc*. In 1921 he would
: East Bengal and Assam, with a | SPREADING throughout the
TSAR, NICHOLAS II, had been : receive a Nobel Prize for his ee ( BUILDINGS |
: capital in Dhaka. This move was yu DESTROYED | countryside in Romania
growing, and there were calls fora : scientific contributions.
. attacked as an attempt to stifle | : | culminated in a revolt in 1907.
constitutional monarchy. This was : In India, the British viceroy Lord
: the nationalist movement, isu 7 UU PEOPLE \ This was fuelled by land issues,
compounded by the humiliating : Curzon (1859-1925) was facing
: which had strong support | DIED | as the peasants were forced into
defeat in the Russo-Japanese : increased nationalist opposition.
: throughout Bengal. | <2, () MILLION | exploitative contracts, meaning
War (see 1904). Protests spread =: He decided to partition the
OF DAMAGE | many farmers had to live in
around the country. In February,
| poverty. As the rioting spread
Nicholas promised to set up an
| SITUATED ON ONE OF THE WORLD'S through villages, up to 10,000
elected assembly, but this did
nothing to stop the unrest. Finally, | MOST ACTIVE FAULT LINES -the | people were killed before it was
| San Andreas, which runs for } suppressed by the military.
the military joined in, and June
| 1,300km (810 miles) -the cityof | In Southeast Asia, Cambodia
saw a mutiny by the crew of the
| San Francisco is susceptible to } had clawed back some of its
battleship Potemkin. By October,
| earthquakes. By 1906, peoplein | western provinces from Thailand
Nicholas promised a constitution
the growing city were used to the due to French pressure. By 1863,
and an elected legislature, but this
| earth moving - there had been | France had established a strong
was insufficient for the protesters,
}| recorded quakes in 1836, 1865, } presence in Cambodia, eventually
who organized themselves into
1868, and 1892 - but nothing had} restricting the Cambodian king's
soviets (revolutionary councils).
| been done to make the city of | powers and installing a governor.
One of the leaders, Leon Trotsky
(1879-1940), was jailed. Although | 400,000 people better prepared. | This paved the way for colonization
the protests continued, anti-
} On 18 April, San Francisco bore ) by the French, but angered
revolutionary forces finally | the brunt of what was later | Cambodian nationalists. The
suppressed what became known estimated to bea 7.8 magnitude | resistance was quelled by 1907.
as the Russian Revolution of earthquake, while people as far |
1905. The following year, Nicholas | afield as Los Angeles and Nevada
implemented reforms, the also felt shaking. The quake only |
Fundamental Laws, which | lasted less than a minute, but it |
included the creation of an | wreaked damage that would take } |
elected legislature, or Duma. | years to repair, as buildings
In Switzerland, the German . | collapsed and many caught fire }
physicist Albert Einstein ) throughout the city. -
(1879-1955] had received his In India, the All India Muslim
doctorate and international | League was established - initially 4
|

acclaim for his publications. The | with the support of the British |

most influential was known as , | government - with the aim of

the Special Theory of Relativity, | protecting the rights of Muslims.
which explained the relationship t | Some 3,000 delegates attended its
between mass and energy in the g | first meeting on 30 December. By
| 1913 it had joined the growing call |
| for
or self-rule rule in
in India.
India a Frenchin Thailand
The
Film poster
The film Battleship Potemkin ; A 19th-century French gun boat,
(1925], made by the Russian director : armed with a Hotchkiss Cannon,
Sergei Eisenstein, dramatized the | patrols the waters of the Chao
1905 mutiny of the ship's crew. | Phraya River in Bangkok, Thailand.

ee
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 44 ONE DAY MY MORTAL
BODY WILL TURN TO DUST,
BUT THE TURKISH REPUBLIC
WILL STAND FOREVER. 99
Mustafa Kemel Ataturk, first president of Turkey, 1926

rs, SSS
| An engraving in the Italian newspaper La Domenica del Corriere, from February 1908, depicts the assassination of
i Charles I, king of Portugal. He was murdered during a period of increased calls for a republican government.
H eaten

PORTUGAL WAS CONVULSED BY : outcry and calls for reforms. : Ottoman suzerainty and one of the : controlled Egypt. Although they
| REVOLUTION following the Belgium's answer to these : Young Turks’ aims was to reclaim : were initially seen as ‘liberal’,
assassination of its king, Charles | : demands was to make the : the territory. After securing : many of their policies were
(1863-1908), in February. Already : territory an official colony and : Russia's support, Austria- : considered repressive, especially
a highly unpopular monarch, he ' rule it from Brussels, ensuring : Hungary annexed Bosnia- : elsewhere in the empire. Much of
made matters worse by deciding : the continued supply of Congolese : Herzegovina. This move : the anger lay in the Young Turks’
to appoint his own prime minister : products. But the brutal : immediately angered nearby : nationalism, which meant they
- bypassing parliament in the : conditions persisted, and the : Serbia, which called for a section : wanted to push a Turkish identity
process. Events took a violent turn: population dropped from an : of Bosnia—Herzegovina that would oe
ee:
aS
ern
a
ee
a : atthe expense ot the many large
on 1 February when Charles and © estimated 20-30 million in 1884 : give it access to the Adriatic Sea. : ethnic groups throughout the
his eldest son, Luis Filipe, were : to around 8.5 million by 1911. : Russia was soon caught in the Ottoman world, such as the Arabs
shot while they were travelling in Meanwhile, Austria-Hungary : middle of what would later be and Slavs. However, they did
a carriage in Lisbon. Charles was : also reconfigured its colonial : known as the Bosnian Crisis. implement some progressive
} succeeded by his son, Manuel Il : relationships — in its case with : At first it sought to secure some : reforms, such as secularizing
(1889-1932), who managed to Bosnia—Herzegovina, which it : concessions for Serbia, but it later : the legal system and improving
survive on the throne forjust a : had already occupied (see 1878). Sultan Mehmed V
: bowed to the demands of eee
q|
The 35th Ottoman sultan, Mehmed V_ : education, including allowing
couple of years before being : It had become worried about the : Austria-Hungary and its allies. (1844-1918] was effectively a puppet » women better access to
| overthrown (see 1910). : implications of the Young Turk : During this period, Bulgaria's for the Young Turks’ Committee of : schooling. They also wanted
I In Africa, the Congo Free State : Revolution under way in the : Prince Ferdinand (see 1887] Union and Progress. : to limit the amount of foreign
| (see 1884] was abolished and : neighbouring Ottoman Empire : - whose role as leader was not yet : influence throughout the
} Belgium's government : (see 1909). Austria-Hungary was : recognized by Russia and many FOLLOWING THE SUCCESSFUL empire in areas such as
| established the Belgian Congo. : concerned that its power in the : other European countries - took REBELLION BY THE YOUNG TURKS : Bosnia—Herzegovina (see 1908).
| The Free State had been run bya : Balkans might be undermined : advantage of the crisis to proclaim the previous year, in 1909 the
| private company with Belgian : because, technically, Bosnia- : Bulgarian independence from Committee of Union and
| King LeopoldII (1835-1909) : Herzegovina was still under : the faltering Ottoman empire. Progress - the group’s political
( ruling over it personally. Africans wing — had taken control of the
i working in the Free State provided RUSSIAN levers of power within the
| the company with valuable EMPIRE Ottoman Empire - something
rubber and ivory. However, GERMAN
EMPIRE they would maintain for the next
) reports over the appalling labour couple of years, despite internal
| conditions led to an international disputes. The Young Turks had
Muniche wanted to force the sultan to

| KEY
restore the constitution, and _ MUSTAFA KEMEL
1} The Kingdom of Hungary
once this was accomplished Abdul : ATATURK [1881-1938]
Hamid II (r.1876-1909) ruled as a
{1 The Austrian Empire constitutional monarch, though Having been involved with
Bosnia—Herzegovina only briefly - he was deposed on the Young Turk Revolution
/ — Border of Austria-Hungary 27 April. They then proceeded to of 1908, Mustafa Ataturk
ROMANIA
make his brother, Mehmed V led the Turkish national
Buchareste
(r.1909-1918}, the new sultan. movement in the Turkish
) The Austro-Hungarian Empire
Many of the Young Turks had War of Independence. When
In 1908, Austria-Hungary was eager
to assert its control over the Balkan been students and members of the Republic of Turkey was
BULGARIA
| states of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Ottoman intelligentsia and established in 1923 he
| order to prevent the Ottoman Empire they organized themselves while became its first president.
} from taking the territory. | living in Europe and British-
 yf 8 Py

Emiliano Zapata was one of the leaders involved in th e fight to oust Porfirio Diaz from office and put in place a ‘Imperial officials flee from Tientsin during the Chinese Revolution, which
“revolutionary government led by Franscisco Madero. Zapata was instrumental in organizing guerrilla troops. precipitated the end of the Qing dynasty, rulers of China since the 1600s.

: presidential candidate, Francisco the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez, : Manchus’ days were numbered.
A CENTURY AFTERITS FIRST
: and by November 1911 Madero : Inthe US, exiled revolutionary
REVOLUTION (see 1810), Mexico Madero (1873-1913), on the eve
: of the 1910 election, reneging on was installed as president. leader Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925]
was once again caught up in the
: However, he now came in for : had heard about the events in
throes of political change. Liberal ; his promise for fair elections.
attacks from the right and the China and returned home. He was
reformers had begun to resent Madero escaped to Texas and
Porfirio Diaz's political machine began to organize an uprising : left as groups splintered from THE NUMBER : elected provisional president of
; the country, although prime
(see 1876] and the Regeneration
movement was formed.
for 20 November, the anniversary
: of the previous Mexican
the revolutionary movement.
: This political fighting spilled OF DIAMONDS minister
Yuan Shikai (1859-1916)
Members of the group were often revolution. It was not a large : over into violence, with warfare IN GEORGE V'S had been given full power by the
: imperial court. The two struck a
continuing for decades.
jailed, and the publication of their
newspaper was suppressed. In
: rebellion, but involved small
» towns being attacked by pockets For nearby Korea, the CROWN deal, though Yuan would try to
1906, they published a manifesto of guerrilla groups, which the : consequences of the Russo- : make himself emperor in 1915;
: army was able to suppress. : Japanese war (see 1904) had EVENTS IN CHINA TOOKA : his efforts ended in failure three
calling for a one-term
: However, by the following year, severe ramifications. It had DRAMATIC TURN AS THE QING months before he died in 1916.
presidency and reforms to land
- the return of land confisicated the revolutionary militias - many : allowed Japan to use the DYNASTY - which had been in Meanwhile, in India, the British
by the Diaz regime to its rightful of them peasant farmers — led * peninsula for military operations power for more than 260 years - were trying to display their
owners - and education. Diaz ' by Francisco “Pancho” Villa : and in the resulting Treaty of faced a rebellion. Despite its colonial might with an enormous
eventually allowed the : (1877-1932) and Emiliano Portsmouth, in 1905, Korea longevity, many Chinese always : durbar, or assembly, in Delhi.
development of an opposition, ! Zapata (1879-1919) stepped up : was made a Japanese considered the ruling Manchu : This was to mark the visit of
and other groups emerged. : their attacks against the army. protectorate, and by 1910 as foreigners. They were also King George V and Queen
However, Diaz jailed one popular Diaz surrendered his office under : had been officially annexed. resentful at the growing number Mary. During the visit, the king
of Westerners, who had been : announced
that the colonial
permitted to move inland from the capital would be moved from
port cities. The 20th century had : Calcutta to Delhi. Around the
been full of unrest for China [see : same time, the unpopular policy
1900} and this continued to grow : of partition in Bengal was ended
as revolutionary groups began (see 1905}, and the territory was
to form around the country. In : reunited. Over the following years,
October, a revolutionary plot was

@ sats tout
uncovered and the members
arrested and executed. Soldiers in
Wuchang who knew of the plot
decided to push forward with a
revolt; they led a mutiny on
10 October, which soon spread
throughout the country, and
the rebels declared Chinaa
republic. They were met with
little resistance because many
Casa Mila officials accepted that the
Designed by the Catalan
architect Antoni Gaudi
(1852-1956), Barcelona's Sun Yat-sen
iconic Casa Mila was The cover of the magazine Je sais
constructed between tout shows a picture of Sun Yat-sen,
1905 and 1910. president of the Chinese Republic.
 An illustration of General Lyautey, ment when suffragi st campaigner Emily Davison
-, the French governor of Morocco. is trampled by George V's horse at Epsom on Derby Day.

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE FACED THE TREATY OF LONDON OF 1913 : only receiving a small part.
| FURTHER UPHEAVAL with the OFFICIALLY SIGNALLED THE END : This internal division opened
First Balkan War. The conflict of the First Balkan War. However, : avacuum for the Turks. The
| ended with the Turks losing | the Balkan League - Serbia, : Young Turk government in
) Albania, which became | Bulgaria, Montenegro, and : charge of the Ottoman Empire
independent, and Macedonia, SSSGreece - that had challenged : was not satisfied with the
| which was to be shared among the Ottoman Empire soon : outcome of the Treaty of
| the Balkan allies [see 1913). started to disintegrate. Bulgaria : London and it mounted
} In March 1912 Morocco was attacked Serbia in June because : another invasion, this time
} established as a French SS of a disagreement over the : recapturing Adrianople
| protectorate under the Treaty of division of Macedonia, although - (modern Edirne) on 20 July.
lie Se Fez. The year before the new the fighting ended a couple of : However, by this point it
(€£/TONNE)
PRICE
WORLD
RUBBER
OF
1840 1870 1911 sultan Abd al-Hafiz (c.1875-1937], months later with a Serbian- : had lost almost all of its
Rubber boom besieged in his palace, had asked Greek alliance. Greece and : Balkan territory.
Technological innovations, especially the French to help him suppress Serbia would receive most In Britain, the suffragist
the tyres used on the increasingly } internal dissent. SSS
a of Macedonia with Bulgaria : battle to give women the
popular motor car, fuelled a rise in : right to vote [see panel,
the use - and price - of rubber. : left) took a violent turn as
: campaigner Emily
a new part of Delhi was built, : Davison (1872-1913) TA —
with a monumental Viceroy’s : threw herself in front of Menrtre dedeNazim
paneONSTANTIN:
Pacha
house and government buildings : King George V's horse
designed by the leading British Coup d’etat
: during the Epsom Derby in June.
: An illustration from Le Petit Journal
architect Edwin Lutyens =
: The horse, Anmer, struck : depicts the murder of Nazim Pasha,
(1869-1944). However, such Davison’s chest and she was : Ottoman minister of war, during the
displays did little to quell the : knocked down and remained : First Balkan War.
growing nationalist sentiment. : unconscious for four days, until
In Europe, Marie Curie (1867- : she died of her injuries on 8 June. moving assembly lines that he
1934), a Polish-born French : It remains unclear if her intention : had installed in his Michigan
i
scientist, won her second Nobel : was to commit suicide. A public factory. This improvement meant
Prize, this time in the category : : funeral was held for her in : that a completed chassis (car
of chemistry for her work on Y . PRESIDENTIAL -MUNICIPAL- PARTIAL :? London on 14 June. : body) could be made in just over
| Partial Suffrage * cS STATE AND COUNTY SUFFRAGE By 1913, Henry Ford (1863-
radioactivity. She and her = an hour anda half, while his
husband, Pierre (1859-1906), | : 1947], the head of the US Ford competitors took hours longer.
had been the recipients of the i ; : Motor Company, which he set up
1903 Nobel Prize for Physics. | _ in 1903, had sold nearly 250,000
In 1911, the world price of | By the early 20th century, the fight for women to be given the vote : ModelT cars. Although other ‘44 HISTORY IS
rubber was beginning to soar,
fuelled by its use in new
_
|
had gained pace all over the world. Australia had followed New
Zealand [see 1893] by giving women suffrage in 1902. In northern
: companies were making cars,
____ they were far too expensive for
-MORE OR LESS
technologies, especially in the | Europe, Finland had introduced the women’s right to vote in 1906, — : average consumers. Ford wanted BUNK. IT’S
production of automobile tyres.
Rubber came from the sap of }
while Norway followed in 1913. While, women suffragists in
Britain would have to wait until after World War |, countries such
: to make them more affordable
: and so began production of the
TRADITION. 99
trees that grew in the forests as Russia and the US [see above - states with full suffrage are : basic Model T. He also developed
: Henry Ford, US industrialist,
of Brazil, Southeast Asia, and i gold) also began to peel back voting restrictions around this time. ; new and more efficient production in an interview in the Chicago
West Africa. } : techniques through the use of Tribune, 25 May 1916
|
 tf

Techno Logi
ne Inte
 ay

cume German men cheer as they march down Pariser Platz in Berlin. Many
Germans reacted enthusiastically to being called up for war.

EARLY IN THE YEAR, ATTENTION

WAS FOCUSED ON CENTRAL Belgium | 0.1
AMERICA. |n January, the first ship
completed its passage through Serbia q 0.4
the Panama Canal. This amazing
Britain a 0.7
feat of American engineering cost
around $300 million to construct Austria ge 1.1
and claimed the lives of around
COUNTRIES
France fC 3.7
4,000 workers.
)
In April, the US intervened in
Germany ; 3.8
Mexico's civil war by sending a
force of Marines to occupy the
puozie eee
port of Veracruz, which prevented
the Mexican President Victoriano 8 10 12 14
Huerta receiving arms shipments TROOPS (IN MILLIONS)
from Germany. The US held the
Army sizes at the outbreak of war
port for six months, contributing : action. Although the Serbians
Russia's army was huge, but it was
to Huerta’s fall from power in July. : were prepared to make poorly equipped and badly organized.
Meanwhile, Europe began its : concessions, Austria-Hungary Britain had a relatively small army,
descent into war. World War I : declared war on 28 July. In and depended on its navy for defence.
was sparked by the assassination response, Russia began mobilizing
of Archduke Franz Ferdinand its army in support of Serbia. regarded the onset of war
(1863-1914), heir to the Austro- Within a week, all the major with dismay, it was greeted
Hungarian throne, and his wife European powers were at war. by cheering crowds. The
Sophie. They were shot on 28 June Brushing aside last-minute traditionally anti-militarist and
during an official visit to Sarajevo peace initiatives by Germany's internationalist German Social
n Austrian-ruled Bosnia. The fatal Kaiser Wilhelm and Russia's Tsar Democrat Party rallied to the
shots were fired by 19-year-old Nicholas II (1868-1918), German war effort, convinced Germany
Bosnian Serb, Gavrilo Princip. : military chiefs insisted that had to defend itself against
The Austrian government Germany declare war on Russia. Russian conquest. In France,
blamed Serbia for the Since their military plans most previously anti-militarist
assassinations. Assured of demanded a swift victory in the radicals and socialists adhered
Germany's full support by Kaiser : west as a prelude to defeating to the union sacrée (sacred
Withelm II (1859-1941), on 23 July : Russia in the east, Germany also union], which called for a political
the Austrians sent an ultimatum declared war on France. truce with pro-war parties and
to Serbia. Its demands were Germany did not want to fight the vetoed any strike action. In
intended to be so humiliating that British, but in order to invade the UK, Ulster Protestant
Serbia would reject them, giving France they needed to send an paramilitaries, who had been
the Austrians a pretext for military army through Belgium, whose on the verge of an armed
‘ neutrality was guaranteed by rebellion against the British
Britain. On 4 August, after government's plans for Irish
Raising the Stars and Stripes
American soldiers raise the flag over : German troops had crossed Home Rule, and their Catholic
the Mexican port of Veracruz. The the Belgian frontier, Britain opponents, the Irish Volunteers,
occupation cost 17 American lives : declared war on Germany. volunteered en masse for the
and lasted for six months. Although many people privately British Army.
 464 THE PLUNGE OF CIVILIZATION
INTO THIS ABYSS OF BLOOD
AND DARKNESS... IS TOO TRAGIC
FOR ANY WORDS. 99
Henry James, American author, 4 August 1914

British men queue outside the recruitment office iin Southwark Town Hall, fonda:
Thousands of men from all sections of society volunteered for army service.

In continental Europe, millions NETHERLANDS

of men were called up and KEY
> 2 @ Antwerp = 22
dispatched by train to the Seton > Germanadvance =~ ==
frontiers, while a much smaller ero (2 Aug-5 Sept) : THE TOTAL
: force of British regular soldiers The Allies (and
allied states)
was sent
ia to France as the British —
ear
A Germany
- NUMBER OF
:
aera eal) Ce Neutratstates § BRITISH, FRENCH,
itchener — , the Britis Le al:
secretary for war, launched a See a ; AND GERMAN
drive to recruit volunteers. The GERMANY - CASUALTIES
: response was overwhelming,
with three-quarters of a million GF AT THE FIRST
British men enlisted by the end Reims Shiite. BATTLE OF YPRES JOIN YOUR COUNTRY’S ARMY!
of September. Most people Parise
GOD SAVE THE KING
expected a short war with high : was forced to retreat, their
FRANCE
casualties, and at first this ge : hopes of a swift victory in ruins.
Reprodeced ty rarminsing ofLONDON OFINION

expectation seemed justified. On the Eastern Front the

: Recruitment poster
German troops surged into : Russians mobilized more quickly
: British War Secretary Lord
» Belgium, adopting an official The German war plan, devised in 1906 by then chief of staff : than Germany had anticipated, : Kitchener's face adorned
policy of “Schrecklichkeit” Count Alfred von Schlieffen, assumed that, if attacked on two fronts, : but as they advanced into East : recruitment posters that called
(frightfulness). They committed France would concentrate its forces along its eastern border. The : Prussia the Russian First and for volunteers to join up and fight.
atrocities against the Belgian bulk of the German army was to advance through Belgium and : Second Armies were crushed at
population - in the worst incident Luxembourg, encircling the French armies. The aim was to defeat : the Battles of Tannenberg and » British Empire. British troops
: 674 civilians were massacred at the French in six weeks, before the Russians could enter the fray. : the Masurian Lakes. The : from India landed in Turkish-ruled
' Dinant — and laid waste the : victorious German General Paul : Iraq and seized Basra, while
: historic city of Louvain, burning : von Hindenburg (1837-1934) and Japan joined the Allies and fought
its famous university library. : French launched their own : the British and French armies. his chief of staff General Erich for control of the German
The BEF experienced its first : Offensive along the eastern The Germans were also forced to Ludendorff (1883-1918) became > concession in China. In Africa,
action at Mons. Unable to resist : French-German border, but they : change their tactics, abandoning : national heroes. British troops invaded German
: the German onslaught, the British _ suffered heavy losses for no gain. : their plan to advance to the west : On the Western Front, from : East Africa and South African
and French were driven back | By the beginning of September © of Paris, and instead marching to : September through to November, : forces attacked German
toward Paris. Meanwhile, the : the situation was desperate for : the east of the city. French army a series of battles were fought Southwest Africa - they also put
: commander General Joseph : northward into Flanders. They : down a revolt by the Boers, who
: Joffre (1852-1931) launched a : culminated in the encounters had sided with the Germans.
: counter-offensive at the Marne, : known collectively as the First _ AtChristmas, widespread
: while troops from Paris - some of | Battle of Ypres. With neither side : fraternization between opposing
whom were carried to the front in : able to inflict a decisive blow, the : troops along the Western Front
: buses and taxis —- attacked the : armies dug trenches along a line : appalled generals, who feared
: German flank. The German army : that was to remain broadly ! their men would lose the will to
: unchanged for three years. : fight, but the war continued. By
: Meanwhile, the war was : the end of the year around half a
Refugees flee Belgium
: million French and German troops
Roads in Belgium were lined with widening intoa global conflict:
refugees like these, carrying whatever : Ottoman Turkey joined UN On the : were dead, and a third of the
possessions they could, and fleeing | side of Germany, declaring a jihad | British men who had arrived in
from the advancing German army. : (Muslim holy war} against the : France in August had been killed.

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Sa
A submarine embarks on a mission in the Atlantic. German -boats terrorized A German airship taking off from its
the seas, attacking both naval and merchant shipping at will. base for a bombing raid on London.

AT THE START OF 1915, THEGREAT : On the Western Front, the the French suffered in repeated
POWERS OF EUROPE remained : stalemate continued along offensives throughout the year.
locked in a war for which they had a double line of trenches that Mass offensives led only to mass
been unprepared. The fighting : stretched from the Channel to : casualties - over 300,000 British
had exhausted munition supplies, the Swiss border. Generals : and French losses in the autumn FRENCH CARVED CLUB
assumed that sufficient numbers : Champagne-Loos offensive. Savage attacks
and so to continue the war the
On the Eastern Front, the Soldiers raiding enemy
of men and shells
trenches often carried
hurled against fighting was far more
primitive weapons for
these defences ' mobile, and the Russians close-quarters combat.
BRITISH SPIKED CLUB
would achieve a : were forced to retreat from As well as clubs like these,
breakthrough, but : Poland and Lithuania. they used trench knives,
they were wrong. In an attempt to knuckle dusters, and even
The British : break the deadlock on GERMAN METAL ROD spades in savage melees.
attempted their : the Western Front, the Germans
first offensive of used poison gas for the first On 26 April, Italy signed the : airships...
through increasingly
the trench war at time at Ypres in April, releasing Treaty of London, committing extensive destruction of cities,
Neuve Chapelle in lethal chlorine to drift across to : it to enter the war on the side of factory complexes, dockyards...”.
March, with Indian the Allied trenches. The first Britain and France. Before the This was, in reality, far beyond the
troops leading : victims were French colonial » war, Italy had been an ally of airships’ capacity, but from 31 May
the assault and troops on 22 April, followed two: Germany and Austria-Hungary, onward night raids on London
the Canadian days later by soldiers of the First so this was a diplomatic coup and other major cities still
Expeditionary Force Canadian Division. But German for the Western Allies. Italy duly managed to cause many civilian
fighting for the troops failed to take advantage of declared war on Austria on casualties and forced Britain to
Chemical warfare first time. They the initial impact of the gas; : 23 May, and the fighting on the divert resources from the Western
Before the advent of the gas mask, gained a mere 2km (1.2 miles] of Allied soldiers quickly discovered Italo-Austrian Front quickly Front to home defence.
troops, such as these French ground for 11,000 casualties. The means of protection, and the descended into the same static At sea, Germany responded to
soldiers, protected themselves from Germans had a similar experience : Allies also adopted gas as a : stalemate as on the Western Front. an ongoing blockade of its ports
a gas attack in any way they could While stalemate persisted on by the British Royal Navy by
: attacking at Ypres in April, and weapon against the Germans.
: the ground, war in the air attempting to impose its own
combatants had to vastly expand : developed ona substantial blockade on Britain through the
their armaments industries. : scale. Slow-moving aircraft flew use of submarines. From February
Governments became aware that A shortage of manpower meant over enemy trenches taking German U-boats were authorized
the war would be won, or lost, as that women were recruited into : reconnaissance photographs and to attack merchant shipping in
much in the factories a range ofjobs traditionally : engaged in small-scale bombing : British home waters without
as on the front line. Britain set reserved for men. By 1918, : missions, while nimbler fighter warning. On 7 May, the Cunard
up a new Ministry of Munitions, around a third of the 1.7 million aircraft intercepted them. liner Lusitania, bound from New
and in Russia the tsarist workers in French munitions Away from the battlefield, York to Liverpool with almost 2,000
government set up a special factories were women, and ; Germany's Zeppelin and Schutte- passengers and crew on board,
War Industries Committee. The they constituted over half of Lanze airships embarked on the : was torpedoed off southern Ireland
French, meanwhile, had to recall the total German industrial ' world’s first long-range bombing : by the submarine U-20. More than
conscripts from the trenches to workforce. Women also : campaign, with Britain as their 1,200 people were drowned,
work in factories, their production replaced men as agricultural : main target. German Navy airship including 128 Americans citizens.
problems accentuated by the labourers, for example in the : commander Captain Peter : The attack provoked anti-German
German occupation of industrial British Women’s Land Army. : Strasser believed that Britain : riots in British cities and a hostile
areas of northeast France. could be ‘overcome by means of response in the US. After the
 British troops on the Western Front are silhouetted against the sky, wearing
~ the steel Brodie helmets that were first introduced in October 1915.

; sinking of another passenger liner, Seeking an alternative to the and disease, quickly developed. : epic Birth of aNation was a three hours and ten minutes
; Arabic, off Iceland on 19 August, : costly stalemate on the Western By the time the operation was runaway box office success. its ambition surpassed that
_ the Germans felt obliged to Front, Britain and France devised abandoned in January 1914, the With the racist Ku Klux Klan as : of any previous film. Less
: curtail U-boat attacks
in the : a plan to crush Germany’s ally : Allied forces had suffered almost : Its heroes, Griffith's masterpiece controversially, British actor
: Atlantictoavoid provoking : Turkey. British and French : a quarter of a million casualties. : provoked protests from African : Charlie Chaplin blended
| the US into entering the war. : Warships were to sail through the Success at Gallipoli was a boost : Americans and triggered race : slapstick comedy with pathos
Dardanelles Straits into the to Turkish morale, which was riots, but with a running time of : to achieve stardom in The Tramp.

TAKE UP THE Sea of Marmara, bringing much needed after the Turkish

SWORD OF JUSTICE
the Turkish capital, : Third Army had been virtually
Constantinople, under their : destroyed fighting the Russians
guns. When the naval attack in the Caucasus earlier in the _ The ANZACS
was made on 18 March, year. Claiming that the Armenian : at Gallipoli
however, three battleships An Australian soldier
population of eastern Turkey was
: carries a wounded
RATT
ATTA
were sunk and consequently collaborating with the Russians,
: colleague at Gallipoli.
it was decided that the the Turks embarked on a mass More than 26,000
Dardanelles Straits should : deportation of Armenians from : Australians were killed or
be seized before the navy : the war zone. The deportation, : wounded in the campaign.
could pass through. : which was accompanied by
Allied forces landed at : widespread massacres, has since
Gallipoli on 25 April, been interpreted as an act of
including a large contingent : genocide. Between 800,000
of the Australian and New and 1.5 million Armenians are
Zealand Army Corps : thought to have died as a result
(ANZAC). Faced with tough of Turkish action.
Turkish resistance on The second half of 1915 was
difficult terrain, they failed = also marked by the terrible
STICILAINLOCSIAiIMIMULULAINENT
to break out of their landing sufferings of Serbian troops and
zones. Renewed landings at civilians. Serbia stoutly resisted
: Fighting a just war
| This British recruitment poster uses
: Suvla Bay in August achieved no Austrian offensives throughout
: the sinking of the Lusitania as : greater success. Trench warfare, the first year of the war, but in
: propaganda to prove thejustice : similar to that in France but with : October 1915 its army collapsed
: of the Allied cause. ' conditions exacerbated by heat in the face of a combined attack
by the Germans, Austrians, and

(44... ACROSS THE RIDGES OF Bulgarians. Britain and France

: landed troops at Salonika in

THE GALLIPOLI PENINSULA Greece, intending to aid the Serbs, : >

but they were too late. Serbia was:
LIE SOME OF THE SHORTEST overrun, and as many as 200,000
Serbians died in a winter retreat
PATHS TO A TRIUMPHANT : through Kosovo into Albania.
While these awful events
PEACE. 99 : played out in Europe, Hollywood
was establishing itself as the
Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, urging the case for a : centre of movie production.
renewed offensive at Gallipoli, 5 June 1915 : Director D.W. Griffith’s civil war

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1914-2011 | TECHNOLOGY
AND SUPERPOWERS
BRITAIN

Londone

THE GREAT

World War I (Aug 1914-Nov 1918) was also known as the Great War. Although The Western Front
Millions of troops were
it was a global conflict, the focus was Europe, where the Central Powers - compressed into a restricted i
area of northeastern France and En g lish
Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey - fought an alliance led by France, western Belgium. It was here that Channel
Britain, and Russia. The US entered the war on the Anglo-French side in 1917. most of the largest and bloodiest
battles of the war were fought.

From the outset, the decisive arena of conflict was - by the Germans at Verdun and by the Western
Germany's Western Front. The Germans invaded Allies at the Somme - without breaking the
neutral Belgium and Luxembourg, overcoming stalemate. Up to 1918, only a voluntary withdrawal
Belgian resistance at Liege and Antwerp. French by the Germans to the fortified Hindenburg Line
and British forces were driven into retreat significantly changed the position of the armies.
southward after clashes at Mons and Charleroi. At From March 1918 a series of large-scale
the Marne, however, French commander General German offensives broke through Allied defences
Joseph Joffre rallied his forces for a counter- and advanced the front line toward Paris. But, = Front line 1914-1916
offensive and the Germans were pushed back. aided by the arrival of US troops, the Allies halted Hindenburg Line
After a desperate struggle at Ypres in autumn the Germans at the Marne. A successful British Front line Mar 1918
1914, the rival armies dug into trenches that offensive at Amiens in August-initiated the Furthest extent of German advance 1918
stretched from the North Sea to Switzerland. “Hundred Days”, a series of advances that pushed Armistice Nov 1918

Massive resources were committed to offensives the fighting back close to the German border. Major battle

A WAR ON ALL FRONTS

On the Eastern Front, Germany and
Austria-Hungary faced the forces of AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
the Russian Empire. From the battle RUSSIAN
of Tannenberg in August 1914, the EMPIRE
Bucharest
German Army established an
ascendancy over the Russians, but the @ Sarajevo
Austro-Hungarians enjoyed no such
@ Smolensk
superiority, suffering defeat in the
4 ‘ @ Minsk
Russian Brusilov offensive in 1916. Tannenberg Masurian
23-30 Aug 1914 Lakes f Sofiae
Revolution in Russia in 1917 led to the 9-14 Sep 1914 \
GERMANY e p
country’s exit from the war, and a Warsaw %
POLAND
humiliating peace treaty with Germany
Adriatic
Signed at Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. GALICIA ; Sea
The entry of the Turkish Ottoman Gorlice
2-10 May 1915 Salonica
Empire into the war as an ally of
@ Budapest
Germany in autumn 1914 spread the AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
conflict to the Middle East. An Anglo-
French bid to attack the Turkish capital, Belgrade
e
Constantinople, failed dismally at Gallipoli. SERBIA

Bulgaria also joined the Central NS Ser

Powers, helping to crush Serbia in 1915 cks by
and Romania the following year. Allied
troops based at Salonica in northern
Greece from 1915 remained largely
passive until the final months of the
war, when their advance northward in
September 1918 helped deliver a decisive
blow to the collapsing Central Powers.
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7-14 Jun 1915 Mons ‘. e Nevmitires Lege Ae France Britain Germany Italy
; 23 Aug 1914 8 Sous? COUNTRIES
Arras % :
9 Apr-16 May 1917 * re War in the skies KEY
x N a Military aviation expanded 1914
Cambrai A _ massively through the war. In ™ 1918
20 Nov-7 Dec 1917 es August 1914, around 500 aircraft
= were deployed by all combatants
=> 4
cS See combined. By the end of the war
. : LUXEMBOURG some 12,000 military aircraft
i were in action at the front.
%._@ Sedan
am =a

r\ x :
% Chemin des Danes * 6% 4%
be ae 16 Apr-9 May 1917 aS Other combat- Poison
* related deaths gas
S ees ~, Verdun
*, oa Feb-18 Dec 1916
Sey Ce) = * 10% 60%

: 2 % S Argonne . 'x : Rifle fire Artillery

Chateau-Thierry : 26 Sep- ip .
18 Jul 1918 : First Marne 11Nov1918 oy
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aS Second Marne deur 20%
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FRANCE 12-19Sep 1918 Ss. ian ie
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cy
ie % ‘. :
ae . ss War casualties
& EMPIRE SWITZERLAND eB : & Sook The total military
ily death tollini
= AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
S 3 s,s
nine
World War | was around 9.7$ million.
x : we Germany suffered the heaviest loss
x 1 at over 2 million, followed by Russia
4 (1.8 million), and France (1.4 million].
oe “
Caporetto E %
24 Oct-19 Nov x
@ Bolzano 1917 ig

=a Vittorio Veneto
Trento 24 Oct-3 Nov Pa

River Piave . SWITZERLAND

15-23 Jun 1918

@ Verona

|TALY Adriatic
40 i The cost of war
Sea
The huge financial
OTTOMAN
cost of the war
EMPIRE became a major
oOoO
issue in the postwar
period, when Britain
THE ITALIAN FRONT An ally of Germany and
and France sought
me Central Powers Austria-Hungary before the war, Italy remained talian advance
° reparations
advance Sep i neutral in 1914, and the following year entered the Austro-German
Nn

payments from
1916 -Jan 1917 conflict on the side of Britain and France. A series _ advance Germany to pay
Major battle of ineffective Italian offensives on the mountainous, > Allied offensive debts owed by them
border with Austria at the Isonzo River were
Front line Sep 1917 10 to the US.
followed by headlong retreat after a crushing 2
defeat at the battle of Caporetto. With British and Front line Dec (BILLIONS)
US
IN
COST
DOLLARS
1917-Oct 1918
French reinforcements, the Italians held firm a
the River Piave in summer 1918. _ Major battle == Britain
MAJOR COUNTRIES INVOLVED IN THE WAR
This Irish Republican barricade was set up across Townsend Street in Dublin during
the Easter Rising to delay the advance of British troops fighting to retake the city.

A YEAR OF BATTLES OF In March, Mexican general Prussian In April, Britain faced a revolt Russia’s most successful
UNPRECEDENTED SCALE opened - Pancho Villa (1878-1923), the : wappen, or : against its rule in Ireland. The : offensive of World War |, almost
with a German offensive against : flamboyant leader of one of the helmet : Irish Republican Brotherhood : destroying the Austrian army in
plate * sought German support for a : Galicia. The Austrians were only
the French city of Verdun in ' revolutionary armies engaged in
February (see pp.278-79). : Mexico's ongoing civil war, made a : nationalist uprising, but : rescued by the arrival of German
German commander-in-chief Erich : cross-border raid into the US. : Germany's attempt to supply . troops to support them. Brusilov’s
von Falkenhayn (1861-1922) aimed : His attack on Columbus, New : rifles to the rebels was : initial success was based on
to “bleed the French army white” : Mexico, was rebuffed by the US intercepted by the British. : subtle tactics - surprise and the
by drawing it into costly combat. : Cavalry. The provocation was too Republicans still went ahead : rapid movement of shock troops
The French reacted as he had : great for the US to ignore, and with the uprising on Easter : to exploit breakthroughs.
hoped by sending reinforcements : President Woodrow Wilson Monday, occupying key Unfortunately, the British did not
to be decimated by the German : (1856-1924) ordered General buildings in Dublin, and learn from their Russian allies.
heavy guns. German losses also : John Pershing (1860-1948) to ‘: proclaiming a Provisional : On 1 July, General Douglas Haig
mounted up, as French resistance : lead an expedition into Mexico. : Government of the Irish Republic.
stiffened under the inspirational : Around 5,000 US troops fought : The British sent troops to Dublin,
leadership of General Philippe » engagements with both Villa : and after five days of fighting the
Peétain (1856-1951). Repeated : supporters and Mexican : rebels surrendered. Fifteen
German offensives continued : government forces before ; republican leaders were executed
until mid-July, after which French : withdrawing in January 1917. : after a secret trial by a British
German helmet
counteroffensives succeeded into Britain suffered a military : military court. Although few Irish
: The German spiked Pickelhaube
December. Little territory changed | disaster in the spring in : helmet was replaced in the course of :: had supported
' : the rebellion, the
hands and both sides suffered » Mesopotamia (Iraq), then part of : 1916 by the metal Stahlhelm, which : executions stimulated a wave of
around 400,000 casualties. : the Turkish Ottoman Empire. The provided better protection. : pro-Republican sentiment.
Meanwhile, the US was fighting " area had been occupied by British At the end of May, the German
a war on a quite different scale. forces from India. From December This disaster was offset by the : High Seas Fleet and the Royal
1915, Anglo-Indian troops : Arab revolt against Turkish ! Navy’s Grand Fleet met in the
had been under siege by : rule. Encouraged by Britain, : Battle of Jutland in the North
Turkish forces at Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca : Sea. The British spotted a sortie GENERAL DOUGLAS |
Kut-al-Amara, between (1854-1931), launched an uprising : by the German fleet and sent
a far HAIG (1861-1928)
Basra and Baghdad. Relief in June. Arab forces defeated the : superior naval force to attack it.
forces failed to fight their Turkish garrisons of Mecca, ; German Admiral Reinhard Scheer Cavalry officer Douglas Haig
way through to Kut, so, i Medina, and other towns in the : (1863-1928) was caught by performed well as a corps
facing starvation, they were : Hejaz, and Hussein proclaimed : surprise, but British Admiral John commander in the first year
forced to surrender. Taken : himself Sultan of the Arabs. The : Jellicoe (1859-1935) failed to of World War I. As British
prisoner, the British and : British sent T.E. Lawrence : profit from the advantage. The army commander-in-chief,
Indian soldiers endured (1888-1935], a junior officer German warships were able to his assaults on German
terrible hardship, less than in Cairo, to act as adviser to » makea fighting withdrawal defences at the Somme in
half surviving captivity. : Hussein’s son Feisal, the most : to port, while inflicting heavier 1916 and Passchendaele in
: active leader of the revolt. losses than they suffered. Despite 1917 resulted in huge losses.
: Between them, Lawrence and : a disappointing performance, the In 1918, Haig held firm in
7 =Bandit leader : Feisal organized an effective : Royal Navy had confirmed its the face of the formidable
Originally abandit chief,
; military force. They used guerrilla : superiority — it was the German German spring offensives,
Pancho Villa became a key
figure in the Mexican tactics to push for the liberation of : fleet that had retreated. then presided over a string
Revolution and Mexico's : Arabs throughout the Turkish- In June, General Aleksei of British victories.
clash with the US in 1916. ruled Middle East. - Brusilov (1853-1926) mounted

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 44 SUCCESS WILL COME
TO THE SIDE THAT HAS THE
LAST MAN STANDING. 99
General Philippe Pétain, 1916

a pe x oan
French soldiers arriving at Verdun in eastern France. The standard tour of duty
at the front was eight days - all a man could be expected to stand.

: launched a massive offensive at :_ months, introducing tanks as 600 : Quartermaster-General Erich

: the Somme [see pp.278-79). : soon as this new weapon was : : Ludendorff 1865-1937} were
: Rather than destroy enemy : available, and allowing his i : given supreme command of the
: defences, the eight-day artillery : subordinates to experiment with A : German army and control of the
: bombardment had alerted the : varied tactics including night i : entire German war effort. In order
Germans to an imminent attack. attacks. But there was no 300 \ : to wring every drop of productivity
: British troops marched forward : breakthrough, and the only result out of German industry they
in lines, because the generals : was attrition - a gradual wearing : created a state-directed economy
: believed their conscripted troops : down of the armies. : that has been dubbed “war
: were incapable of executing more : By the second half of 1916, the : socialism’. By contrast, their
: intelligent tactics, and were mown : strain of two years of warfare had THOUSANDS)
(IN
CASUALTIES
odes. M : Austrian allies were losing their
: down by German machine guns. left countries with the option of British French German ' will to fight. The death of Emperor
: Almost 20,000 men were killed, : either ratcheting up their war : Franz Josef | (1830-1916) in
Casualties of the Somme offensive
: the heaviest losses ever : effort or seeking a path to peace.
The Somme was one of the bloodiest
: November marked the beginning
: experienced by the British army ; In August, Germany changed its : battles of the war. Between 1 July : of the end of the Austrian
: inasingle day's fighting. Haig : leadership. General Paul von : and 18 November over a million : Empire. His successor, Charles |
: kept the men fighting for five » Hindenburg (1847-1934) and his : men were killed or wounded. : (1887-1922), was desperate for a
: way out of the war.
: The collective madness of the
: Performing artists
: battlefield provoked an influential
: Leading Dada artist Hugo Ball
: art movement that gave itself the : performing at Cabaret Voltaire,
: nonsense name Dada. Dadaists which he founded in 1916. Dadaists
4, ; such as Hugo Ball and Hans Arp : protested against the war.
gathered at the Cabaret Voltaire in
: Zurich, in neutral Switzerland, state their war aims as a prelude
: and advocated a crazy anti-art : to ceasefire negotiations.
© that satirized a world afflicted by : Germany's civilian government
: mass slaughter. Their anarchic > came up with its own “peace
: works rejected the social order © offer”, but the country’s military
: that legitimized war. leaders would not permit any of
: Amore rational spokesman for : the concessions that might have
; peace was President Woodrow ; made peace a practical possibility.
: Wilson, elected for a second : The Russian Empire was
: term of office in November. As the : desperate for an end to the
: man who had kept the US out of : fighting, and its tsarist regime
: the European war, Wilson put : Was leaking popular support.
; himself forward as a peacemaker. In December, court conspirators
: He issued a peace note” that ' assassinated Grigori Rasputin
: called on combatant countries to : (1869-1916), an hirsute “holy
: man” whose hold over the tsar’s
: wife had become a public scandal.
Going over the top
British soldiers prepare to attack
: The assassination was widely
during the Battle of the Somme, : welcomed, but it could not halt
leaving the relative shelter of the : the tsarist government's slide
trench for exposed ground. : toward collapse.

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281
Armed workers and soldiers taking part in the overthrow of Russia's Provisional Government by
the Bolsheviks in Petrograd. They established a communist revolutionary regime.

ON 9? JANUARY, GERMAN KAISER Propaganda poster committed to continuing the war. continued. At the start of the
WILHELM II (1859-1941) approved New York's Mayor's Committee on The failure of the campaign he year newly appointed French
the decision of his military National Defense declared 19 April launched on 1 July, Known as the commander-in-chief Robert
“Wake Up America Day”, and Kerensky Offensive, was followed Nivelle (1856-1924) promised a
commanders to engage in
publicized it with this poster. crushing onslaught that would
unlimited submarine warfare. by widespread mutinies in the
The Germans knew that this army at the front and desertion. win the war in days. When the
would mean sinking American On 2 April, US president Attempts to suppress the Nivelle Offensive was launched
merchant vessels and would Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) Bolsheviks failed. The Provisional in mid-April, however, it proved no
probably bring the neutral US asked Congress to vote for a Government survived a coup more successful than previous
into the war, but they believed war to make the world safe for attempt, but on 7 November it offensives. The disappointment
they could sink enough ships to democracy’. Four days later the succumbed to an armed takeover was bitter. There were widespread
force Britain to sue for peace and » US declared war on Germany, organized by Lenin's associate, mutinies and the French army
make US intervention ineffectual. keeping independence of action Leon Trotsky (1879-1940). threatened to disintegrate. Hastily
When an American cargo ship, the by not formally allying itself with Lenin set up a revolutionary appointed to replace Nivelle,
Housatonic, was sunk by a U-boat Britain and France. The slow government of People's General Philippe Pétain (1856-
on 3 February
the US broke
off the Scilly Isles,
off diplomatic
CIVILIZATION process of building and equipping
a mass conscript army began.
Commissars and proclaimed
a unilateral armistice.
1951) restored order with a
mixture of concessions and
relations with Germany. EVERYMAN WOMAN 1SCOMMITTEE SO EAST 42° at While the US was entering Meanwhile, on the Western punishments, and ruled out
Anticipating US entry into the the war, Russia was caught up front stalemate and slaughter any further French offensives.
war, German foreign minister this plan was intercepted, decoded in revolutionary turmoil. A
Arthur Zimmermann decided by British intelligence, and passed momentous sequence of events
to offer Mexico an alliance, to the US government. When it was triggered by food riots,
encouraging them to fight to was published in the US press strikes, and a mutiny of soldiers
regain Texas, New Mexico, and it caused a sensation, stoking in Petrograd (St Petersburg).
Arizona from the US. Atelegram anti-German feeling already On 15 March, Tsar Nicholas II
from Zimmermann detailing ignited by the U-boat campaign. (1868-1918) abdicated and a
Provisional Government was
VLADIMIR ILYICH established by politicians from
LENIN (1870-1924) the Duma (Russian parliament).
Committees set up by workers
Born into Russian minor and soldiers, known as ‘soviets”,
gentry, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov created a competing focus of
became a Marxist activist, political power. On 16 April,
adopting the name “Lenin”. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (see panel,
Living in exile in Western left], leader of the extremist
Europe, he led the Bolsheviks Bolshevik Party, returned to
from 1903. Returning to Russia Petrograd from exile in
in 1917, he was determined to Switzerland. Lenin sought to
radicalize the revolution radicalize the revolution by
through a Bolshevik seizure of proposing an end to the war
power. Once in control he and ‘all power to the soviets”.
ruthlessly stamped out all The dominant personality in
opposition, and founded the the Provisional Government,
world’s first communist state. moderate socialist Alexander
Kerensky (1881-1970), was

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GOVERNMENT... PROPOSES TO
ALL WARRING PEOPLES...
NEGOTIATIONS LEADING TO
A JUST, DEMOCRATIC PEACE. 99
Lenin, 8 November 1917

a
These British Mark IV tanks are transported to the Cambrai offensive. They car ry
bundles of wood to fill the trenches, so that they can drive across them.

The British army remained The British : Howitzer Mark |

committed to an offensive ©, THE NUMBER OF CREW : royal family, : Used to great effect by the British
strategy. In the second half of » meanwhile, : Army during World War I, this gun
the year General Douglas Haig THAT FLEW AND > found it : could fire two rounds of 132kg
"prudent to (290|b} shells every minute.
(1861-1928) began a new push
at Ypres (see pp.278-79], hoping
OPERATED A GERMAN : change their am hydraulic
to break through to the ports GOTHA BOMBER : name from the 4 recoil buffer
where German U-boats were Germanic
based. Haig’s offensive ran into » Saxe-Coburg and
persistent bad weather that : inoperative. On harder ground at : Gotha bombers and even larger ' Gotha to Windsor.
reduced the battlefield to a sea : Cambrai in November, massed » “R-planes”. These fixed-wing / The British public was
of mud. The offensive persisted : tanks helped British forces : aircraft were faster and more : cheered in December by
into November, until British advance 6km [4 miles) in one day : difficulttoshoot down than the : the capture of Jerusalem
and Canadian troops reached : — three times the distance : German airships (see 1915), : from Turkey. This military
Passchendaele, the village that achieved at Passchendaele in : although defence by anti-aircraft : success gave practical
finally gave its name to the battle. : three months. Any celebrations : guns and fighter aircraft soon : importance to the previous
The mud in Flanders rendered : were premature, however, as a : forced them to attack exclusively : month's Balfour
tanks, an increasingly important German counter attack soon : by night. Physical damage and : Declaration, which
: element of British weaponry, : retook most of the lost ground. : casualties were not great, but the : expressed British
The long stalemate : psychological impact of these : government support for
between Italy and Austria- : raids was considerable, as Zionist aspirations to
Hungary ended when : citizens were driven to hide : “a national home for
German troops were : underground in cellars and : the Jewish people in
transferred to the Italian : subway stations. : Palestine”. Britain's
front in October. At the : In all combatant countries war : Arab allies, fighting
Battle of Caporetto, an : weariness and worsening : alongside the British
Austro-German offensive : conditions made it hard for army against the carriage
drove Italian forces into : governmentsto maintain : Turks, had not been consulted.
retreat. A line was : solidarity. Food shortages and
stabilized in November socialist sentiments, excited
behind the Piave River, : by the revolutionary uprising in
just 30km (19 miles] : Russia, led to widespread strike
from Venice (see p.279). : action in German factories. The
From June, civilians : German Reichstag [parliament]
living in Paris and London : passed a resolution calling for wo
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: In France, scandals and strikes
Dawn breaks at : rocked the political system Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Passchendaele : through the summer and autumn, MONTHS
Dead and wounded soldiers
: but the appointment of the fiercely
lie in the muddy desolation of : British merchant shipping losses to U-boats
the battlefield in the Ypres : pro-war Georges Clemenceau : German unrestricted submarine warfare increased attacks on
salient, where the battle of : (1841-1929) as prime minister : merchant ships from February to April. The adoption of aconvoy
Passchendale was fought. : in November stiffened resolve. : system in May reduced sinkings to a sustainable level.

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German prisoners of war in France - in the last three months of the war
363,000 German soldiers were captured by the advancing Allies.

ALTHOUGH THE US ENTERED : through the Treaty of Brest- assassination attempt in August,
WORLD WAR | IN APRIL 1917, : Litovsk, which marked Russia's : but throughout the year ever
at the start of 1918 its > exit from World War |. With larger areas of Russia fell out
Expeditionary Force in Europe Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Finland, of his followers’ control.
was still not ready for combat. : and the Baltic States nominally Meanwhile, relieved of the need
Despite this, in anticipation of : independent as client states of to fight a war on two fronts,
victory, US President Woodrow : Germany, the treaty deprived : Germany attempted to win a
Wilson announced a 14-point : Russia of about a third of its : decisive victory in the west before
programme for a just and : pre-war population. The German : American manpower could
durable peace. His proposals : military authorities then set : irreversibly tip the balance. On
included freedom of the seas and : about ruthlessly exploiting : 21 March, the Spring Offensive
free trade, general disarmament, : resources in the eastern or “Kaiserschlacht” struck the
self-determination for European : regions they now controlled. British line on the Somme front.
peoples who did not have their The humiliating treaty did not An initial bombardment by 9,000
own nation-states, and an : bring peace to Russia, which was : guns and mortars, with munitions
international organization to : already slipping into civil war. : including 2 million gas shells, Hr
guarantee new borders against : Determined to concentrate all : prepared the way for an infantry
aggressors. Germany would have the power in Bolshevik hands, : attack spearheaded by German MURDER OF THE RUSSIAN
ROYAL FAMILY —
to hand back the territory it had ' Lenin forcibly dispersed Stormtroopers, many armed with
occupied during the war as well : ademocratically elected flamethrowers. More than 20,000 After abdicating in 1917, Tsar Nicholas II, his wife, four daughters,
as Alsace-Lorraine, which was : Constituent Assembly in January : British troops surrendered on the and only son were sent to Siberia, where they lived in reasonable
taken from France in 1871. : the Bolsheviks had won only : first day of the offensive, and by comfort. But in April 1918 the family was moved to Ekaterinburg
The Germans had quite different : 25 per cent of votes cast. His 25 March the leading German in the Urals and placed under close guard by local Bolsheviks.
ideas, however. In March, they - regime faced opposition from : units had advanced 65km On the night of 16-17 July Bolshevik secret police had the entire
used their military dominance : groups as diverse as rival socialist : (40 miles). The stalemate that family shot in a cellar, along with their doctor and servants. Their
over the newly installed Bolshevik : revolutionaries, tsarist generals, : had lasted on the Western bodies were buried and not discovered until 1991.
government [see 1917] to impose : Ukrainian anarchists, and Don front since 1914 was at an end.
punitive peace terms on Russia : Cossacks. Lenin survived an In early April, the Germans
opened a fresh offensive at Lys in : to co-ordinate the operations of known to the British as the
Flanders. In an emotional appeal the Allied armies, including US : “Flying Circus”, had an impressive
to his troops, British commander _ troops. Although the Allies made : Feputation in combat and the
: General Douglas Haig (1861- : further retreats and remained on : Baron himself was credited with
: 1928} declared: “With our backs : the defensive until July, the ' 80 “kills”. But the German pilots
: to the wall and believing in the : Germans failed to achieve the : were overwhelmed by the sheer
: justice of our cause, each one of : decisive success they needed. : number of allied aircraft -
: us must fight on to the end.” More One victim of the fighting in April : British and French factories built
: practically, the French general : was Germany's most renowned © 55,000 aircraft in 1918 alone.
: Ferdinand Foch (1851-1929) was : air ace, Manfred von Richthofen By June, over a million
appointed Supreme Commander - (1892-1918). The “Red Baron” _ American soldiers were in
: was shot dead by ground fire : France, under the command of
: while engaged in a dogfight with : General John Pershing (1860-
Poster of a German aircraft
A German poster advertising an : Canadian pilot Roy Brown over the 1948). Their contribution was vital
exhibition of items captured in the : Allied lines. His death symbolized to stabilizing the Allied line in the
air war. Most World War | aircraft : the exhaustion of Germany's war : face of German offensives. The
were made of canvas and wood. » effort. Richthofen’s fighter wing, : fighting qualities of the US

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 44 | HOPE WE MAY ALL SAY
THAT THUS, THIS FATEFUL
MORNING, CAME TO AN
END ALL WARS. 99
David Lloyd George, British Prime Minister, 11 November 1918

British soldiers, an American sailor, and a Red Cross nurse celebrate the signing
of the armistice on 11 November, ending four years of mass slaughter.

: Marines particularly impressed : Germans sought an armistice.

: their German enemies - a : They approached President
German reference to the Marines Wilson (1856-1924), hoping to
as “Devil Dogs” stuck as a : make a deal with the US, but
nickname for the Corps. Wilson aligned himself with the
The turning point was an British and French who insisted
attack at Amiens on 8 August, : that Germany should surrender.
spearheaded by Australian and : Although German troops were
: Canadian infantry, and supported still putting up a stubborn
by massed British and French : defence, and there were not yet
tanks. Described by the German
general Erich Ludendorff
: any Allied troops on German soil,
: the country was disintegrating
PEOPLE DIED
(1865-1937) as “the black day : from within. A mutiny in the IN THE FLU
: of the German army’, it initiated
: the “Hundred Days” of relentless
: German navy at the end of
: October was followed by strikes
PANDEMIC
: Allied offensives, with large-scale : and socialist uprisings in major OF 1918-19
: use of tanks and aircraft. : cities, where food shortages had
In September, Pershing achieved fuelled political discontent. Peace celebrations erupted in
his ambition of commanding an Germany's main allies, Turkey : London, Paris, and other Allied
independent US operation - the : and Austria-Hungary, stopped cities, but even in the victor
: capture of the St Mihiel salient. : fighting. On 9 November, the Social countries the reaction was muted
: This was followed by a combined Democrat Philipp Scheidemann by the memory of the millions that | &
: American and French offensive in - declared Germanya republic, and had died. There were no
the Argonne forest, the costliest Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859-1941) fled celebrations in the collapsed
single battle in American history : to the Netherlands. Two days later : empires destroyed by the conflict
with 117,000 US casualties. : a German delegation signed an : — Germany, Austria, Russia, and
On 29 September, with their : armistice in a railway carriage Turkey - which faced an uncertain
Hindenburg Line defences : inthe Compiegne forest. The : future amid political turmoil.
breached and their ally Bulgaria : guns fell silent at 11 a.m. on Meanwhile, a global pandemic
: on the point of surrender, the 11 November. of “Spanish Flu” was at its
' peak. One of the worst natural
: disasters in human history,
Troop numbers
: the spread of the disease was
and deaths
Around 65 million : probably aided by large-scale
= NR
men fought in movements of troops and by the
World War |, of weakened immune systems
whom 8.5 million of populations suffering from
died. Germany ' malnutrition. The disease killed
suffered the : more than 50 million people.
highest number
oO
of casualties.
[IN 3
MILLIONS)
TROOPS © : Signing the armistice
3 : The Allied delegation, led by Marshal
c«KEY : Foch, photographed outside the
0 : |r @ Military strength : railway carriage at Compiégne
Central powers Casualties : where the armistice was signed.

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 The “Big Four” E David Lloyd George, Vittorio Orlando, Georges Clemenceau,
and Woodrow Wilson - meet amiably at the Paris Peace Conference.

IN JANUARY 1919, LEADERS OF area lost to area lost : democratic republic, but on the outraged Germans more than any counter-revolutionary armies.
THE VICTOR COUNTRIES FROM Denmark to France streets of Germany extremism : other part of the treaty. The crew The Whites had the backing of
area lost | | foreign powers, who landed
WORLD WAR | met for a peace of right and left continued to : of the German High Seas Fleet -
to Poland
conference in Paris. US President : flourish. In the southern German interned since the armistice at intervention forces at ports
Woodrow Wilson's liberal idealism : state of Bavaria communists Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands around Russia - US and Japanese
was the focus for popular hopes proclaimed a Soviet regime in north of Scotland - scuttled their at Vladivostok, French at Odessa,
that a new and better world would April, only to be crushed by the vessels as an act of defiance. : and British at Murmansk and
be built on the ruins of the old. army and Freikorps in May. But left with no choice German Arkhangelsk — but these foreign
Wilson was one of the “Big Four With Germany in no position to delegates signed the treaty, in the interventions were half-hearted
who dominated the proceedings resume hostilities, the victorious Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of and mostly short-lived. The
in Paris, the others being French Allies were able to impose peace Versailles, on 28 June. Bolshevik People’s Commissar for
prime minister Georges terms in the Versailles Treaty While peace was being formalized War, Leon Trotsky (1879-1940),
Clemenceau (1841-1929], British without negotiation. Germany lost in Western Europe, civil war created a mass Red Army by
prime minister David Lloyd all its colonies and substantial raged in Russia, as Lenin's conscripting peasants at gunpoint,
George (1863-1945], and Italian : territory in Europe. The European : Bolshevik government fought for : and subjecting them to harsh
: German loss of territory
prime minister Vittorio Orlando territorial loss consisted largely : survival against various White” discipline. Fighting between the
After World War | Germany lost
(1860-1952). Each European : 13 per cent ofits territory. Most went : of areas needed to form
leader had his own agenda, : to the new state of Poland, while the new state of Poland,
inevitably dominated by issues : France regained Alsace-Lorraine. : and Alsace-Lorraine,
of national self-interest. Wilson's which Germany had
idealism expressed itself in an aggression and replace war by the : taken from France
agreement to create a League negotiated settlement of disputes, : during the Franco-
of Nations, which was to provide but Clemenceau believed the best Prussian War (see 1870).
“collective security” against guarantee for the future peace : Tight restrictions were
: of France was in a permanent placed on German
: weakening of Germany. : armed forces and
: Defeat in war had reduced the Rhineland was
: Germany to a state of economic : demilitarized.
and social collapse. In January, The Germans were
communist revolutionaries, : also required to make
known as the Spartacists, reparations payments,
tried to imitate the success which were justified
of the Bolsheviks in Russia by the assertion that
{see 1917) by staging an Germany had been guilty
: uprising in Berlin. The attempted : of starting the war. The
: revolution was crushed by the “war guilt” clause
army and right-wing paramilitary
: Freikorps; the two most
prominent Spartacist leaders, Revolutionary leader
Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Trotsky's organizational
Luxembourg, were captured and : and leadership skills were
Russian Red Army cap badge
killed. In February, an elected : essential to Bolshevik
The hammer-and-plough insignia
from the Civil War period symbolizes : assembly, sitting in the city of success in Russia. He
the union ofindustrial workers and Weimar, set about drawing up : Is seen here addressing
peasants in the revolutionary cause. ! a constitution for an impeccably : troops of the Red Army.

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 44 WE'VE HAD A TERRIBLE
VOYAGE... THE WONDER IS
WE ARE HERE AT ALL. 99
John Alcock, officer in the British RAF, after flying
nonstop across the Atlantic, 15 June 1919

John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown in the plane they flew on the first
non-stop transatlantic flight from Newfoundland in Canada to Ireland.

: Red and White armies was : The vision of an Italians enter Fiume : expedition was intended to test
: vicious, and accompanied by : imminent world Gabriele DAnnunzio's : the validity of the General Theory
: massacres and atrocities on : revolution had some nationalist legionnaires of Relativity, a revolutionary
: avast scale. : credibilityat a time salute the flag of the > concept in physics formulated
: In the midst of this mayhem : when radical workers’ short-lived Regency : during World War | by Albert
: Russia hosted a congress ; and anti-colonial of Carnaro in Fiume, : Einstein (1879-1955). In
: in Moscow to found the Third : movements were now the Croatian : September, it was announced
» International, known as : challenging the city of Rijeka. : that the observations did indeed
: Comintern. Its aim was to : established authority confirm Einstein's theory,
: promote the spread of communist : in many countries. : fundamentally changing the
: revolution worldwide; its effect Outside Russia, it garden in Amritsar, : notions of time and space that
: was to split the international : was only in Hungary Punjab. At least : had underpinned Isaac Newton's
© socialist movement, forcing that communists 379 people were : view of the universe.
: people on the political left to : establisheda killed. Although the
: choose between social democracy : national government British government
: and revolutionary communism. : in 1919. The collapse condemned the
: of the Austro- killings and dismissed
:; Hungarian Empire was a disaster : Conference, after failing to secure ; General Dyer, the Amritsar
: for Hungary, which faced the : either Dalmatia or the port of ' massacre caused widespread
: loss of two-thirds of its pre-war : Fiume (Rijeka) for Italy. In outrage in India and increased
: territory to Czechoslovakia, : September, Gabriele D’Ainnunzio : pressure for independence.
: Romania, and Yugoslavia. The : (1863-1938], a flamboyant Despite the world’s troubles,
: communist Bela Kun (1886- : right-wing nationalist poet and ; technological and scientific
: 1938) took power in March, : aviator, seized Fiume with a band ; progress continued. On 14 June,
launching military offensives : of armed followers. He held the : British pilot Captain John Alcock
against Czechoslovakia and : port-city, ruling as dictator of the » (1892-1919) and his navigator
Romania. He followed the : Regency of Carnaro, until he was : Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown
Bolshevik example by forming driven out by the Italian Navy after : (1886-1948) took off from St ALBERT EINSTEIN
a Red Army and exercising a a peace deal between Italy and : John’s in Newfoundland to attempt (1879-1955)
: reign of terror against his - Yugoslavia in November 1920, : the first non stop flight across
: opponents, but after 133 days : which made Fiume a Free State. ' the Atlantic. After a perilous Einstein was born to Jewish
' in power he was defeated by the Meanwhile, Britain was facing ! 16 hours 27 minutes their Vickers parents in southern Germany.
: Romanians. Admiral Miklés : opposition to its rule in India.: Vimy bomber aircraft landed In 1905, he published his
: Horthy’s counter-revolutionary : The British were committed to a : nose-down ina bog in Galway, Special Theory of Relativity,
: National Army marched into : promise made during World War | : Ireland. Their feat won them a which was followed by the
: Budapest to suppress the : to grant the Indians a measure hero's welcome in London, but General Theory of Relativity
* communists with another reign : of self-government, but they Alcock’s triumph was short-lived, in 1915. His theories
of terror. In 1920, Horthy took suspended civil liberties in a ; as he was killed in an air crash revolutionized understanding
power in Hungary as ‘Regent’. » crackdown on what were described : just six months later. of the relationship between
In Italy, people of alt political : as “anarchical and revolutionary At the time when Alcock and time, space, matter, and
persuasions were disgusted with : crimes”. On 13 April, British officer : Brown made their famous flight, energy. From the 1920s
their country’s limited share in : General Reginald Dyer (1864-1927) : British scientists were analysing Einstein was féted worldwide,
the spoils of victory. Orlando was : ordered troops to fire on an i the results of an expedition sent but chose exile in the US,
: forced to resign as prime minister : unarmed crowd of protestors at ; to the African island of Principe away from Hitler's Germany.
: on his return from the Paris Peace ! the Jallianwalla Bagh, a public : to observe a solar eclipse. The

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 44 WHAT HAVE 1 GOT FOR
IRELAND? SOMETHING
SHE HAS WANTED THESE
LAST 700 YEARS. 99
Michael Collins, Irish revolutionary leader, 1921

a
caaacaili
As the agitation for Irish independence mounts, an angry crowd of protestors
in Dublin try to force a street barricade manned by British soldiers.

GERMANY REMAINEDIMMERSEDIN : France and large numbers of : Russian Civil War. Asserting : invaded Poland. Led by General
THE TURMOIL that had followed : cattle, sheep, and horses to : Bolshevik authority over Ukraine : Jozef Pitsudski [1867-1935], the
defeat in World War | [see 1919]. : France and Belgium. : and Belarus brought the Red : Poles mounted a counter-
In March, units of the nationalist Further east, war continued to Army into conflict with the Poles. : offensive outside Warsaw that
paramilitary Freikorps occupied : rage. The Bolsheviks triumphed : After some early success against : crushed the Red Army. Lenin
Berlin and declared the Weimar - over the White generals in the : Polish forces, the Red Army : (see 1917) was forced to end the
Republic overthrown. As war on Polish terms.
conservative politician Wolfgang The terms imposed on
More Easy i Toney—A Clever Crook Story—In this Issue the Ottoman sultan by
Kapp attempted to forma
September 11, 1920 Price~15 Cents
government, Weimar ministers Subscription Price $7,00 a year the victorious Allies in
called for a nationwide general the Treaty of Sevres
strike to resist the Freikorps meant breaking up the
“putsch”. Workers walked out, Turkish empire. In April,
factories and transport shut down, General Mustafa Kemal
and within days the Kapp regime (1881-1938]}, the Turkish
had collapsed. hero of Gallipoli (see
The Weimar government 1915), headed a
reluctantly engaged in talks -— Tllustrate g nationalist parliament
with the victorious Allies over in opposition to the
implementation of the Vol, ONNNL ON sultan and began a war
Versailles peace treaty (see to win control of what
1919]. Germany began disbanding he regarded as Turkish
much of its armed forces and national territory - much

VOTING
paying war reparations in kind, of which had been given
through deliveries of coal to to Greece by the Allies.
The year saw the
5% 3%
BooTH NO1 beginning of prohibition
Serbia Others in the US. The 18th
: Polish Cross of Valour
Amendment to the
! This military decoration was
Constitution banned the ; Introduced by Poland during the war
8%
manufacture and sale : with Bolshevik Russia in 1920 to
Belgium of “intoxicating liquors”, : recognize Polish deeds of heroism.
a move that had little
10% influence on alcohol : Amendment, ratified in August,
Italy
consumption, but ' guaranteed American women
provided a massive boost : the vote on equal terms with men.
to organized crime. The The US did not take part in
more momentous 19th : the initiation of the League
22% 52% : of Nations. This international
Britain France : body - dedicated to the peaceful
Victory for suffrage
Dividing up reparations
: resolution of disputes and the
This magazine cover
The Allies agreed to divide up celebrates the passing ' collective deterrence of
German reparations payments after of the 19th amendment to :; aggression - was the brainchild
a complex calculation of the losses the US Constitution, which : of American president Woodrow
they had suffered during World War I. : gave women voting rights. : Wilson, but the US Congress

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 PEOPLE WHO DIED IN THE
RUSSIAN FAMINE OF 1921

Russian famine victims receive food from arelief train. The US played
a leading role in the international effort to feed the starving.

: refused to ratify it. Representatives IN 1921, RUSSIA experienced : Sailors rebelled at the naval
: of 41 countries attended the one of the most destructive : fortress of Kronstadt, demanding
: League's first General Assembly famines of the 20th century. : free elections, freedom of speech,
: in Geneva in November, but Years of warfare and revolution ' and the right of peasants to own
: neither Germany nor Russia had laid waste to the Russian © land and cattle. The rebellion was
: was among them. countryside, which was : crushed by Bolshevik forces,
: Meanwhile, war had broken compounded by drought in the ; but faced with popular discontent
: out in Ireland, where Britain was Volga region. As hundreds of : and economic devastation the
: resisting the declaration of an thousands died of starvation and : Bolsheviks had to retreat from
: Irish Republic. British World War | disease, Lenin’s Bolshevik » some of the communist measures :
: veterans were recruited into two government reluctantly appealed : they had adopted. Lenin’s New
' new units, the Black and Tans for foreign relief. The most : Economic Policy (NEP) allowed a
: and the Auxiliaries, to fight the prominent participant in the limited capitalist market economy. :
© Irish Republican Army (IRA). On international humanitarian : Once peasants were permitted to
: 21 November, in an operation effort was the American Relief : sell their produce at a profit, the
: planned by IRA intelligence chief Administration, led by future : rural economy quickly recovered
' Michael Collins (1890-1922), the US president Herbert Hoover : and food supplies were assured.
: IRA killed 13 people in Dublin. The (1874-1964). Despite the Despite thetribulations
of the : Tulsa on fire
: Auxiliaries responded the same distribution of food aid to around : Russian Bolshevik government, : Several buildings in the African- : Support for the white supremacist
: afternoon by firing into a Gaelic 10 million people, millions died : its example continued to stimulate : American part of town were : Ku Klux Klan rose rapidly, and
: football crowd, killing 14 people. by the time the famine abated : the foundation of Communist : destroyed within just 18 hours, as > concerns about the racial
: race riots raged in Tulsa, Oklahoma.
In the same month, on the the following year. : parties across the world. This : make-up of the US population
: second anniversary of the The Bolsheviks continued to : included the Communist Party » were reflected in tight limits
: armistice ending World War I, impose the will of their party upon © of China, which held its founding : inthe Anglo-Irish Treaty, which : on foreign immigration. The
: Britain and France each buried their devastated country. In : congress in Shanghai in July. ' led to civil war (see 1922). : Emergency Quota Act linked the
> an Unknown Soldier. The French March, workers, soldiers, and In Ireland, Britain attempted : Britain also had troubles at : right of entry to country of origin,
: soldier was entombed at the Arc : to fulfil its pre-World War | : home. A brief post-war economic : blocking mass immigration from
: de Triomphe in Paris, and the ATLANTIC : commitment to Irish Home Rule : boom was followed by the : southern and eastern Europe.
OCEAN
: British soldier in Westminster : (see 1914). To appease the Irish : collapse in demand for products : Asians were entirely excluded.
IRELAND
: Abbey in London. It was intended ° ' Protestants the country was i from many of the country’s : The assumption of white racial
Belfast
to commemorate all those who : divided. Home Rule parliaments ; traditional industries, such as ' superiority suffered a severe blow
: had given their lives, irrespective ' were established in Dublin and : coalmining and shipbuilding. ‘in Morocco, which the French
: of rank or social class. : Belfast, and both parts remained : By June, more than 2 million » and Spanish had casually divided
: The last major event of the year : within the United Kingdom. This people were unemployed. : into “spheres of influence”.
: was the accession of General > was accepted by the Protestants, : For the men who had fought in : Spanish troops attempting to
: Alvaro Obregon (1880-1928) as : but rejected by Irish Republicans. : World War |, it was a bitter irony : control the mountainous Rif
president of Mexico. Obregon had : Negotiations opened in London, : to find themselves queuing for : region were surrounded and
' been one of the chief players in » and on 6 December the Irish : unemployment benefit. ; massacred by local Berbers
: the civil conflicts that had torn the ' delegation agreed to accept the : In the US, racism and anxieties : at the Battle of Annual in July.
: country apart since the Mexican : division of Ireland in return for : about political subversion were : The Berber leader Abd el-Krim
: Revolution (see 1910). His armed : Dominion status within the British - rife. In Tulsa, Oklahoma, the most : declared the region an
Division of Ireland
overthrow of President Venustiano > Commonwealth. Southern Ireland : destructive race riot in American : independent Rif republic,
Northern Ireland, with a mainly
© Carranza (1859-1920) gave Protestant population, was : became the Irish Free State, but : history saw most of the African- ‘but it succumbed to a combined
: Obregon the chance to establish a separated from southern Ireland, : many Irish Republicans were : American section of the town : French and Spanish counter-
: relatively stable government. which became the Irish Free State. outraged by the compromises : destroyed in white attacks. : attack four years later.

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 44. ONE SHOULD BE FREE TO
GIVE THE FULLEST EXPRESSION
TO HIS DISAFFECTION SO LONG
AS HE DOES NOT CONTEMPLATE,
PROMOTE, OR INCITE VIOLENCE. 99
Mohandas Gandhi, in a statement during his trial, 18 March 1922

Demonstrators gather on the streets of Delhi to protest against the arrest

of indian nationalist leader, Mohandas Gandhi.

FOUR YEARS AFTER THE In India, nationalist opposition Republican Army (IRA) occupied
CONCLUSION OF THE “WAR TO to British rule had found a leader Dublin’s Four Courts building.
in Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948). After a lengthy standoff, in June
: Winning the support of the Collins used artillery loaned by
IRAQ
peasant masses for the Indian Britain to bombard the Four
National Congress independence Courts, and retake the building.
movement, he organized a On 22 August, Collins was killed
nationwide campaign of civil in an ambush on a country road
disobedience, including a boycott in County Cork. More numerous
of British goods. Although Gandhi and better armed, the Free
PALESTINE advocated strict nonviolence, his State troops had crushed most
TRANS-
JORDAN > Campaign generated widespread opposition by the time the treaty
disturbances, including the came into effect on 6 Decernber.
ARABIA
massacre of 23 police officers The Protestant northern province
KEY
© at Chauri Chaura in February. of Ulster remained part of the
’ Gandhi was arrested bythe United Kingdom.
Gulf of __ French mandate area
British authorities in March In Turkey, nationalists led
Agebs British mandate area
: and sentenced to six years prison, by Mustafa Kemal (1881-1938)
THE BRITISH MANDATE FOR PALESTINE _ : of which he served only two. were at war with Greece, which
Implementation of the Anglo- aspired to create a “Greater
Former territories of the Ottoman Empire were divided between "Irish Treaty in southern Ireland Greece” including Constantinople
Britain and France, an arrangement legalized by League of (see 1921) led to a vicious civil and much of western Anatolia.
Nations mandates. In accordance with the Balfour Declaration war. Michael Collins {1890-1922}, In August, a Turkish offensive at
Another hope {see 1917), Britain had agreed to allow Jewish settlement in head of a provisional Irish Free Dumlupinar drove the Greeks
flow Palestine, but had also given wartime promises to the Arabs. State government in Dublin, into retreat. The predorninantly
In 1922, it divided its Palestinian mandate territory along the line was opposed by anti-Treaty Greek city of Smyrna [Izmir] was
air travelin Europe. Small, of the Jordan River. Jewish settlement was allowed to the west, republicans. In April, the Irish occupied by pursuing Turkish
isy, uncomfortable aircraft had and to the east Transjordan would remain purely Arab land.
egun scheduled flights between 1,000,000 -»
rr # KEY
immigration of Jews to Palestine A more positive side effect H Jews

[see panel, above], which Britain : of the British presence in Egypt 800;000 ~ @ Muslims
left over from the war. Navigation : was committed to allowing, led to : was the discovery by British | @ Christians
was primitive, and most pilots clashes between Jews andArabs = archaeologists of the tomb of 600,000-
simply followed roads or railways. that the British could not control. : Tutankhamun. The Earl of
This resulted in the first In another former Ottoman > Carnavon [1866-1923] and 400,000
POPULATION
commercial air disaster in April, territory, Egypt, Britain faced : Egyptologist Howard Carter
when a passenger aircraft flying determined nationalist opposition : (1874-1939) entered the tomb 200,000-
from London to Paris met an : to.the protectorate it had : to find unparalleled treasure,
aircraft following the same route established in 1914. Unable to - including a gold face mask
in the opposite direction. agree a settlement, in February : and jewel-studded chariots. 1922 1931 1937
In the Middle East, Britain faced Britain unilaterally declared : Carnarvon’'s death the following
Population growth in Palestine
intractable problems reorganizing Egypt independent, while : year inspired a myth, “the curse
Through immigration, the proportion of Jews in Palestine
the territories it had inherited retaining the right to station : of the tomb”, that magnified the : Increased rapidly. This provoked a violent reaction
from the Ottoman Empire. The troops there. : impact of the discovery. from the Muslim majority.

290
 44 EITHER THE GOVERNMENT WILL
BE GIVEN TO US OR WE SHALL
SEIZE IT BY MARCHING ON ROME. 99
Benito Mussolini, 24 October 1922
Px
= 7

&
Benito Mussolini mingles with his Fascist Blackshirt paramilitaries in Rome
after being appointed prime minister by the Italian king in October.

forces and devastated by fire. power in Italy. Since the end of dismantling Italy's system of the National Broadcasting
Britain contemplated intervening World War I, Italy's ruling class parliamentary democracy. Company (NBC) in 1926.
: against the Turks, but in an had been intimidated by waves As Mussolini was muscling his New modernist trends
| armistice agreed at Mudanya of militant action, with socialist way to power, the first national in literature were
: in October both the European workers occupying factories radio broadcasting company prominent in 1922. Irish
powers and Greece accepted the and peasants taking over large was being established in Britain. writer James Joyce's
Turkish military victory. Under the estates. In this troubled situation, Like the early radio stations that novel Ulysses, published
' agreed peace terms there was a Mussolini founded the fasci di were starting up in the US, the in Paris in February, broke
large-scale exchange of people, combattimento, a nationalist British Broadcasting Company all literary conventions, but
: with over a million Greeks expelled militia that attacked socialists (later Corporation) was financed its language and subject
: from Turkey and half a million and seized power by force in by manufacturers of radio sets, matter ensured that it was
: Turks forced to leave Greece. some Italian towns. In October, eager to create a market for banned as obscene in
: Abandoned Greek villages in Mussolini threatened to lead his their products. And it worked; countries with tighter
western Turkey still bear witness Fascist followers in a “March on by March 1923, daily broadcasts censorship rules
to this human tragedy. The Rome’ unless he was made head of concerts, news, and talks had than France. The
' Republic of Turkey was founded of government. Italy's king, Victor attracted 125,000 people to buy more decorous
the following year, with Mustafa Emmanuel Ill [1869-1947], licences from the Post Office for American
Kemal as its first president. eventually gave in and Mussolini their ‘wirelesses”. The US would expatriate poet
1922 was the year when Benito assumed office as prime minister. not have a major broadcasting T.S. Eliot caused
Mussolini (1883-1945) achieved Once in control, Mussolini began network until the formation of a sensation with
his long and
Early airwaves
obscure poem
Early radio sets were often
The Waste Land, which came impressive-looking pieces of
with notes to help the reader equipment. This one, from 1925,
follow its numerous literary has an unusual, star-shaped aerial.
allusions. Experimentation was
also rife in the movies, from (USSR), but by then the founder of
German director F.W. Murnau’s the world’s first communist state,
expressionist horror movie Vladimir Lenin (see 1917] had
Nosferatu to American filmmaker been disabled by a stroke. Despite
Robert Flaherty’s groundbreaking this he dictated a document, later
documentary Nanook ofthe North. known as ‘Lenin's Testament”,
Russia was entering a period of that was critical of several of
relative tranquillity, after the his colleagues. In particular it
upheavals of revolution and warned against the rudeness
' civil war. At the year’s end the and intolerance of Joseph Stalin
former Russian Empire was (1978-1953), newly installed as
reconstituted as the Union of the Soviet Communist Party's
Soviet Socialist Republics General Secretary, and proposed
that he be removed from his
post. After Lenin's death,
“Father of the Turks”
knowledge of the document was
Mustafa Kemal, the founder of the
Turkish Republic, talks with camel restricted to a communist inner
drivers during the Turko-Greek War. circle, and action against Stalin
He later took the name Ataturk was never taken.

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 46 WE HAVE REASON ON OUR SIDE AND,
THEREFORE, FORCE, THOUGH SO FAR WE:
HAVE USED FORCE WITH MODERATION. 99
Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish dictator, September 1923

Ses Fe
Officers of Spain’s Guardia Civil stand by debris from a bomb explosion in
Barcelona during the disturbances preceding the seizure of power by de Rivera.

IN 1922, THE GERMAN : occupation, but the German 10,000,000,000,000 ~

GOVERNMENT had declared itself : government's decision to print 1,000,000,000,000-. KEY
R 8 Exchange rate of
unable to pay war reparations, : banknotes to pay striking Ruhr 100,000,000,000- ~ the German Mark
6
"il

which were due to the victorious : workers was fatal. By the summer, 10,000,000,000-.
Allies in gold Marks. The French, : the Mark was almost worthless. 1,000,000,000- ff
led by fiercely anti-German prime : The exchange rate against the US
100,000,000 -
minister Raymond Poincaré : dollar rose hourly, and eventually
10,000,000~
(1860-1934), were determined reached 5.72 trillion Marks to the
to take action. In January 1923, ' dollar. By the time inflation
1,000,000-
French and Belgian troops : peaked, savings of 68,000 Marks 100,000-
occupied the Ruhr, Germany's : would buy no more than a postage i 10,000-,
industrial heartland. The German : stamp. In contrast, those who 1,000~ A! dé
government responded by : owed money had their debts 100-4 ADOLF HITLER te
encouraging passive resistance : eradicated. In August, Gustav 10- (1889-1945).
- strikes stopped production in : Stresemann (1878-1929), a
mines and factories. : respected German politician, Aug Dec Jan Dec Born in Austria, Hitler fought
DOLLA
US
THE
AGAINST
MARK
OF
VALUE
The occupation triggered : formed a coalition government, 1922 1922 1922 1922 1923 A923 in the German army in World
hyperinflation, and a collapse : and the following month called off War I. An inspired orator, he
German hyperinflation
in the value of the German Mark. : passive resistance in the Ruhr. In While Hitler’s attempted coup won mass support for his
: The value of the Mark against the US Se : : <
Inflation was already out of : November, the Mark was replaced © dollar reflects the acceleration of : failed, in Spain General Primo National Socialist (Nazi)
control before the Franco-Belgian by the Rentenmark, knocking : German inflation. Ten years earlier : de Rivera (1870-1930) Party from the late 1920s.
12 zeros off the old currency and : a dollar had been worth 2.3 Marks. : succeeded in seizing power. From 1933, he established
restoring public confidence. : In the aftermath of the Spanish a ruthless dictatorship that
The chaotic state of Germany » on 8-9 November. Hitler had : defeat by Abd el-Krim’s Berbers resulted in the Holocaust
: tempted a minor political : made himself leader of the : at Annual (see 1921], the Spanish (see 1942). His expansionist
' extremist, Adolf Hitler (see : Nationalist Socialist Party : parliament had launched an policies caused a war in
: panel, right], to make a bid for : (Nazis). He had also won investigation into the army and 1939 that finally led to the
£ power in the Munich Putsch ' powerful allies, including war : Spain’s King Alfonso XIII (1886- destruction of his Reich.
: hero General Erich Ludendorff : 1941} to apportion blame. Primo
: (1865-1937). Hitler planned : de Rivera dismissed parliament
to use the Bavarian capital, - and established a military : into a modern secular state.
Munich, as the base for a : dictatorship under the king. ; He banned traditional dress,
: “March on Berlin” in imitation ! Sadly, his desire to end Spain's ; abolished the Muslim caliphate
: of Mussolini's “March on Rome” economic problems and bitter > system of government, and
: (see 1922}. But, at the last : political divisions proved far : replaced Arabic script with the
: moment, Bavarian leaders : beyond his power or ability. : Roman alphabet.
: opposed the putsch. Hitler A more successful military man » In Japan, one of the worst
: and Ludendorff were confronted : was Turkey's Mustafa Kemal : natural disasters of the century
: by the army and police on the : (1881-1938], later known as : struck on 1 September. Known
: streets of Munich. After a brief : Ataturk. Victorious in the war : as the Great Kanto earthquake,
Worthless paper money : gunfight, the attempted revolt : against Greece [see 1922], Kemal : a tremor measuring 7.9 on the
The collapse of the German
: disintegrated. Hitler was : formally founded the Turkish : Richter scale devastated Tokyo
currency resulted in the printing
of 500 million Mark notes. Smaller arrested two days later and » Republic in October. He - and the surrounding area. The
notes were so worthless they were : charged with high treason : embarked upon a series of radical : quake started fires that were
use to light stoves. (see 1924). : reforms designed to turn Turkey : whipped up by high winds into

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Tokyo in ruins after the earthquake of 1923. More than 140,000 people were Queen Mary, wife of King George V, visits the Empi re Exhibition at
killed in the disaster, which destroyed half a million buildings. Wembley, mounted to inspire enthusiasm for Britain's imperial glory.

: afirestorm. A tsunami up to 10m : Gropius (1883-1969) in 1919, VLADIMIR ILYICH LENIN (1870- discovering ‘the substance of and politician Charles G. Dawes,
: (30ft) high struck coastal districts, : rejecting the traditional artist's 1924), founder of the Soviet Union, : his genius”. Lenin statues were arranged for the withdrawal of
: including the port of Yokohama. : hostility to modern technology died of a massive stroke on 22 : erected across the Soviet Union, French and Belgian troops from
: The death toll was estimated to : and mass production. By the time January. Hundreds of thousands : and the city of Petrograd was the Ruhr (see 1923}, and for
: be close to 150,000. : of its first major exhibition in 1923, filed past his body in Moscow's ' renamed Leningrad in his honour. ; German payment of reparations
: At this time, the US appeared " its mission was to bring functional Hall of Columns. Largely at In Britain, the Labour Party, : with the help of US loans.
: as a beacon of prosperity in a dark : modernist aesthetics to the Stalin's insistence, Lenin's body ed by Ramsay Macdonald Meanwhile, Nazi leader Adolf
: world. President Warren Harding : everyday world, from the design was embalmed and placed on 1866-1937], enjoyed its first Hitler was put on trial for his
© (1865-1923) died in office and was of apartment buildings and permanent display; his brain _ brief spell in government. attempted Munich Putsch (see
' succeeded by his vice-president, electrical appliances to tubular- was removed for study by Soviet Despite Macdonald's moderation, 1923). Seizing the opportunity to
: Calvin Coolidge (1872-1933). : steel chairs and typography. scientists, who were tasked with the presence of socialists in : make political speeches in court,
: Coolidge became notorious for : government was a shock to the : he became a national celebrity. He
: his placid complacency, describing British establishment. When an : was found guilty of high treason,
: the US as enjoying “a state of ¥ : election was called in October, a but given a lenient five-year prison
: contentment seldom before seen”. etter, purportedly sent by Soviet : sentence of which he served less
: Indeed, the US was becoming the : Comintern chief Grigory Zinoviey, than a year. During his time in
: world’s first modern consumer : was leaked to the press. It was : Landsberg prison, he dictated
: society, producing nine out of used to accuse Labour of being : the first volume of Mein Kampf
: ten of the world’s automobiles. : soft on communism, and : (My Struggle), a statement of
: African-American jazz : contributed to their election defeat. | his political beliefs.
: musicians provided the The British Empire Exhibition, Meanwhile, in Italy the murder
: soundtrack to this era of : held at Wembley in London from : of socialist parliamentary deputy
prosperity. Concentrated in : April, was a conscious attempt to ' Giacomo Matteotti (1885-1924)
the northern cities, such as promote the imperial idea as a : drew attention to the lawless
: Chicago and New York, jazz was : source of strength and security in : violence underpinning Benito
popularized by the new medium : a troubled world. Its opening was : Mussolini's Fascist government
: of radio. New York’s Harlem : the first occasion that a British : (see 1922). Matteotti was
: district became the centre of : monarch, George V (1865-1936), presumed to have been killed
: an African-American cultural : made a speech on the radio. by Fascist Blackshirts.
explosion, in literature as well Political and economic : Opposition deputies withdrew
: as music, and the Cotton Club : conditions in Germany began to : from parliament in protest,
opened there in 1923. It became recover from postwar chaos, with opening the way for Mussolini
: one of the most famous venues : the help of the US. The Dawes : to move more swiftly toward
: for live jazz, but black people were Plan, named for American banker a single-party dictatorship.
only admitted as performers.
: Despite its problems, Germany
: was still culturally vibrant. The
: Bauhaus crafts and design school
: was founded by architect Walter

: The Bauhaus exhibition

: Joost Schmidt, a teacher at the
THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE WHO
: Bauhaus, designed the poster for FILED PAST LENIN’S BODY AS IT
: the 1923 exhibition, which linked
! modern art to industrial technology. LAY IN STATE FOR FOUR DAYS

LIS
 ——
44 THE BEST OF i iby aS

AMERICA DRIFTS
TO PARIS. 99
F. Scott Fitzgerald, American author

Bat
Ww
American dancer and singer Josephine Baker was described by writer Ernest Reza Khan Pahlavi on his throne after being appointed shah of Iran. His aim
Hemingway as “the most sensational woman anyone ever saw”. was to modernize his country along secular Western lines.

Back in the US, in Dayton, revolvin q disc puppet head

PARIS REASSERTED ITS CLAIM 2s the American Man Ray (1890-
L
oO o D ay 2. a ro) a} o 2 ‘of x o
a)
Tennessee, biology teacher containing lenses
N
NY is filmed

with the International Exhibition John Scopes was put on trial

of Modern Industrial and unconscious impulses to for teaching Darwin's Theory of
Decorative Arts. The exhibition subvert everyday reality. Over Evolution. Scopes was backed by
ave aname - Art Deco - to the following decade Surrealism the American Civil Liberties Union
come a major to test Tennessee's newly passed
Butler Act, which had outlawed
Man Ray was one of a host the teaching of evolution.
of American expatriates who Christian fundamentalists
flocked to Paris in the mid- brought in former
1920s, lured by the vibrant US Secretary of State
cultural scene, and the favourable William Jennings Bryan
exchange rate. American writers to act for the prosecution,
The first television camera
based in the city included and after a trial that enthralled Logie Baird gave the first
Gertrude Stein (1874-1976), America, Scopes was found demonstration of television
Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961], guilty, although the verdict IN JANUARY 1926, SCOTTISH using a mechanical system with
and F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896- was later quashed. ENGINEER JOHN LOGIE BAIRD a spinning disk as the scanner.
1940], whose classic work The The general world political and (1888-1946) made the first
at Gatsby was published in economic outlook was better demonstration of a television In Iran, another military
5. African-American erotic than at any time since World War I. transmission ina loft in London's strongman, Reza Khan Pahlavi
dancer Josephine Baker In April, Britain's Chancellor of Soho district. Fifty members of (1878-1944), established a new
(1906-1975] became a star of the Exchequer, Winston Churchill, the Royal Institution saw the dynasty by crowning himself as
Parisian nightlife, performing at returned his country’s currency to indistinct, but recognizable moving shah on 25 April; his intention was
Harlequin’s Carniva
the Theatre des Champs-Elysées. the pre-war Gold Standard. This image of a face. to modernize his country. The
For their part, the French took an set the value of sterling artificially In May, Britain experienced Pahlavi dynasty he founded ruled
adoring interest in American jazz. high, creating problems for British its only General Strike. This in Iran until the 1970s,
exporters, but it was an important nationwide industrial stoppage, In
gesture toward the restoration of support of coal miners, paralyzed
international financial stability. transport networks and docks,
In December, the Locarno Pact and closed down newspapers and
was signed. This was a series factories. The British government
of treaties designed to restore responded by mobilizing troops
normal peacetime relations and recruiting volunteers to
between Germany and the victor maintain essential services. After
states of World War |. The nine days the unions backed down
agreement depended on the and ordered a return to work.
relationship established between In Poland, the nation’s military
the German and French foreign hero Marshal Jozef Pilsudski THE NUMBER
ministers, Gustav Stresemann
and Aristide Briand, and opened
(1867-1935) led a coup d'état
in May, in reaction against
OF WORKING
the way for Germany’s admission the unstable parliamentary DAYS LOST
to the League of Nations in 1926. government. Pilsudski declined
the presidency, but effectively
TO STRIKES IN
took dictatorial powers, THE UK IN 1926

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44 I OWNED THE
WORLD THAT HOUR AS
I RODE OVER IT... 99
Charles Lindbergh, American aviator

Sp FE See
Aviator Charles Lindbergh poses alongside the Spirit o f St Louis, the aircraft
in which he achieved the first non-stop flight from New York to Paris.

IN MAY 1927, 25-YEAR-OLD Flood, which was the worst flood 1879-1940) was expelled from Stalin (1878-1953). Accused of
CHARLES LINDBERGH (1902-1974) | : disaster in American history. the central committee of the “factionalism”, Trotsky was sent
flew solo across the Atlantic, : Many of its victims were black ruling Communist Party in into internal exile in Kazakhstan
a feat that made him the most : and very poor; ill-treated and : November, along with his allies the following January and finally
famous American alive. The offer : neglected in refugee camps after : Grigori Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev. expelled from the Soviet Union
of a cash prize for the first : the disaster, many thousands of : Once favourite to succeed Lenin in February 1929. Zinoviev and
non-stop flight between New : them swelled the movement of 1870-1924] as Soviet leader, Kamenev submitted to Stalin, but
Red River (
York and Paris had stimulated : African-Americans from the south : Trotsky had been ruthlessly he had them executed in 1936.
Vicksburg
feverish competition. On 8 May, as ‘ to new lives in northern cities. outmanoeuvred by the party's
x ‘a
famous French war aces Charles \ Two of the greatest works in General Secretary Joseph
Nungesser and Francois Coli » Estoneoyae pape Orleans : cinema history were
~
attempted the flight from Paris; released in 1927: Fritz Lang's
Gulf of Mexico
they set off westward over the : futuristic Metropolis and Abel
: The Great Mississippi Flood
Atlantic and were never seen
: Following months ofheavy rain, the
: Gance’s historical epic
again. Such dramas had wrought Mississippi broke its levees in spring Napoleon. But these hugely
excitement to a high pitch when 1927, submerging a vast area ofland ambitious silent movies were
the unknown Lindbergh, an (in purple} and killing 246 people. : upstaged by the success of Al
airmail pilot, took off from : Jolson (1886-1950) in a sound
Roosevelt Field on 20 May aboard his life. His achievement : film, The Jazz Singer. Anew
a custom-built monoplane. Not : stimulated the rapid growth of era of “talkies” had arrived.
only did he succeed in reaching * commercial aviation in the US. Second only to the
Paris in 33 hours and 30 minutes, | America’s upbeat mood was Lindbergh flight in media
but he did it alone. Lindbergh was ripe for the world’s first modern > coverage in 1927 was the
mobbed on landing in France and : consumer boom, which was built controversy surrounding the
the mixed blessing of celebrity ‘ around the purchase of cars and : execution of the anarchists
accompanied him for the rest of : electrical goods. By 1927, there : Ferdinando Sacco and
was one car for every six Bartolomeo Vanzetti. Italian
Americans — enough to ensure immigrants dubiously
a os : that even quite modest families convicted of a murder in
FS 70-4 ; might aspire to a ModelT Ford. : Massachusetts in 1920,
=r | : Levels of saving were high, and : their case became a focus
= i ! many chose toinvest their spare of protests by liberals and
= is | ' cash in the rising stock market. socialists, and their execution
= i : Not everything was as positive, by electric chair on 23 August
2 10-4 : however. Falling prices for : provoked riots in a number of
cont : agricultural goods were hitting : cities across the world.
a 5 j : rural areas worldwide, and the US, Meanwhile, in the Soviet
3 with almost half its population : Union, Leon Trotsky
0 Haunioee ae a : esusts working the land, was not immune.
AIS M19 2192361925927, : Farm owners were heavily in debt
: First feature-length “talkie”
: and farm workers were badly paid.
Car ownership in the US : The first successful full-length
The terrible conditions sound feature film, The Jazz
In the eight years from 1919 to 1927
the number of cars on America’s experienced by many rural © Singer, took $2.6 million at
roads tripled. Five-sixths of the : workers was highlighted in April : American box offices and made
world's automobiles were in the US. 1927 by the Great Mississippi : Jolson a household name.

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Bacteriologist Sir Alexander Fleming surrounded by test tubes in his laboratory.
Fleming discovered the antibiotic properties of penicillin in 1928.

IN THE SOVIET UNION, JOSEPH : of Croatian Peasant Party leader : anti-clerical policies. The desire : Scottish scientist
STALIN (1878-1953) began radical : Stjepan Radic (1871-1928). He : for stability after the shock of : Alexander Fleming
economic and social reform. * was shot by a Montenegrin Serb : Obregén’s assassination led to : (1881-1955)
Abandoning the compromise of ' political opponent in the Yugoslav : the formation of the National - accidentally
Vladimir Lenin's New Economic parliament on 20 June, and died Revolutionary Party, which, : discovered the
Policy [see 1921], Stalin launched : later of his wounds. With his realm » under a variety of names, antibiotic mould
Prohibition
a Five-Year Plan to transform : torn apart by nationalist passions, : dominated Mexican politics : in contaminated era weapon
the Soviet Union into a major : the following year Yugoslavia’s : for more than 70 years. ' specimen dishes, A sawn-off, double-
industrial country. He cracked : King Alexander | (1888-1934) In Germany, stability seemed : but the development barrelled shotgun hidden in a violin
down on businessmen and banned political parties and to have been achieved after the : of penicillin for medical case was a typical weapon for an
successful peasants who had » assumed dictatorial powers. ‘ chaotic post-World War | period. : use was the work of other American gangster of the 1920s.
made money out of the revolution. In Mexico, General Alvaro : In elections to the Reichstag in : scientists
in the 1940s.
Hundreds of “bourgeois experts” ~ Obregon [1880-1928], the May, Adolf Hitler’s extremist Nazi ON 14 FEBRUARY, SEVEN PEOPLE
— people, such as engineers, who dominant figure in his country’s ' Party won less than three per WERE SHOT DEAD in a garage
had been valued for their skills politics since 1920, was cent of the popular vote, on Chicago's North Side. The
rather than their involvement in | assassinated after being elected compared with almost 30 per perpetrators of the St Valentine’s
the revolution - were arrested : president for a second term. His : cent for the moderate Social Day Massacre were probably
and convicted of sabotage. killer, José de Leon Toral, was a : Democrats. Under the German members of the gang headed
Political violence was also member of the Catholic Cristero : Republic's rigorous proportional by Al Capone (1899-1947), a
widespread elsewhere. In ' movement that had launched an : representation system, the Nazis prominent figure in organized
Yugoslavia, hostility between ' armed rebellion in response to : minimal support gained them crime. The victims belonged to
Croats and Serbs led to the killing the Mexican government's 12 seats in parliament. the rival gang of Bugs Moran.
In August, Germany was one Both Capone and Moran drew
of the original signatories of an their main income from
agreement for ‘the renunciation bootlegging - the illegal trade in
: of war as an instrument of national alcoholic drinks that flourished
policy”. This supremely optimistic under prohibition (see 1920). The
: document, commonly known as OSEPH ST. massacre focused public outrage
the Kellogg-Briand Pact after US (1878-1953) on the crime and violence that
Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg was rife in American cities. The
y =. (1856-1937) and French Foreign Born Josif Dzhugashvili, in authorities were forced to take
: Minister Aristide Briand (1862- Georgia, Stalin joined Lenin's action, which led to the arrest
1932), obliged states to only resort Bolsheviks in 1903. After and imprisonment of Capone on
to war in self-defence. Within a Lenin's death he cleverly charges of tax evasion in 1931.
; year it had been signed by all outmanoeuvred other On 4 March, Republican
- the world’s major powers. leading Bolsheviks to achieve Herbert Hoover (1874-1964] was
Of more practical consequence dictatorial power by 1929. inaugurated as US president. His
: was the discovery of penicillin. He ran a ruthless police state arrival in office coincided with a
that murdered millions of its high point of complacency about
citizens, yet he presided over US economic progress, Through
Kellogg-Briand Pact
the country’s transformation the 1920s the US had become the
US Ambassador to France, Myron
Herrick [centre], poses fora
into a major industrial power world’s first automobile-owning
photograph with Briand [left] and and led it to victory over Nazi society, with 26 million cars on the
Kellogg (right) at the signing of Germany in 1945. road by 1929. Optimism and easy
the Kellogg-Briand Pact in Paris. credit drove share prices on Wall

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 44 ANY LACK OF CONFIDENCE IN THE
ECONOMIC FUTURE OF THE UNITED
STATES |S FOOLISH. 99
President Herbert Hoover, in a speech after the stock market crash, 15 November 1929

Herbert Hoover being sworn in as US president. His inauguration speech

foresaw “the day when poverty will be banished from this nation”.

): Street in an apparently endless Moviegoing was one boom area : was going through a technological they described as “the : share rise faltered. By 23 October,
; upward curve - about 30 million : of the US economy. Hollywood : revolution, with the transition enslavement of the German : shares prices were falling, and
: Americans had some form of : had become the centre of film : from silent to sound movies. It : people”. Although only 14 per - the following day, “Black
© stock market investment. In the : production, and its “Big Five” : was also becoming intensely : cent of voters backed it, the ' Thursday”, the market dropped
' prevailing mood, it was easy for : studios churned out hundreds of : conscious of its status and image. : referendum campaign : ina stampede of selling. In vain,
: the president to view problems : movies a year. The film industry : The Academy of Motion Picture : significantly raised Hitler's : President Hoover assured the
: in the economic scene - the ruin : Arts and Sciences made its first : political profile in Germany. : American public that “the
: of small farmers through falling
: Winning film : annual “Oscar” awards in 1929, The long shadow cast by fundamental business of the
: crop prices and poverty-line : The first movie to win the Academy : awarding Best Picture to the war : World War | was also evident country” was “on a sound and
' wages of many urban workers Award for Best Picture was Wings, a : film Wings - the only silent movie : in a wave of anti-war books. : prosperous basis”, but the selling
: - as temporary problems that : silent film about World War | fighter : to win the accolade. : They included American writer : of shares went on, and there were
' could be overcome. : pilots, staring actress Clara Bow. In Italy, Benito Mussolini's : Ernest Hemingway's novel ; further sharp falls. Speculators
(1883-1945] Fascist regime : A Farewell to Arms, British poet : who had bought shares on credit
ees : achieved a diplomatic triumph in : Robert Graves’s [1895-1985] war : were ruined, as were thousands
signing the Lateran Treaty with : memoir Goodbye to All That, and : of modest individuals who had
Pope Pius XI. Since the unification : All Quiet on the Western Front, : entrusted their life savings to
: of Italy in 1871 there had been an : written by German novelist Erich : the market. Experts spoke of a
unresolved dispute between the » Maria Remarque (1898-1970). ' temporary “market correction”,
Italian state and the papacy, with ; Presenting war as a futile waste : and Hoover took action to
successive popes regarding : of human lives, they captured : stimulate the economy and create
: themselves as ‘prisoners’ in : the popular mood of the time. : jobs, but the crash was the start
i the Vatican. The Lateran Treaty By far the most important event : of a long-lasting collapse in share
recognized the Vatican City as : of the year, however, was the Wall : prices, and the signal for the start
an independent state and : Street Crash. In September, the : of a worldwide depression.
acknowledged Catholicism as
Italy's official religion. Unofficially
it assured the Fascist regime the oe i
support of the Catholic Church. io 170 ‘
Another attempt was madeto —.2 479 :
drawa line under World War | he: j
when the wartime Allies setupa = 8 190")
committee, headed by American a 130 j
industrialist Owen Young, to i e i
reconsider Germanreparations © > 110-
payments. Accepting that the Z rf cal
Dawes Plan {see 1924) had fixed = }
payments too high, the Young : 2S 70 4
Plan made proposals for /9 i
Germany to pay a reduced annual gee 1
sum until 1988. Although the deal £30 faassen pecan Gec oeeeeeat oceans! =e ences COE
was accepted by the German 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935
government, it was denounced i Wall Street index
by conservative nationalists : Share prices on the New York stock exchange
and by the Nazis. They forced a : experienceda speculative boom in the 1920s,
referendum on reparations, which : which was followed by an unstoppable collapse.

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44 WE ARE 50 OR 100 YEARS BEHIND THE
ADVANCED COUNTRIES. WE MUST MAKE
GOOD THIS DISTANCE IN TEN YEARS. 99
Josef Stalin, in a speech to the first All-Union Conference
of leading personnel of Socialist Industry, 4 February 1931

Unemployed men waiting for food handouts in New York during the Depression.
There was no federal unemployment benefit or welfare in the US.

IN THE EARLY MONTHS OF 1930, : their animals rather than hand : slave labour to drive the : from Ahmedabad to the Indian
THE SOVIET UNION was thrown : them over to the state, and : developing Soviet economy. : Ocean. Setting out on 12 March,
into turmoil by the mass : attacked the communists with Collectivization failed to he reached the sea on 6 April,
collectivization of agriculture : stones and clubs. The authorities - produce an increase in agricultural : and scooped up a handful of salt
- the replacement of privately : responded with mass arrests of ' output, and the vision of vast Soviet : water in public defiance of the
owned peasant farms with large, : “kulaks” - better-off peasants : prairies farmed by tractors and : government's ban on unlicensed
state-run farming practices. In - and troublemakers. By March : mechanical harvesters remained ' salt gathering. Although Gandhi
the eyes of dictator Joseph Stalin it was announced that 14 million : largely a fantasy; instead there ' advocated strict non-violence,
(see 1928), who wanted to Soviet farms had been was famine (see 1933]. But it did : the Salt March triggered riots
transform the Soviet Union into a : collectivized, but the chaos it stimulate a mass movement of : that redoubled after his arrest
modern industrial state, small- : created was so disruptive to food : peasants to the cities, where they : on 5 May. Despite this, the
scale peasant agriculture was an : production that Stalin had to order ound work on construction sites : British remained committed
obstacle to be ruthlessly swept ! a pause in the campaign. : and in factories. Soviet industrial : to gradually extending India’s
aside - both inefficient and tainted | It was no coincidence that the projects, many using Gulag prison limited self-government. ‘MOHANDAS GANDHI
with anti-socialist self-interest. following month an agency known abour, developed on a vast scale, | The exploits of adventurous (1869-1948)
The peasants, however, were as the Gulag was set up to runa " while the rest of the world plunged : aviators continued to fascinate the
ferociously attached to their land system of forced labour camps into an economic recession. : public, as they had done through Known as Mahatma (“Great
and farm animals, and when across the Soviet Union. Of about In India the wily and charismatic the 1920s. Pilots became national Soul"}, Gandhi was born into
communist officials were sent one million peasants arrested in Mohandas Gandhi (see panel, : heroes through pioneering a privileged Indian family and
to villages to organize collective the early 1930s, hundreds right) was mounting a campaign » long-distance flights. In May, studied law in London. His
farms, they met widespread of thousands ended up in : of civil disobedience against » Jean Mermoz (1901-36), who first campaigns of non-violent
resistance. Peasants slaughtered Gulag camps, providing British rule. Gandhi dramatized was employed by the French civil disobedience were in
: his opposition to the government : Aéropostale air mail company, South Africa. Returning to
powerful light
: salt monopoly by staging a march : made the first postal flight across India in 1915 he led the
for working : the South Atlantic, flying a float opposition to British rule,
at night plane non-stop from Dakar in although many nationalists
West Africa to Natal in Brazil. rejected his non-violence.
This completed an unbroken In 1948 he was assassinated
airmail link that stretched by Hindu extremists, outraged
from France to Chile. by his conciliatory attitude
Meanwhile, the British cheered toward Muslims.
as amateur pilot Amy Johnson
(1903-41) flew solo from
Croydon in England to Darwin, Australia in a second-hand De
: Havilland Gipsy Moth biplane. The
: Journey, which took 19 days, was
especially remarkable since she
had never even flown across the
Soviet tractor : English Channel.
By the 1930s the This amateur triumph of British
Soviet Union was
: aviation stood in stark contrast
wheel studs to manufacturing its
own tractors. There
: with the fate of an expensive
prevent tractor
were about 200,000 > government project, the R101
from skidding
tractors in the Soviet : airship. On its maiden voyage in
Union by 1934. : October, R107 was intended to

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The burnt-out wreckage of British airship R107 lies in a field outside Beauvais
in northern France. Britain’s Air Secretary waskilled in the crash.

Famous flight clinging to power, ruling by populist dictatorship that pushed

British aviatrix Amy Johnson after :; Emergency Decree. for the industrialization of Brazil
: her solo flight from England to Many observers outside Germany : and suppressed political dissent,
: Australia. Pilots were among the : were disturbed by the growing : while introducing social welfare
: leading celebrities of the time.
' support for Hitler’s aggressive : measures for the poor.
: nationalist extremism. France In Japan, radical nationalists,
carry the British Secretary of : showed its lack of trust ina : Including many army and navy
: State for Air and other dignitaries : peaceful future by beginning : officers, believed the answer to
: from England to India. The badly construction of formidable Japan’s economic problems lay
: designed craft only reached defensive fortifications along its in military conquest. The civilian
: northern France, where it crashed border with Germany. In the : government of prime minister
: in bad weather, killing 48 of 54 pursuit of absolute security, : Osachi Hamaguchi (1870-1931)
: people on board. the Maginot Line consumed : outraged them further by seeking
By far the worst disaster of 1930, most of France’s defence : cuts in military spending to help
: however, was the collapse of the budget during the 1930s. offset a budgetary deficit. On 14
: world economy. In the US, at : South American countries November, Hamaguchi was shot
: the start of the year, most were especially vulnerable to the : at Tokyo station by a member of
: commentators believed that, in : Depression because of their role : anationalist secret society. He
the wake of the stock market : as suppliers of food and raw : never recovered, and died nine
: crash {see 1929], the country was : banks failed during the year. The In Germany, economic crisis : materials to the industrialized US : months later. It was an ominous
facing a temporary and modest : US unwisely sought relief for its : triggered political extremism and : and Europe. Many experienced sign of the Japanese militarists’
: economic downturn. In May, : farmers and unemployed workers : the collapse of democratic : political upheavals as economic : determination to pursue their own
: President Herbert Hoover : through blocking imports. The » government. In March, the : conditions worsened. In : aggressive expansionist policies.
: (1874-1964) reassured Americans Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, which » governing coalition fell apart : Argentina, a military coup
: that they had “now passed the : became law in June, placed heavy because the Social Democrats ushered in a decade of political
: worst”. Instead, unemployment : duties on thousands of imported ' would not agree to cuts in : conflict and government
Japanese assassination
: continued to rise, bread lines : goods. When the US's trading ; unemployment benefit. Heinrich : corruption. In Brazil, an army
Japanese Prime Minister
: became a common sight, farmers partners retaliated, the world was Briining (1855-1970), leader of revolt brought Getulio Vargas : Hamaguchi after being shot bya
began to go bankrupt in large : set on course for a disastrous : the Centre Party, formed a : (1882-1954) to power in nationalist extremist at Tokyo
numbers, and over 1,300 US reduction in overall levels of trade. > government without majority : November. Vargas installed a station. He died the following year.
: support in the Reichstag. He
: dissolved parliament in July,
15 ~y :
i ; calling a general election against
* i 33.1% : a background of massive
i unemployment. Adolf Hitler's
é Nazi Party mounted a spectacular
94 : and violent election campaign,
18.3% : blaming all of Germany's
6 J Nazi vote in federal : problems on the Versailles Treaty
i elections 1928-1932 ' (see 1919]. The Nazis increased
34 A minority extremist party = their seats in the Reichstag from
4 in 1928, the Nazi party i ;
(2.6% 12 to 107, becoming the second
i grew to be the largest ;
[IN
NUMBER
MILLIONS}
VOTES
OF
a —... single party by summer largest party in the country.
May Sept July Nov 1932. They peaked at 37.4 | Brlining responded to a polarized
1928 1930 1932 1932 per cent of votes cast. : Reichstag by ignoring it and

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 44 THE CAPITALIST CHAIN
IS AGAIN THREATENING TO
BREAK AT THE WEAKEST LINK.
SPAIN IS NEXT IN ORDER. 99
Leon Trotsky, Russian revolutionary,
speaking on the revolution in Spain, January 1931

the Spanish monarchy. Among the new reforms was women’s right to vote.

ON 14 APRIL 1931, KING ALFONSO : Austria's largest bank, the the Conservatives and the
XII OF SPAIN (1886-1941) Creditanstalt, failed, and by July Liberals. A Royal Navy strike over
: abdicated and fled into exile, after many major German banks also pay at Invergordon panicked
his supporters were defeated in : faced collapse. German foreign investors and triggered
municipal elections. The victors Chancellor Heinrich Bruning a run on the pound, reducing the
in this bloodless revolution, a proposed a customs union : value of sterling by a quarter.
: coalition of moderate republicans between Germany and Austria, The most ominous event of the
and socialists, set up a provisional : and suggested Germany might year was Japanese aggression
government headed by Niceto renege on payment of war against China. On 18 September,
Alcala-Zamora (1877-1949). : reparations. France's hostile Japanese army officers guarding
: The departure of the king and response was to refuse to help the South Manchurian Railway
' founding of Spain’s Second prop up the German financial carried out an attack on the
: Republic gave the urban and system. Germany and Austria tracks, which they blamed on the
rural poor, as well as nationalists were forced to take emergency Chinese. This “Mukden incident”
in the Basque country and measures to block foreigners provided the pretext for the
Catalonia, hope, but army officers, from withdrawing funds. Japanese military occupation
landowners, industrialists, and Britain had made substantial of Manchuria. The occupation
the Catholic hierarchy were loans to German banks - money was condemned by the League
adamantly opposed to change. : that was now frozen. As a crisis : of Nations as an act of aggression,
Spain was on the path to civil war. : loomed, financial experts but the Japanese refused to
: In New York on 1 May the ' advised Ramsay Macdonald’s withdraw. The following year
: Empire State Building was (1886-1937] Labour government Japan set up a puppet government
: officially opened. Standing : to cut expenditure to balance the in Manchuria under Pu Yi
: 443m (1,454ft) tall to the top of its budget. In August, proposals to (1906-67), China’s last emperor,
: spire, it surpassed the Art Deco ; cut unemployment benefit and who had been deposed in 1912.
: Chrysler Building, which had been » government employee pay From September to December
the world’s tallest building for provoked a mass resignation by a Round Table Conference on
: just 11 months. Begun in 1929, at Labour ministers. Macdonald the future of India was held in
: the height of the US stock market stayed as prime minister, forming London. The Indian National
: boom, the Empire State Building : acoalition National Government Congress, the principal Indian
: expressed the boundless : with the other two main parties, nationalist movement, was
: optimism of the time. But its
: completion also came against a Occupation of
Manchuria
background of farm bankruptcies
Korea became a
and rising unemployment. Japanese colony in 1910.
Meanwhile, the world economic In 1931, the Japanese
MONGOLIA
: recession took a sharp turn for extended into Manchuria,
: the worse through a major which became the puppet
European banking crisis. In May, state of Manchukuo.

KEY
Peking e f
Scaling new heights KOREA JAPAN Japanese Empire 1930
Photographer Lewis Hine @ Seoul Fokyoe & Japanese sphere of
documented the casual risks taken os influence 1930
by workers during construction of CHINA uN Japanese conquests
the Empire State Building. MSS 1931-3

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 American pilot Amelia Earhart arrives in England after her historic solo
“transatlantic flight in a Lockheed Vega monoplane.

@@, THE NUMBER OF - the morning of 20 May - the slide into the Depression gave

| STATES WON BY Lindbergh’s

fifth anniversary of Charles : him little hope against the
famous flight {see Democratic challenger, and

_ ROOSEVELT IN * Northern
1927] - she landed ina field in
Ireland 14 hours and
: former governor of New York,
_ Franklin D. Roosevelt (see 1933).
THE 1932 US 56 minutes later. : During his campaign Roosevelt

© ELECTIONS The US presidential election

: was held in November, against :
: promised “a new deal for the
American people”. He won with
: a background of bank failures, : 57.4 per cent of the popular vote,
THE PEAK YEAR OF THE GREAT : In Ireland, Eamon de Valera » farm bankruptcies, and rising : but what Roosevelt actually
DEPRESSION saw declining output - (1882-1975) became president : unemployment. Herbert Hoover's : intended to do about the
and sharply reduced levels of : after an election victory for his » inability to halt his country’s : Depression remained unclear.
trade bring mass unemployment Fianna Fail party in March. As a
to the world’s leading industrial republican who had taken part in
nations. At least 13 million : the Easter Rising [see 1916] and
Americans, around 3 million : had led the Irish Republican Army
Britons, and more than 5 million : (IRA) in the Irish Civil War (see
Germans were unemployed. In : 1922), De Valera was renowned
: Japanese troops in Manchuria
Europe, national unemployment : for his anti-British sentiments.
: The Japanese occupation of the
: northern Chinese province of benefit schemes helped the : He revoked the Oath of Allegiance
: Manchuria can be seen as their jobless to survive, but in the US, to the British crown and entered
: first step towards World War II. where only piecemeal local into a trade war with Britain that
welfare schemes existed, : damaged both countries.
: represented by Mohandas Gandhi unemployment led to abject In Germany, Nazi leader Adolf
: (1869-1948). He had negotiated poverty. Thousands became : Hitler (1889-1945) suffered
Ja pact with the British Viceroy of homeless, living in shanty towns : frustration in his campaign to
: India, Lord Irwin, to suspend the ironically called “Hoovervilles” : win power through the democratic
: civil disobedience campaign (see after the US president. process. He stood for president
: 1930). The conference was not : inthe spring elections, but was
: a success, however, and on his : eventually beaten by the incumbent
: return to India Gandhi resumed : Paul von Hindenburg (1845-1934).
» his non-violent campaign against : Although in elections to the
: the British. 43.8%
: Reichstag the Nazis were the
: In contrast with the British : largest single party, they
GERMANY
: treatment of India was the : continued to be excluded from
: passage of the Statute of : government. Ignoring the In summer 1932, more than 20,000 unemployed World War |
: Westminster by the British : Reichstag, Hindenburg installed veterans gathered in Washington DC to demand payment of a
parliament in December. This law 15.4%
- a conservative clique in power. “bonus” promised by the government in recognition of their
recognized full equality between : There was relief from the grim military service. They established a shanty town within sight of the
FRANCE
: Britain and the dominions - : news of the Depression when Capitol and vowed to stay until the money was paid. Their protest
: Australia, New Zealand, Canada, : American pilot Amelia Earhart attracted widespread sympathy from Americans distressed at
Industrial unemployment
: South Africa, the Irish Free State, : (1897-1937) became the first mass unemployment, but President Hoover refused to pay out.
German industrial workers had
: and Newfoundland. For them the the worst unemployment rate at * woman to fly solo across the On 28 July, infantry, cavalry, and tanks were deployed to attack
British Empire had truly become the peak of the depression, closely - Atlantic. Taking off from the protesters’ camp and disband the Bonus Army.
: a Commonwealth of Nations. followed by the US. : Newfoundland in Canada on

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44 ... THROUGH GOD'S
POWERFUL AID, WE HAVE:
BECOME ONCE MORE
TRUE GERMANS. 99
Adolf Hitler, German chancellor, 1933

Adolf Hitler being greeted by his followers at the annual Nazi Party
in September 1933 - it was a celebration of his rise to power.

IN GERMANY, AT THE END OF Jewish boycott

JANUARY, after backroom A Nazi Stormtrooper, accompanied
negotiations with the conservative by an elite Schutzstaffeln (SS) soldier,
posts a notice on a Jewish shop
clique of politicians and army
window - “Don't buy from Jews!”
officers surrounding the president
Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934),
Nazi leader Adolf Hitler (1889- camps opened in March; in April
1945) was invited to become a one-day nationwide boycott of
Chancellor (head of government). Jewish businesses was enforced;
The conservatives believed they and in May the German Student
would have Hitler under their Association organized the
control, since only three members burning of books described as
of the coalition government were “un-German’. These highly
Nazis. Hitler, however, celebrated publicized acts were just the
his appointment as if it was a beginning. As the protection of
revolutionary seizure of power. the law was withdrawn from
On 28 February the Reichstag communists, socialists, and Jews,
building in Berlin burned down. hundreds of opponents of the
The fire was blamed on a Dutch regime were murdered and
communist called Marinus van thousands tortured and beaten.
der Lubbe. It provided a pretext Nazi violence troubled many
for an Emergency Decree that Germans, but support for the was partly achieved through
gave the government and its regime was guaranteed by a ambitious public works
police almost limitless powers. sharp turnaround in the economy programmes, most prominently
The Nazis fell short of a majority and the rapid disappearance the building of a network of
in elections five days later, but of mass unemployment. This autobahns (motorways], that
on 23 March, with the support of provided employment. There was
the nationalist and Catholic parties, 8% 43.9% also a restoration of confidence,
Hitler won a parliamentary vote DNVP. Nazis through the Nazis’ projected
for an Enabling Act that image of Germany as united,
transferred all authority from the powerful, and dynamic.
Reichstag to his government. The The US also found a strong, new
- 11.2%
German parliament had voted for leader in the person of President
Centre Party
its own destruction; Hitler soon Franklin D. Roosevelt (see panel
banned all other political parties, a Z.3,/0 right). In his inauguration speech
and created a single-party state. Communists on 4 March, Roosevelt told
The consequence of Nazi rule Americans that ‘the only thing we
soon became evident. The first have to fear is fear itself”. He
!
improvised concentration immediately applied this principle
18.3% |
SPD to the tottering US banking
system. On 6 March every bank
Reichstag fire German election results
A Dutch communist was executed The Reichstag election of March in the US was closed, The
for causing the fire at the German 1933 showed stubborn support for president announced that banks
parliament building, but many the communists and the socialist : would not reopen until the federal
believe the Nazis were responsible. SPD despite intimidation. authorities had established they

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 sit
Young women in Florida having their backs decorated with the Blue Eagle of the National
Recovery Administration, a major plank of Roosevelt's New Deal.

: were solvent. Americans accepted : direct work creation schemes on forcibly extracting
: Roosevelt's assurance that the ; such as those organized by the grain from starving rural
: banks were now safe and came : Civil Works Administration. areas to feed cities.
: forward to deposit their savings : These ranged from important At a time of widespread
: -a confidence trick that worked. : construction projects to distress and upheaval, it
Through the frenetic first : “boondoggles” - futile jobs was perhaps ironic that
: 100 days of his administration, : to keep men employed. the Chicago World’s
: Roosevelt pushed through a raft Above all, Roosevelt's personal Fair, opening in May,

‘THE AVERAGE
: of legislation to fulfil his promise : leadership had a dramatic effect celebrated a “Century of
: of a “New Deal”. The measures : on American morale. His warm- : Progress”. The American
: were neither entirely coherent nor
: uniformly successful. The wages
| hearted radio broadcasts, known
‘LIFE : public loved the fair’s

‘EXPECTANCY
' as ‘fireside chats”, convinced : celebration of the
: of federal employees were cut. » many Americans that they truly onward march of
: Farmers were paid to leave land : hada friend in the White House. technology, but not
: fallow and slaughter animals, to The British, meanwhile, were OF A MALE everything was devoted
: raise farm prices. The National
Recovery Administration
pressured businesses to raise
: desperate to restore international
: free trade, and to end the slide
: toward protectionism and
CHILD BORN
IN UKRAINE
to “progress”. The
burlesque dancer Sally
Rand was a major hit
zyTRAVEL BY TRAIN
: wages and prices, to increase
profitability and consumer
: devalued currencies. When a
: World Economic Conference
IN 1933 with her fan dance”, so
too was the arrival of 24 Italian
: World's Fair programme
The 1933 Chicago World's Fair,
: demand. The Tennessee Valley assembled in London, however, flying boats commanded staged on the shore of Lake
: Authority brought electricity and Roosevelt insisted on the right of by marshal of the Italian Air Force Michigan, took the theme of
The conference failed and,
: science, technology, and industry.
| modernization to one of the most the US to manipulate its own in the absence of international Italo Balbo, and a visit from the
: economically backward regions : exchange rate and to deploy co-operation, all the countries : German airship Graf Zeppelin.
_ inthe US. Most popular were : tariffs in its national interest. » that attended continued to pursue The Chicago Fair's emphasis A strange incident occurred
_ | aggressive nationalist policies, ; on achievements in the air was : in January 1933. The game of
~ : blocking the overall recovery of timely, for this was the year in cricket, the playing of which
the world economy. which the technology of air was one of the ritual bonds
Franklin Delano Roosevelt While capitalist countries travel reached a critical turning : holding together the British
entered politics as a Democrat : struggled with the Depression, point. The introduction of the : Commonwealth, led toa
before World War I. As governor the communist Soviet Union all-metal, streamlined, . diplomatic crisis. The English
of New York from 1928 he led : seemed immune to such : monoplane Boeing 247 airliner, » team touring Australia adopted
efforts to provide relief for the problems. Hidden from the which was capable of cruising : intimidating “bodyline” tactics,
unemployed. Elected president : outside world, its people suffered at over 241kph (150mph}, their fast bowler Harold Larwood
four times, from his first : a different catastrophe. While : transformed journey times. The : aiming deliveries at the Australian
presidential campaign in 1932 : Soviet propaganda celebrated : 247 could carry 10 passengers : batsmen’s chests and heads.
he transformed American : rising output, in 1932-33 famine coast-to-coast across the US _ After two Australian players were
politics by attracting the votes : gripped the Ukraine and other ' in just 20 hours. The Douglas : injured at Adelaide, Australian
of labour unions, ethnic ' grain-producing areas, killing : Aircraft Company responded : protests went to government
minorities, and African- : millions of the rural population. » with the DC-1 and DC-2, which level. Intervention by the British
Americans. His New Deal : It mainly came about as the shaved a further two hours off a foreign office, keen to maintain
policies won him enduring : result of the collectivization of transcontinental scheduled flight. good relations with an assertive
popularity, reinforced by his : agriculture {see 1930). But the : Air travelwas still expensive : Commonwealth state, ensured
leadership during World War II. : scale of the disaster was vastly though and remained a form of _ that the unapologetic Larwood
: increased by Stalin's insistence transport used only by the well off. : never played Australia again.
 44 VERY FEW OF THESE PANIC-
MONGERS HAVE ANY PERSONAL
KNOWLEDGE OF THE COUNTRIES
THAT ARE ALREADY UNDER
BLACKSHIRT GOVERNMENT. 99
Lord Rothermere, Daily Mirror, 22 January 1934
if

Black-shirted paramilitaries of Oswald Mosley’s British Union of Fascists give Ethiopian tribal warriors gather to
the Nazi salute. Mosley was inspired by the example of Mussolini and Hitler. fight for their emperor, Haile Selassie.

IN A YEAR DOMINATED BY : Deputies and overthrow the : gangster John Dillinger. Arrested : kill himself, but refused and was THROUGH THE FIRST HALF OF THE
POLITICAL VIOLENCE and : allegedly corrupt Republic. Ina :; in January, he escaped from : shot without trial by the leader 1930S, parts of the US and Canada
assassinations, the French Third ' night of street fighting between custody, but was tracked down by : of the SS, Theodor Eicke. As well were swept by giant dust storms as
Republic was rocked by the : thousands of demonstrators and ' federal investigation chief J. Edgar : as the SA leadership, scores of topsoil blew off land ruined by a
Stavisky affair. A crooked : police, 15 people were killed and : Hoover. On 22 July, Dillinger was : individuals who had criticized the combination of persistent drought
financier, Alexandre Stavisky many more injured. The attempt : gunned down by federal agents : Nazi regime were also murdered. and intensive farming. The worst of
committed suicide on 8 January, : to force the government to resign : as he left the Biograph Theater, In Austria, a Nazi attempt to these “black blizzards” occurred
after the collapse of a dishonest : failed, and the Republic survived. : amovie house in Chicago. seize power failed. The Austrian in April 1935, affecting a vast area
investment scheme. The right- In the US, the public was Another man to die by the : chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss of the plains of Kansas, Oklahoma,
wing press accused leading : distracted from the woes of the ' bullet in 1934 was Sergei Kirov, : had established an authoritarian Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado.
French politicians of profiting : Depression by the exploits and the Communist Party boss in : single-party state. In February, The Dust Bowl created by this
from Stavisky’s fraudulent deals. : violent deaths of outlaws and : Leningrad and a close associate : Dollfuss suppressed a left-wing
On 6 February, various nationalist © gangsters. Bonnie Parker and : of Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin. : uprising in Vienna, using artillery
and anti-Semitic groups : Clyde Barrow led a gang that : On 1 December, a man walked up : against the socialists’ stronghold
assembled in Paris, intending : robbed banks, stores, and gas : behind Kirov in a corridor outside in the Karl Marx Hof housing
to march on the Chamber of stations, roving from Texas : his office and shot him in the back : estate. He also banned the Austrian
to Minnesota. : of the neck. The assassination : Nazi Party. In July, the Nazis
Their shoot-outs : was blamed on Leonid Nikolaev, : attempted an armed coup, probably
with police and ' an expelled party member with : intending to achieve the unification
narrow escapes : a grudge, but suspicions persist : of Austria with Nazi Germany. ya Wh

were reported : that Stalin may have arranged the : Although Dollfuss was killed, the
with feverish » assassination himself. Whatever : coup failed. Kurt Schuschnigg, THE ESTIMATED
excitement in the : amember of Dollfuss’s party,
press. Parker
: the truth, the Soviet dictator used
: Kirov's death to pass a new : succeeded him as chancellor.
AMOUNT OF
and Barrow were : anti-terrorist law, which was Britain was a relative haven of TOPSOIL BLOWN
finally ambushed ' later used to justify the arrest : tranquillity, but even there
: fascism was on the rise. Former
OFF THE
and shot dead by > and execution of hundreds of
police at Bienville : thousands of people. : Labour minister Oswald Mosley SOUTHERN
Parish, Louisiana, In Germany, on 30 June-1 July, : had founded the British Union of PLAINS OF
on 23 May 1934, Adolf Hitler confirmed his hold : Fascists (BUF) in 1932, hoping to
sealing the legend : on power by a massacre, known : turn Britain into an authoritarian
THE US BY
of “Bonnie and : as the Night of the Long Knives. ; State under his rule. In June 1934, DECEMBER 1935
Clyde”. Another : The main target of the killings : Mosley staged a rally at Olympia
“most wanted” : was the leadership of the SA : in London that degenerated into ecological disaster could no
criminal was the : (Sturmabteilung or Stormtroopers). : a brawl as BUF paramilitaries longer support small farmers,
: These paramilitaries had provided : fought with anti-fascist protestors. who were forced to migrate in
: the muscle for Hitler's rise to : Such political violence had little their thousands. Many of them
Bonnie and Clyde : power, but now the disorderly : appeal for the British, who were found their way to migrant camps
American outlaw : street-fighters had become an : also alienated by the fascists’ links in California, where they were
Bonnie Parker : embarrassment. SA chief Ernst : with the Nazis - Hitler was a guest exploited as casual labour.
playfully targets her
: Rohm was one of the hundreds : at Mosley’s wedding. Although it Meanwhile, President
partner-in-crime
Clyde Barrow. This
: that were killed. He was arrested : enjoyed the backing of some Roosevelt's administration was
photo was onareel : early on the morning of 1 July : national newspapers, the BUF pressing ahead with a raft of
Res = of film found by by Hitler, who was accompanied =| remained aminority party without | reforms often referred to as the
Som police in 1933. by SS guards. Rohm was asked to: significant electoral support. Second New Deal. These policies

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 Nations (see 1919}. The League > Luxury liner
BENITO MUSSOLINI (1883-1945)
————<——— = = ; denounced Italy as an aggressor The Normandie was the largest,
: and called for economic sanctions. fastest, and most luxurious of
Benito Mussolini imposed his The British and French : the liners plying the Atlantic.
Its interior was a riot of Art
authoritarian, militaristic rule governments concocted a peace
Deco features.
on Italy from 1922 to 1943. : plan that would have given
His Fascist state was widely : Mussolini a large chunk of
admired, but dreams of : Ethiopian territory. When news of
conquest led to military : the deal leaked out, public opinion 3

adventures and an alliance : in the democracies was outraged. |

with Nazi Germany. Unwisely British foreign secretary Samuel
leading his country into World : Hoare and French prime minister
War II, he was deposed as the : Pierre Laval were forced to resign,
Allies invaded Italy in 1943 and economic sanctions against Italy
eventually killed by partisans. : went ahead, and Mussolini was
: pushed into the arms of Hitler.
Despite the continuing effects of
: were more radical than Roosevelt's i sexual relations between Jews : the economic Depression and the
original New Deal {see 1933], : and non-Jews were banned. A : world’s grave political problems,
favouring labour unions over big : problem in the application of there were many signs of
business and the poor over the : anti-Semitic legislation was technological progress. The WAKA NX
: rich. The Wagner Labor Relations : identifying to whom it applied, Hoover Dam was the most
: Act placed the government on the : since Jewish Germans had been spectacular of a series of dam
side of workers who went on strike : Intermarrying with non-Jewish : projects that would provide
to gain union rights. The Social - Germans for generations. The : electric power and irrigation for
Security Act provided federal Nuremberg Laws formally defined large areas of the US. For those
pensions for the elderly and » aJewasa person with three or who could afford it, luxury travel
subsidies for state-run : four Jewish grandparents. : -stylish ocean liners and
unemployment and sickness Worried by Hitler's plans to : intercontinentalair travel
benefit schemes. Such measures, : expand German forces, Britain : - flourished. For the masses who
financed by higher taxes on the : and France sought to enrol Italian : could not afford this kind of luxury,
rich, were denounced as socialist Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini there was always the cinema. The
by most US newspapers and their as an ally against Germany. This movie Top Hat marked the peak of
millionaire owners, but confirmed : policy was wrecked by Mussolini's : the Hollywood musical, Fred
Roosevelt’s popularity with the : imperialist ambitions in Africa. In : Astaire and Ginger Rogers
bulk of the American people. : October, troops from Italy's east transporting viewers into a magical
In Germany, Hitler's Nazi : African colonies, Eritrea and - world of wealth and glamour.
regime formalized its anti- Italian Somaliland, invaded the
Semitism through the : independent African state of
Nuremberg Laws in September. : Ethiopia. Ethiopian Emperor
Jews were deprived of German : Haile Selassie was able to raise a THE NUMBER
citizenship and, by the Law for : large army, and although his forces OF OFFICERS AND
the Protection of German : were poorly equipped, they put up
Blood and German Honour, : stout resistance. Ethiopia was a
CREW ABOARD THE
marriage and extramarital : member-state of the League of SS NORMANDIE

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THE NUMBER OF
GERMAN TROOPS
THAT MARCHED
INTO RHINELAND
: Nae
German troops march across a bridge into the demilitarized Rhineland. Hitler
feared a military response by the Western democracies that never came.

PARTIDO UNICO DEL PROLETARIADO |

Workers unite ! anarchists won Spanish elections
EUROPE HAD BEGUN TO SLIDE
Armed workers trample on Nazi and © in February. The Popular Front
inexorably down the slope toward
Fascist symbols in this Spanish Civil : government promised sweeping
a major war. On 7 March, Hitler War poster. Communists were initially : land reforms and autonomy for
sent troops into the Rhineland, a minority in the Republican camp.
a part of Germany that had been
' Catalonia, but events soon ran
demilitarized under the terms : out of their control, with peasants
of the Locarno Pact (see 1925). | = (Communist International) had : seizing large estates and anti-
The operation was perfectly : decided that communist parties : clerical attacks on convents and
stage-managed, the marching ' should seek to form “Popular : churches. On 13 July, José Calvo
soldiers greeted by cheering : Front” alliances with social : Sotelo, a leading anti-Popular
crowds and women throwing | | democrat and centre parties. This : Front politician, was murdered by
flowers. However, behind the : policy bore fruit in France in May, socialist militants. Four days later,
scenes Hitler and his generals : when the Popular Front, led by ' Nationalist army officers based
were racked by nervous tension. : socialist Léon Blum, won a large : in Spanish Morocco launched a
German rearmament was still : : majority in parliamentary elections. : military uprising. Resisted by
in its early stages and the German : : At the same time, a workers’ : hastily armed socialist and
army could not have resisted if : : strike had led to the occupation of : anarchist militias, and a large
France had opted for a military : factories and department stores : proportion of the Spanish armed
response, but strong public : across France. Blum’s first act as : forces, the revolt failed across
opinion and domestic issues : prime minister was to settle the : much of Spain - Madrid, the
inhibited a stronger stand. By : strike by negotiating the Matignon : Basque country, and Catalonia
doing nothing, the Western allies | | agreements, which gave workers : remained in Republican hands.
showed they would not act to : improved conditions including a : When German and Italian aircraft
uphold international agreements. : 40-hour week and paid holidays. : began to ferry General Francisco
The British and French Foret
SECRETARIA » AGIT-PROP $= Struggling to maintain the : Franco's Army of Africa from
nonetheless embarked on ! support of communists on one : Morocco into southern Spain, the
expansion of their armed forces | : side and centrist radicals on the : military revolt turned into civil war.
in response to developments in | - other, however, the Blum At first, a rapid Nationalist
Germany. In Britain, Conservative : government was soon bogged : victory appeared probable. While
leader Stanley Baldwin had wona :; : down in economic problems and : Germany and Italy provided men,
general election in 1935 partly due : the diplomatic dilemma posed by } tanks, and aircraft to support the
to his promise to limit rearmament. | : the outbreak of civil war in Spain. : rebels, France and Britain adopted
Despite having a mandate for A Popular Front of communists,
military expansion, Baldwin : socialists, republicans, and
continued to proceed cautiously. : FRANCE
The main focus was on achieving | to be equipped with the Spitfire : occupation of Addis Ababa in May.
: The Spanish Civil War
an effective defence of Britain : and the Hawker Hurricane, also : Selassie fled to exile in Britain. : Crossing from Spanish Morocco,
against attack by the German ; then under development. : The following month he made a : Nationalist troops advanced north.
Luftwaffe (air force]. Two days : The importance of air power was | memorable speech at the League : The Republicans held on to Madrid
before Hitler's occupation of the : demonstrated in the conquest of : of Nations, ending with the : in desperate fighting. Badajoz
Rhineland, a new fighter aircraft, : Ethiopia by Fascist Italy [see 1935]. : ominous prophecy: “It is us today;
the Supermarine Spitfire, made = Italian aircraft were used to deliver ; it will be you tomorrow”. :: KEY iZz sell e
ac
neo
Fl . 1 . : . eee i “
its maiden flight. RAF Fighter : poison gas onto Ethiopian troops, Confronted with the successes Republican zone & ;
Command was created on 1 May, =; contributing to the defeat of : of Fascism and Naziism, the Nationalist gains ALGERIA
responsible for air defence. It was : Emperor Haile Selassie and the : Soviet-controlled Comintern ! [BM Initial Nationalist zone

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 44 IF YOU DON’T TRY TO
WIN YOU MIGHT AS WELL
HOLD THE OLYMPICS IN
SOMEBODY’S BACKYARD. 99 et x
Jesse Owens, US athlete, at the Olympic Games, 1936

US athlete Jesse Owens stands on t

Berlin Olympics. German silver medal winner Luz Long gives the Nazi salute.

: a neutral stance, leaving only the : press. Its effect was zero, but it
: Soviet Union to back the Republic. : became for the British a symbol of
: Franco's Army of Africa advanced : the era of mass unemployment.
: inexorably on Madrid, carrying out On 4 October, the black-shirted
: massacres along the way. ' British Union of Fascists (BUF]
: Meanwhile, Comintern was : staged a march through a
: recruiting volunteers from many : predominantly Jewish area of
: European countries and North
Finland
: London's East End. There they OF DAYS
: America to fight in Spain. The first
: of these International Brigades
France : clashed with anti-fascists in what
: became known as the Battle of
EDWARD VIII
: played a vital role in the defence
NATIONS
WINNING
SIX
TOP
: Cable Street. The march was REIGNED AS
0
SELES

20
ANOS PS

40
RR ES SS

60
SC TRA TRESS

80
ESAS CSLTRIES

100 120
abandoned. This humiliation for
' the BUF was followed by a
KING BEFORE
NUMBER OF MEDALS government ban on political HE ABDICATED
: uniforms. British fascism never
1936 Olympic Games medal tally
The most successful countries in the 1936 Berlin summer : regained its momentum.
Olympics were Germany and the US. The Soviet Union and In the US, Roosevelt (see 1933) : presidential elections in November,
Spain were among countries that did not take part. won a landslide victory in the ' securing a second term and
' confirming the popularity of his
of Madrid in November. The The Berlin Olympics were the : New Deal policies.
Nationalist advance was halted and : occasion for the first live TV Three weeks after Roosevelt's
: Madrid remained Republican. _ broadcasts. Seventy hours of fuzzy : re-election, a further critical step
In the highly charged political : black-and-white coverage were ; toward a new world war was
; atmosphere of 1936, the holding » shown in special viewing rooms : taken when Germany and Japan
_ of the summer Olympic Games : around the city, as well as picked signed the Anti-Comintern Pact.
: in Berlin - agreed before the : up by a handful of private TV sets. Explicitly an agreement to resist
Nazis came to power — was : Later in the year, the BBC began communist subversion, the pact
: inevitably a propaganda coup : the first regular high-definition was aimed against the Soviet
Franco was a career officer : for Hitler. He seized the : television service, broadcast from Union. It created an ideological
who commanded the opportunity to present the Third : Alexandra Palace in London. : link between the Nazis and an
Spanish Foreign Legion in |: Reich ina favourable light. The In the autumn, two events increasingly militaristic Japan.
Morocco in the 1920s. A ': Olympics were staged on an : occurred that would enter Britain's On 16 November, Britain's king
Catholic monarchist, he | | unprecedentedly lavish scale with | political mythology. The Jarrow Edward VIII (1894-1972) informed
joined the military uprising : impeccable efficiency. Germany : Crusade was a march by 200 : Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin
against the Republic in July topped the medal table, but black : cloth-capped jobless workers : that he intended to marry
1936 and was recognized as : American athlete Jesse Owens : froma Depression-blighted : American divorcee Mrs Wallis
sole leader of the Nationalist : attracted most attention by : shipbuilding town on the Tyne ; Simpson. Political opinion was
rebels in September. After |= winning four gold medals in : River. Jarrow had 70 per cent : solidly behind Baldwin, who told
victory in the Civil War in | = sprint events and the long jump. unemployment. The workers _ the king that he must choose
1939 he imposed a harsh | = Hitler was accused of snubbing : sought to publicize its plight : between Simpson and the throne.
» Marconiphone television receiver
dictatorship. He kept Spain : Owens because his success ran : by presenting a petition to : Edward abdicated and his
: Early televisions like this one made
neutral in World War Il and counter to Nazi theories of Aryan : parliament in Westminster. : by Marconi were luxury products - : brother, Albert, inherited the
remained in power until his : racial superiority. Owens himself : Their 450-km (280-mile} journey ! the Marconiphone sold in Britain for throne as George VI (1895-1952).
death in 1975. + felt more insulted by the lack of : took almost a month, attracting : 60 guineas, equivalent to about
' = congratulations from Roosevelt. : sympathetic coverage in the : £3,000 ($4,500) today.
 George VI at his coronation in Westminster Abbey on 12 May. He ascended the
throne following the abdication of his brother, Edward VIII.

W.H. Auden from Britain, Ernest

44 | SEE ONE THIRD OF A
: problem in Palestine, and their devastated by aircraft of the
: proposal to split it between the ' German Condor Legion. : Hemingway from the US, and

NATION ILL-HOUSED, ILL- : Jews and Arabs was rejected by

' both sides.
: Estimates of the death toll varied
: from 300 to 1,700. Graphically
: André Malraux from France.
: The most famous response to

CLAD, ILL-NOURISHED. 99 In Spain, the ongoing civil war

: [see 1936] was progressing badly
: described by journalists who
: visited the town in the wake of the
the bombing of Guernica was
! Pablo Picasso's painting, which
: for the Republican Loyalists. : attack, the event focused fears : was first exhibited in the Spanish
Franklin D. Roosevelt, American president, in his inauguration speech,
: Political divisions, with : about aerial bombardment, : Republic’s pavilion at the Paris
20 January 1937
: Communists determined to : specifically the impact of the International Exhibition in
: suppress anarchists and : German Luftwaffe in any future > summer 1937.
THE YEAR BEGAN WITH FRANKLIN i prime minister in Downing Street, : Trotskyists, nullified the courage: : war between the major powers. : The Paris Exhibition also
D. ROOSEVELT starting his second : Neville Chamberlain (1869-1940). : and determination of their military : In an increasingly divided world, : featured grandiose Nazi German
term in office as US president. In In Ireland, a referendum in July - efforts. The Nationalist rebels : art and literature were becoming : and Soviet Russian pavilions, both
his inauguration speech on 20 approved a proposal for a new continued to enjoy the support of : politicized. Prominent writers : using monumental sculpture to
January, Roosevelt drew attention : constitution. The Irish Free State German and Italian forces, : went to Spain, either to fight in : trumpet the glories of their rival
to persistent poverty in America. - became Eire [Ireland in Gaelic}, : especially in the air. On 26 April, : the Civil War (mostly on the : political systems. The Nazis also
He pledged to end this injustice, : and in effect a fully independent : the Basque town of Guernica » Republican side} or as war : took the extraordinary decision
denouncing ‘heedless self- : country although officially still : became famous worldwide when, _ tourists and journalists. Among ; to mount a show of the art they
interest” as bad morals and bad :adominion of the British : ona busy market day, it was : these were George Orwell and : despised, displaying confiscated
economics. The president's : Commonwealth. British India took
radical policies brought him into another step toward self-
conflict with the Supreme Court, government with implementation
while across America a wave of : of the India Act, but the limited
sit-down strikes pitted workers powers of its elected assembly
against their employers. As the fell far short of satisfying Indian
number of jobless more than : nationalists. The British also
doubled between 1936 and 1938, : failed to find a solution to the
it was not obvious that Roosevelt's :
approach was working. This
period was ironically dubbed | Picasso's vision of war
: Inresponse to the German bombing
“Roosevelt's Depression”.
of the Basque town of Guernica,
For Britain and its empire, this : Pablo Picasso painted this large
was a year of change. In May the : mural in support of the Spanish
country saw a new king crowned, : Republicans. It was displayed at
George VI (1895-1952), and a new © the 1937 Paris Exhibition.

46 AT 2A.M. TODAY WHEN I VISITED

THE TOWN, THE WHOLE OF IT WAS
A HORRIBLE SIGHT, FLAMING
FROM END TO END. 99
George Steer, British journalist, reporting the bombing of Guernica
for The Times, 27 April, 1937

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 44 THERE’S FLAMES, NOW, AND
THE FRAME IS CRASHING TO THE
GROUND... OH, THE HUMANITY... 99
Herbert Morrison, Chicago news reporter, as he watched
the Hindenburg crash, 6 May 1937

The German Zeppelin airship Hindenburg exploding into a fireball while docking
at Lakehurst in New Jersey. The cause of the disaster remains uncertain.

: paintings by modernists and Jews : of “Old Bolsheviks” - men who observers, shocked public opinion
: ata Degenerate Art” exhibition : had participated in the 1917
sickle is the : in the US and solidified the
: in Munich, to be laughed at by the Revolution. While arrests of Old symbolof : sympathy of the US government
: German public. : Bolsheviks continued through $27,125,000
agriculture : for the Chinese. US hostility to
construction
: Meanwhile, under the 1937, other people also came : Japan's actions in China was the
: dictatorship of Joseph Stalin : under suspicion. Between : first step on the path to the $4,068,000
: {1878-1953}, the Soviet Union had 1937 and 1939 almost half the hammer _/ @ : Pacific War (see 1941). financing
' begun the Great Terror. The : senior army commanders were : isthe : Elsewhere, the year was $1,334,000
: Soviet regime had always been : executed, imprisoned, or sacked. symbol : marked by air disasters. German surplus
: ruthless toward those it defined : Although the fate of the Soviet of industry
: airships had begun scheduled
: as enemies - for example, : elite attracted most attention, : transatlantic passenger flights.
peasants who resisted collective Stalin's reign of terror spread : On 6 May, the airship Hindenburg,
: agriculture (see 1930} - but now through the entire population. : with 97 passengers and crew on $423,000 $2,050,000
: the unbridled power of the secret At least 680,000 people were : board, burst into flames as it administration engineering
: police was turned against the : killed during the Great Purge, : docked at Lakehurst, New Jersey. and preliminaries and inspection
: leadership of the Soviet armed : and some historians believe : Within seconds the fire had
: Golden Gate Bridge building costs
: forces, and of the ruling party : the real figure could even be : spread through its hydrogen-filled
: The original budget for building San
- itself. The process began in 1936, ; closer to 2 million. : gasbag. Remarkably, only 35 : Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge was
: with the arrest, trial and execution In summer 1937 gradual people were killed, but the $27 million, but the actual building
» Japanese encroachment
on disaster brought an abrupt costs totalled $35 million.
: Chinese territory erupted end to the brief era of
: into full-scale war. Japanese and luxury airship travel. Two Guinea with co-pilot Fred Noonan
: Chinese forces clashed at the months later, America’s : for the Pacific leg of an attempted
: Marco Polo Bridge outside most famous woman : round-the-world flight. Their
: Beijing in July, and the pilot, Amelia Earhart aircraft was never seen again.
following month large- (1887-1937], took Technology continued to
: scale fighting developed in off from New : progress throughout the year,
: Shanghai. Chiang Kai-shek’s culminating in the race for the
: Chinese Nationalist forces put : first successful trials of turbojet
: up much stiffer resistance than : engines, between Frank Whittle
: the Japanese expected, : in Britain and Hans von Ohain in
: inflicting around 50,000 : Germany. Whittle won, but the
: casualties on the invaders, sculpture made : Germans forged ahead with
: but they were forced to from stainless development of a jet aircraft -
: abandon the city. The Japanese steel panels : Ohain’s engine powering the
: then advanced on the Chinese : first jet flight in August 1939.
Nationalist capital, Nanking, Worker and peasant | Another marker for progress
which they took in December. This giant sculpture, : was the opening of the Golden
Nanking’s civilian population was by Vera Mukhina, : Gate Bridge in San Francisco. At
subjected to a brutal attack by dominated the : 1,280m (4,200ft), its central span
Soviet pavilion at
Japanese troops, while thousands : was the longest of any suspension
the World's Fair
of surrendered Chinese soldiers in 1937. It is i bridge in the world, a record that
were also killed. This massacre, an example ; stood until it was surpassed by
witnessed by Christian of Socialist : the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge
: missionaries and other Western Realist style. in New York in 1964.

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British prime minister Neville Chamberlain (ri
for the Munich Conference on 28 September.

WALT DISNEY’S REWORKING OF

OW WHITE

ch a
GDP
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was al

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 44 | BELIEVE IT IS PEACE
FOR OUR TIME. 99
British prime minister Neville Chamberlain, on his return to London
from the Munich Conference, 30 September 1938

SE
Arab prisoner: S are guarded by a British soldier int he OldCity of Jerusalem
during the suppression of the revolt against Britain's rule in Palestine.

: “appeasement”, based on the Night of broken glass

: belief that a durable peace could A shopkeeper clears up
; be secured by settling Germany's shattered glass from a looted
: “legitimate claims”. Attention Jewish shop in the wake of
attacks on German and
' focused on the German minority
: in Czechoslovakia, concentrated -THE APPROXIMATE ADDITION Austrian Jews in November.

: in the Sudetenland area. Hitler

: stirred up unrest among the TO THE GERMAN POPULATION children, without their
Sudeten Germans, while ordering
: his generals to prepare for an
BY THE ANNEXATIONS OF parents, and the US
maintained its existing
: invasion of Czechoslovakia. The
: British and French governments
AUSTRIA AND SUDETENLAND barriers to immigration.
Jews were trapped
were desperate to avoid war, because, although the
: but were committed to defending War seemed inevitable, and : struck that preserved peace at Nazis were ready to let
: the Czechs. In September, : military preparations were under : the expense of Czechoslovakia, them leave, they had
: Chamberlain embarked on an : way in Britain and France when, : which had to hand over the nowhere to go.
: unprecedented diplomatic : on 28 September, Italian dictator : Sudetenlandto Germany. One potential destination
initiative, flying twice to Germany Benito Mussolini proposed a ; Chamberlain and Daladier were for Jews from Europe was
: for face-to-face talks with Hitler. : four-nation conference. Hitler : greeted as heroes when they Palestine, which was
: Although Britain pressured the : accepted and met the French : returned home, the British and recognized by the British
: Czech government into making : premier Edouard Daladier | French people profoundly relieved : The assassination of a German : asa site fora Jewish homeland
major concessions, this only made : (1884-1970), Chamberlain, and : to have avoided war. Conservative : diplomat by a Jew in Paris served : (see 1917]. But the British were
: Hitler raise his demands. ! Mussolini at Munich. A deal was ! MP Winston Churchill (1874-1965) as a pretext for Nazi-orchestrated : struggling with an armed uprising
: was among the minority who : attacks on Jewish homes and : by Palestinian Arabs who were
: denounced
the Munich : businesses across Germany : bitterly opposed to the expansion
: agreement, calling it “a defeat : and Austria. Synagogues were : of Jewish settlement. In an
: without a war”. : burned down and sacred objects : attempt to defuse the situation,
Post-Munich optimism only desecrated; 30,000 Jewish men : Britain imposed tight limits on
lasted until November, when : were rounded up and taken to : Jewish immigration.
: Kristallnacht (“the Night of concentration camps, where The high pitch of anxiety in the
Broken Glass’) provided graphic : beatings and torture were routine. : world at the time became evident
evidence of the extremist Those countries still committed : when a radio broadcast induced
nature of the Nazi regime. > to democracy and freedom : mass panic in the US. Orson
: expressed outrage at Nazi : Welles’s radio version of the
: anti-semitism, but they were not : alien-invasion classic The War of
Steam record holder : keen to provide a home for Jews : the Worlds was broadcast by CBS
Designed by Nigel : now desperate to escape Nazi : at Halloween. The news bulletin
Gresley, the steam : persecution. At an international : format convinced millions of
locomotive : conference on the issue held at : Americans that a genuine invasion
4 Mallard was : Evian in July, the Australian : by Martians was underway. When
we a masterly : representative T. W. White stated : genuinely frightened listeners
fusion of
form and
: bluntly: “As we have no racial : finally understood their mistake,
function. It achieved : problem, we are not desirous of _ there was widespread anger.
an enduring world : importing one”. Britain agreed to
speed record. accept a limited number of Jewish

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 ok |
oy
Spanish women in Madrid, celebrating the victory of Franco's Nationalists inthe
country's civil war. Defeated opponents of Franco faced harsh oppression.

BY 1939 MILITARY
WERE SPREADING ACROSS
DICTATORSHIPS
44 WHEN STARTING AND EVACUATION OF THE CITIES
EUROPE. Only a handful of
countries, chiefly Britain and
WAGING WAR IT Is NOT At the start of September,
France, maintained a liberal
democratic system. In the spring,
RIGHT THAT MATTERS, Britain and France began to
evacuate civilians from danger
General Francisco Franco's
Nationalists triumphed in
BUT VICTORY. 99 areas. Expecting air attacks, the
British evacuated 1.5 million
the Spanish Civil War, occupying Adolf Hitler, military and political leader of Germany, 30 January 1939
children from large cities, along
the surviving Republican with mothers with babies and
strongholds of Barcelona and young children. The French
Madrid. Tens of thousands of : (see 1938] had left Czechoslovakia The German occupation of carried out mass evacuations
Franco’s enemies were executed. : adefenceless state, and the : Prague forced the leaders from the border provinces of
Others fled into exile, and many : Germans encouraged Slovakian : of the Western democracies to Alsace and Lorraine in eastern
were interned in camps in France. nationalists, who were resentful : acknowledge the ruthlessness France. Germany did not carry
Meanwhile, Italy's dictator Benito : of Czech domination, to declare : of Nazi expansionism. It was out mass evacuations until
Mussolini {1883-1945} had : independence. In March, Hitler’s : obvious Poland was to be the heavy bombing began in 1942.
annexed Albania, and driven : troops marched unopposed into : next target. Believing a threat
out its monarch, King Zog : Prague, turning the Czech lands of force would deter Hitler, the
(1895-1961). > of Bohemia and Moravia into a : British and French gave the : 10,000 unaccompanied Jewish While all eyes were focused
More threatening for the peace German “protectorate”. After : Poles a guarantee of military : children to find refuge in Britain. » on Europe, the Soviet Union
of Europe was German Fuhrer : Hungary annexed the east, : support, but Hitler was not : Adults were not allowed to : was fighting an undeclared war
Adolf Hitler's occupation of : Czechoslovakia ceased to exist : deterred. In April he began accompany them, however, and : with Japan in Asia. Throughout
Prague. The Munich agreement as a country. : military planning for an invasion : many of the children never saw : the summer, clashes occurred
: of Poland. their parents again. : along the border between
Baltic LITHUANIA — : Desperate Jews tried to flee : Mongolia, a Soviet client state,
S
2ea
the expanding area coming under : and Japanese-occupied
: Nazi control, but many countries : Manchuria. Soviet General
POMERANIA | Danzig
EAST. : refused to let them in. Among > Georgy Zhukov's hard-fought
‘PRUSSIA — the more fortunate were those : victory at the battle of Khalkhin
- rescued by the Kindertransport : Gol decided the outcome. This
» scheme that arranged for almost : defeat influenced the Japanese
: to pursue naval-led expansion in
: @ Poznan = : the Pacific and Southeast Asia,
=) Warsaw@
Brest-Litovsk Invasion of Poland
: rather thanfurther land
: Wedze ; German forces invaded Poland from
USSR” East Prussia, Germany, and Slovakia : conquestsin East Asia.
GERMANY on 1 September. With Nazi Anticipating a war with
agreement, the Soviets occupied Germany, Britain and France
‘SILESIA eastern Poland. : unenthusiastically pursued

KEY
World War Il British gas mask
— German advance/operation All British civilians were issued with
— Soviet advance gas masks, for protection against
ROMANIA — German/Soviet demarcation line poison gas air attacks. This brightly-
in Poland coloured mask is for a child.
 During the period known as the ‘phony war’, preparations for conflict in suburban
Britain often seemed bizarre, with noreal enemy to fire at.

; amilitary alliance 10-round magazine Remaining neutral, the US

: with the Soviet : seemed a world away from the
: Union - a country : blacked-out cities of Europe. The
: they disliked and distrusted. : New York World's Fair, opened
: Finnish Rifle
: No-one anticipated a deal
! The Finnish Lahti anti-tank rifle was
: in April, taking “The World of
: between Hitler and the Soviet i used against the Soviets during the > Tomorrow” as its theme. Around
: leader Joseph Stalin, but on : Winter War, which began with the : 44 million visitors came to see
cheek rest
: 23 August the Soviet and German : Russian invasion of Finland. : such novelties as nylon stockings
: foreign ministers, Vyacheslav and colour photography.
: Molotov (1890-1986) and Joachim Hollywood was enjoying a
» von Ribbentrop (1893-1946), itself neutral. The war was ' Western democracies entered : later when the German battleship : golden era, with classic releases
:
: signed a Non-Aggression Treaty, greeted by all countries with : the period known as the ‘phony : Graf Spee was driven by British : including Gone With the Wind, The
' known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop : fear and resignation. There were : war ". After the fall of Poland the ' cruisers to take refuge in the : Wizard of Oz, and Stagecoach.
: Pact, which included a provision : no cheering crowds in Berlin, British and French rejected a : neutral port of Montevideo in : Grand picture palaces, some of
: to divide Poland between them. : London, or Paris. : peace offer from Hitler, but the Uruguay, where the Germans : which could accommodate more
: German forces invaded The destruction of Poland was : troops they assembled in France > scuttled it. : than 4,000 customers, were filled.
> Poland on 1 September. Two : achieved with breathtaking speed. : remained passive. The lack of At the end of November, the : The American economy was
: days later, unable to escape their - German troops reached the : military action was a relief to the : Soviet Union launched an attack : poised for a decisive upturn as an
commitment to the Poles, the : outskirts of Warsaw within a : British and French governments. on Finland. The Winter War : amendmentto the Neutrality
: British and French governments : week. The Poles fought with : German air attacks and massive ' revealed severe deficiencies in : Act allowed US factories to equip
: declared war on Germany. : courage and tenacity - Germany : civilian casualties had been : the organization, equipment, and : the British and French war effort.
: Australia, New Zealand, Canada, : sustained more than 40,000 : expected, but did not occur. : leadership of the Soviet Red Army.
: and South Africa followed. : casualties - but once Soviet The only dramatic action in : By the end of the year, the Finns
; Britain brought India into the war : troops moved in from the east all : Britain's war against Germany » still held their Mannerheim Line
: without consulting its elected ' was lost. Warsaw surrendered was at sea. In October, the : defences, and the Soviets had
representatives, while Ireland : on 28 September, and the fighting ! German Navy's U-boat U-47 ' suffered heavy losses.
and the US declared their : stopped a week later. Dividing penetrated the defences of
: neutrality. Much to Hitler's : the country between them, the : Britain's main naval base at
: Movie attendance
annoyance, Italy also declared : Soviets and Nazis set about : Scapa Flow, in the Orkney Islands : Movies of the late 1930s achieved
: imprisoning and massacring : off Scotland,
and sank the : extraordinary ticket sales. Around
: Poles in large numbers. : battleship Royal Oak. British : 80 million movie tickets were sold
Throughout the autumn the : morale was raised two months : in the US every week.
: Germans began confining
: Poland’s Jews to ghettos, a
:; major step toward the Holocaust P Star Wars 1977
© (see 1942). Hitler had already
THE NUMBER : signed an order in Germany at the
= The Sound of Music 1965

OF DAYS : start of the war for the killing of

: people with incurable mental
GERMANY
MOVIES
: disabilities. Over 70,000 German

TOOK TO
: mental patients were murdered : Off to see the Wizard
: by lethal injections or gassing, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs 1937
Julie Garland played Dorothy in the
OVERRUN : before the operation was 1939 movie The Wizard of Oz -

‘POLAND
suspended in August 1941. 100 200 300 400 600° 700 800 900 1000 : perfect fantasy entertainment
With Poland crushed, the MOVIE ATTENDANCE [IN MILLIONS) for hard and dangerous times.
 FINLAN®
North 3€ Leningrad
ening USSR
Glasgow_Sg. Sea < 8 Sep 1941-27 Jan 1944

|DENMARK. 5; % We ESTONIAS.
’
UNITED @
, KINGDOM) = @
Belfast : iG -
IRELAND
¥ ) Hull rt rg \n ¢ Moscow
ww 2 Oct 1941-7 Jan 1942
Liverpool Coventry [| by we . @ a
>
AV Birmingham NETHERLANDS ORs
& b OP EAST
We Cardiff ‘“ ~=Danzig pRUSSIA ; Minsk
"Rotterdam ‘Hamburg aoe29 Jun 1941
Plymouth , @ Berti
¥ Essen i
Dunkirk Bhs r => ¢ Warsaw S ee
26 May-4 Jun 1940 Sedan BELGIUM Oo GERMANY ~~ 8-28 Sep 1939S SCKiev paecree pore
12<45 May 1940
Van < LUXEMBOURG
OS 3 \ @ Prague POLAND
Bay of
SL
Biscay OVAKIA
STRIA @ Budapest
Odessa |
HUNGARY
Tunings (eS Milan ROMANIA
Genoa
Sevastapol
30 Oct 1941-4 Jul 1942

oe _. WES YUGOSLAVIA
R ome zy.
>
Gs
x
BULGARIA

Sicily TURKEY
Mn ALBANIA é
ROcc9 ALGERIA
GREECE
German expansion TUNISIA:
Between September 1939 and August 1942 Nazi KEY
German forces conquered most of mainland Europe, m= German advance
seizing control of an area from Norway to Crete, and 20 May-1 Jun 1941
X Major battle
from France to the Black Sea. Britain remained free of
© Major German air attack
German domination, but was subjected to air attacks.
Nazi U-boats also preyed on Britain's shipping lanes. ‘<< Major Allied air attack

other

THE WAR IN
China countries

France

11.3 aie
BILLION BILLION
THE ALLIED BATTLE TO TURN BACK THE TIDE OF NAZI CONTRO

Soviet
Union |UK
US lend-lease i
The US provided its Allies with vast quantities
of war equipment and supplies, under the
lend-lease scheme. Britain and the Soviet
Union were the major beneficiaries, |

_ EUROPE IN 1942 By 1942 Nazi Germany

_ dominated mainland Europe. Its allies and
satellites included Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria,-
Slovakia, Croatia, and Vichy France. Greater
_ Germany expanded before and during the war
to include Austria, French Alsace-Lorraine,
and much of Poland (which ceased to exist as
a state in October 1939). Although the Nazis
found some willing collaborators, their
_ambition to found a “New Order” in Europe
eventually came to nothing.
 Ss FINLAN®
-¢§
=
=
nH
Na s.
USSR
; - Cie ESTONIA
North DENMARK o are
“h-> -
a -

2 1 LATVIA Moscow
UNITED aa ya ma
. Depst LITHUANIA
; /Hamburg \/ “@aRRUSSIA
D-d i <j
52] @&&Arnhem, aR aks ;
Minsk
yregre
a 17-26Sep 1944“i SRptticet Berlin
16 Apr-2 May 1945
29 Jun=4 Jul 1944 Kursk
XN
4 5-13 Jul 1943
Ardennes:
Dresden 4
Bie. y.
:
16 Dec=25 Jan 1945 GS : ;
4Pteczheim GERMANY “Ses : bakes
=z sovad® POLAND (UKRAINE _ 2Feb 1963
<<. HUNGARY/ I
AUSTRIA. ip a
; ROMANIA
Budapest e
29 Nec-13 Feb 1945
7
iX CROATIA
SERBIA

22 Jan-5 Jun 1944 \ Sg

4 MONTE- =f
es. Su. NEGRO BULGARIA
Cassino »
17 Jan-18 May 1944 Salerno
9 Sep 1943 \ Allied offensives
Meg vs Al TURKEY The tide of war turned
: Messina
M Roc . OS
ALBANIA with the British victory at
El Alamein in North
an
Africa,
Co ‘ Sicily Saas Cae
ALGERIA and tne Soviet triumph at
Stalingrad. Italy surrendered

a)
a in 1943 after the Allies landed,
and after the Normandy
4 :
mey e invasion on D-day in 1944,
i <p El Alamein Germany was crushed
m=> Allied advance % 23 Oct -5 Nov 1942 between Soviet forces
Major battle advancing from the east and
Major Allied the Western Allies attacking
firebomb attack from the west.
EGYPT \ {

KEY
RAF
a ne a é :
35 asi ead *‘ r FINLAND
UNITED Z
KINGDOM 3S UNITED
=
o q
i ;
IRELAND Ss2 4 : Z :
o4 Z ;

uw
a \
ped 4 U,
xEAS RUSSI i
So
a 3 q i + @o et

=) \ MH, \02 : UKRAINE

A S POLAND i
ATLANTIC um = beLdium GERMANY. z \
OCEAN e
[TY] \\ Black§,
o2 I S eg
FRANCE ROU ZERE NY a , 2 BULGARIA
S) a
VICHY 1 =
_’ FRANCE es ae > Gi
ay om i

zs se = ea ° i
a6 Se,
Medite,, ‘ TURKEY o= —
2, 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945
MOROCCO YEAR
ALGERIA
Stategic Allied bombing in Europe
RAF Bomber Command and the US = Ze
{Ml Axis satellite 2 a0 ae A .ee apes Meme
1B Members of NATO
KEY
— Frontiers 1937 _ @ italy and Italie : : = ates : IndependentLe
|@ Sout
occupied territory a mainland Europe. The Allies dropped
_ Promiers tees 2.7 million tonnes of bombs, killing around a
© Finnish territory
Gi Greater a SS 500,000 people. The US bombed industrial as : : = Iron Curtain in 1949
German Reich Mi Neutral : : objectives by day, while the RAF attacked ae > Cities divided into
HB German occupation —_ J Allied territory ae oe cities by night. _ zones of occupation

315
Allied soldiers form queues on the beach at Dunki rk, France, awaiting boats
to carry them to England. German air attacks harassed the evacuation.

United people were executed or deported

Commonwealth to labour camps. Stalin’s ruthless
North NETHERLANDS
A British propaganda reach extended as far as Mexico, Sea
poster shows men where his exiled rival Leon
from the dominions
Trotsky had found refuge. In GREAT
and colonies united in
the war effort. Even in August, Trotsky was killed by BRITAIN
1940 Britain did not Ramon Mercader, an agent of Dunkirke.

“stand alone”. Stalin’s secret police.

On 4 April, British prime minister GERMA
prime minister by Neville Chamberlain announced : English
Paul Reynaud that Hitler had “missed the bus” Channel BELGIUM
(1878-1966). by failing to launch a major
ALTHOUGH BRITAIN AND FRANCE Also in March, Soviet dictator offensive as British rearmament
WERE AT WAR WITH GERMANY, - Joseph Stalin (see 1928) accelerated. Five days after this
the only fighting in Europe in early approved the killing of all Polish complacent speech, German forces : wax
1940 was between the Soviet officers who had fallen into Soviet occupied Denmark and invaded
Union and Finland (see 1939). The hands through the occupation of Norway. Britain and France sent oo
British and French governments, ' western Poland (see 1939]. Most troops and warships to aid the FRANCE
both strongly anti-communist, : of the region's educated elite - Norwegians but could not prevent
planned to send an expeditionary : doctors, lawyers, andteachers-_ : a German victory. Norway's King
force to aid the Finns. Troops were : were also murdered. Some 22,000 Haakon VII was evacuated to
assembled, but Soviet military : victims were buried in mass Britain with his government to Paris
successes led Finland to seek : graves in Katyn Forest and continue the fight from exile.
peace in March. In France, the : elsewhere. In June, when the In Britain, the disastrous Battle of France KEY
failure to help the Finns led to the Soviet Union occupied the Baltic campaign in Norway destroyed : After the Dunkirk — German — Allied front — Allied front
fall of the government of Edouard : states - Lithuania, Latvia, and confidence in the Chamberlain evacuation of the Allied advance line 21 May line 4 Jun
Daladier, who was replaced as : Estonia - tens of thousands more government. On 10 May, Winston : forces, German troops — Allied front — Allied defensive — Allied front
: advanced into central line 16 May line 28 May line 12 Jun
Churchill became prime minister
: and western France.
at the head of a broad coalition.
On the same day, German : formations of tanks and motorized The French army was driven into
Churchill led an adventurous forces invaded the Netherlands, : infantry supported by Stuka ; retreat, allowing the Germans to
life as a soldier and war Belgium, and Luxembourg. After dive-bombers drove northward to occupy Paris on 14 June. France
correspondent before entering Rotterdam was heavily bombed, : reach the Channel coast and cut was also attacked by Italy,
politics. As First Lord of the the Dutch forces surrendered to : off the Allied forces in Belgium. : Mussolini belatedly entering the
Admiralty in World War | he avoid further destruction. Dutch : The Allies established a defensive : war to pick up some of the spoils
was blamed for the Gallipoli Queen Wilhelmina defiantly set up perimeter around the port of : of German victory. The French
disaster. A backbench MP a government-in-exile in London. Dunkirk and a remarkable escape : government, along with much of
during the 1930s, he opposed Allied troops in northern France : operation was mounted. Between : the population, fled to the
the appeasement of Hitler. advanced into Belgium to meet the : 26 May and 4 June, 338,000 Allied : southwest. In Bordeaux, a new
In 1939, he returned to the German offensive. The Germans : troops were evacuated by sea : government was formed under
Admiralty before becoming unexpectedly delivered a powerful : before Dunkirk fell to the Germans. : the defeatist Marshal Pétain
prime minister in May 1940. He thrust through the Ardennes Belgian King Leopold III : (1856-1951). General Charles de
led Britain through the war but region into France and broke (1901-83) surrendered on 28 May, Gaulle, a junior minister under
lost the 1945 general election. through the French defences at : overruling his government's wish : Reynaud and a serving army
Sedan. Fast-moving German to continue fighting. officer, escaped to Britain and
 44 FRANCE HAS LOST THE
BATTLE, BUT FRANCE HAS
NOT LOST THE WAR. 99
Charles de Gaulle, French General, 18 June 1940

in June 1940. The French capital was an open city and taken without fighting.

: launched an emotional plea for Fighter Command was hard

continued resistance, but few pressed as waves of bombers with
: heeded the call. Pétain sought an fighter escort attacked airfields,
: armistice, which was agreed on radar stations, and aircraft
: 22 June. At Hitler’s insistence, the factories. It was a relief for the
» armistice was signed in the same THE NUMBER RAF when the Luftwaffe switched
: railway carriage in which the 1918 : to bombing London from early
: armistice had been signed. OF GERMAN : September. On 15 September,
: German troops occupied the BOMBERS : attacked by over 1,000 German
: north and west of France. Pétain : aircraft, the British shot down
© established a regime in the town INVOLVED IN : 60 for the loss of 28 of their own.
: of Vichy that held responsibility
: for all of France, although policy
THE 10 HOUR : Such figures meant that Germany
could not win the command of the
: in the occupied part had to be RAID ON THE : air needed to cover an invasion.
; agreed with the Germans. Taking
: almost dictatorial powers as head
Dainion CllLy German invasion plans were
: abandoned in October, but from
: of state, he affirmed conservative OF COVENTRY : autumn 1940 until May 1941,
: principles of religion, patriotism, : British cities were subjected to
: and the family. The Vichy French "invasion. In August, the Luftwaffe : the Blitz, a series of night raids
: collaborated on some points with : began a sustained air campaign ' by Luftwaffe bombers that caused
: the Nazis, introducing their own over southern England, heavy casualties - more than
- anti-Semitic laws. initiating the Battle of Britain. 40,000 civilians were killed - Going underground
: In Britain, Churchill quashed British air defences were well : and widespread destruction. In 1940, Franklin D. Roosevelt During the Blitz, thousands of
| defeatism. He encouraged a prepared, with radar early Contrary to pre-war predictions, :— stood for and won a third term : Londoners spent the night in
| popular mood of defiance with warning stations linked ; however, the raids brought neither : in office. Before the election, : Underground stations to shelter
! from the bombing.
: his broadcast speeches and to command centres that : social breakdown nor the collapse : Roosevelt had made his hostility
pushed through radical co-ordinated a response by : of morale. British stoicism under to Nazi Germany and Japan clear. : the US. Ina “fireside chat” on
measures to stiffen Spitfire and Hurricane fighters. ! fire won many admirers in the : He had begun rearmament and : radio, Roosevelt told Americans
: resistance. These Despite this, RAF : neutral US. : introduced a measure of : their country was to become the
: ranged from the conscription, but he was - “arsenal of democracy’, its
© internment of aware of the antiwar : factories providing the arms
: aliens to the creation feeling among people in for Britain to fight the Axis.
: of the Home Guard
: militia to resist
all-metal monocoque
: German invasion. fuselage structure
: Since the
: British refused to
negotiate a peace deal, Hitler
began preparing a cross-Channel
laminated wood
propeller blade
: Supermarine Spitfire
: The Spitfire, the RAF’s most famous
fighter aircraft of World War II, could
match the performance of the
: German Messerschmitt 109.

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German tanks and infantry, belonging to Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps, advance
across Libya during the hard-fought campaign in North Africa.

THE ENTRY OF FASCISTITALYINTO : with an armoured force - the : Special SS death squads, known: FINLAND
WORLD WAR II IN JUNE 1940 : Afrika Korps - to rescue his as Einsatzgruppen, were detailed | Helsinkie

extended the war into the ' fascist ally. Rommel soon pushed : to follow the armies and kill : Tallinn

Mediterranean and North Africa, : the British back and placed = communists and Jews in occupied
where Italy had colonies, including © Tobruk under siege, while : territory. Nazi administrators
Libya. Early in 1941, British German aircraft based in Sicily : anticipated the extermination of
Commonwealth forces, advancing : attacked British shipping and : 30 million Soviet citizens to free
from Egypt, captured the Libyan bombed the island of Malta, a up food supplies for Germany.
_ Smolensk u
port of Tobruk and took 130,000 : vital British naval base. Launched on 22 June, Operation ‘
Italian prisoners. In response, The Italian army also attempted : Barbarossa was warfare on a ENSTOs
Hitler sent General (later Field - an invasion of Greece in 1940, : vast scale. Hitler had assembled RUSSIA
Marshal] Erwin Rommel : but once again the Germans had > more than 4 million troops,
Warsawe
(1891-1944) to North Africa : to step in. Axis forces invaded © including a million from his Axis
allies. At first the invasion was POLAND |
German : an overwhelming success. Ina
parachute badge : series of encirclements, around
German : 3 million Soviet soldiers were
paratroopers, : taken prisoner. The invaders
like airborne : reached the gates of Leningrad HUNGARY
forces all over : and thrust toward Moscow, but :
the world, were
considered to be
" the Axis advance slowed with the | ROMANIA
an elite, a status : autumn rains and eventually : Black CRIMEA
reflected in their : ground toa halt in the snow. The Sea @Sevastopol

stylish badge. : Soviets launched furious, often

: suicidal, counterattacks to drive
' Operation Barbarossa KEY
: The Axis invasion of the Soviet Union —> German/Axis advances
: Yugoslavia in April, which was the enemy back from the outskirts _ made great progress in the second
— Frontline 21 June 1941
rapidly defeated and dismembered, : halfof 1941. It inflicted heavy losses — Front line 1 Sept 1941
creating an independent Croatia 800 : on Soviet forces, but failed to achieve
—— Front line 15 Nov 1941
under the rule of the fascist : the quick victory that Hitler needed.
— Front line 5 Dec 1941
UstaSe movement.
German troops pressed south 650 ~~ of Moscow. For the first time : Almost all the prisoners of war
into Greece, which was swiftly : Germany had failed to achieve : captured by the Axis were
overrun. British Commonwealth - a lightning victory. : executed or perished from
forces attempted to defend the 400- In the Baltic republics (Estonia, : Starvation and neglect.
Greek island of Crete, but it fell ' Latvia, and Lithuania), Belarus, The Jews suffered worst. At
to the Germans after an initial : and Ukraine, much of the Babi Yar, outside the Ukrainian
assault by paratroopers. : population initially welcomed the : capital Kiev, more than 30,000
For Hitler, the Mediterranean THOUSANDS)
(IN
DEATHS : Germans as liberators from : Jewish people were murdered in
: was merely a sideshow. He had : : : Stalinist rule. However, few : two days. The Nazis also began
: already set in motion preparations : 1939 1940 1941 : maintained their enthusiasm once : systematic killing of Jews in
: for arrinvasion of the Soviet : Axis war casualties
: they experienced the brutality of Poland, using gas vans at an
Airborne operation
: Union, codenamed Operation The casualties suffered by Germany
: Nazi rule. In Leningrad, placed extermination centre at Chelmno.
The Germans used paratroopers
to great success in their invasion - Barbarossa. Nazi intentions were : andits Axis allies rose dramatically : under siege by German and Throughout 1941, Britain fought
of Greece at Corinth, and in the : genocidal. Hitler told his generals i between 1939 and 19417, as the war Finnish forces, thousands died : on against the Nazis, ignoring a
subsequent attack on Crete. : to plan “a war of annihilation”. : widened its grip on Europe. every day, mostly from starvation. : bizarre peace initiative by

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 44 THAT THE PEARL HARBOR
ATTACK SHOULD HAVE SUCCEEDED
IN ACHIEVING SURPRISE SEEMS A
BLESSING FROM HEAVEN. 99
Hideki Tojo, Japanese Prime Minister

Battleships USS West Virginia and USS Tennessee are engulfed in smoke
and flames during the surprise Japanese raid on Pearl Harbor.

: Hitler’s Deputy Fiihrer Rudolf : Roosevelt felt he lacked the

Hess (1894-1987). On 10 May, : popular support needed for
: Hess parachuted into rural : a declaration of war.
: Scotland, convinced that he could Roosevelt's dilemma was

‘THE NUMBER OF LENINGRAD'S

persuade the British government : resolved by the Japanese.
to ally itself with Germany. Instead, : The US opposed Japan's
: he was arrested and remained a
: prisoner for the rest of his life. RESIDENTS THOUGHT TO HAVE : expansion into Asia, and
- after Japanese troops
: The chief threat to Britain at this
: stage in the war lay in the Battle
_DIED DURING THE SIEGE : entered French Indochina
" in July Roosevelt imposed
| of the Atlantic - German ‘ anoil embargo. Since Japan
: attempts to cut off the country’s : The British and Canadian navies : Churchill's [see 1940) strong » was entirely dependent on
» seaborne supplies of food and : were less successful at protecting : dislike of Soviet communism. imported oil, its government had
: war material. In May, the German merchant convoys against : But the British really needed : the choice of abandoning its
: Pearl Harbor badge
: battleship Bismarck sortied into : German submarines, however, : the US to enter the war. : military ambitions or fighting a
: The slogan “Remember Pearl
the Atlantic. After sinking the and losses were soon mounting. : President Roosevelt (see 1933] war with the US. : Harbor” was widely used in the
: Royal Navy battle cruiser HMS : The British people felt the effect : made no pretence of neutrality. In Following a plan advocated by : US to inspire patriotic support for
Hood, Bismarck was tracked : of this in reduced food rations. : March, he introduced Lend-Lease Admiral lsoroku Yamamoto, on the war against the Japanese.
: down, halted by torpedoes dropped Britain did not hesitate to ally : to supply Britain with military
: from Swordfish aircraft, and then : itself with the Soviet Union, : equipment paid for by the US 7 December, Japanese carrier
: sunk by British battleships. : despite Prime Minister Winston : government. American shipyards : aircraft delivered a surprise
: and factories benefited greatly : attack on the American naval
: from this, as did American workers base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.
: with plentiful and well-paid jobs. The raid sank or damaged 18
: Later in the year, free military aid : warships and destroyed around
: from the US was extended to : 300 aircraft, which severely
: the Soviet Union. : damaged the US Pacific fleet.
In August, Roosevelt and : Other Japanese forces invaded
: Churchill met at Placentia Bay < : the Philippines and the British
: in Newfoundland, Canada, where SOROKU YAMAMOTO : colony of Malaya.
: they agreed the Atlantic Charter, (1884-1943) ' The shock of the raid on Pearl
: astatement of joint war aims : Harbor ensured popular American
embodying liberal aemocratic In the 1930s, Japanese : support for war with Japan, but
: principles. American warships Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto : not with Germany. To the relief
: were already escorting convoys became a leading advocate : of both Churchill and Roosevelt,
: in the eastern Atlantic, and in of naval air power. As naval : Hitler chose to declare war on
: October a US destroyer was sunk commander-in-chief he was » the US in support of his Japanese
© bya German torpedo, but the architect of the raid on : allies. At the Arcadia Conference
Pearl Harborin 1941. He in Washington at the end of the
was killed in April 1943 when : year, Britain and the US agreed a
Fighting in the snow
his aircraft, identified by : military strategy that gave priority
A German soldier experiencing the
Russian winter during the invasion
American intelligence, was to defeating the Germans. The
of the Soviet Union. Axis forces shot down over Bougainville : two countries also agreed to unify
were ill-equipped to cope with Island in the Pacific. : their military command under the
the conditions. ' Combined Chiefs of Staff.

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1914-2011 | TECHNOLOGY
AND SUPERPOWERS

WAR IN THE 2
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; Tarawa Saipan {woJima Okinawa

a o 5 . . 1943 1944 1945 1945
At war with China since 1937, the Japanese decided in 1941 to take a gamble : = KEY
Price of the Pacific
:
that, if successful, would secure them an empire in Asia and the Pacific. On The human cost of victory in the Pacific =~ US

7 December, they attacked the US base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, and launched 9—[pee dean irate eas
an invasion of the Philippines and European colonies in Southeast Asia.

The British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia Battle of the Coral Sea. A new phase of the war The Japanese navy was routed at the battles of the
proved easy prey for Japan - the British base at began with an ambitious thrust by the Japanese Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf, while the seizure of
Singapore fell with virtually no resistance. Within navy against Midway Island, which led to heavy the Mariana Islands brought the Japanese within
five months, the Japanese had reached the border losses. From August 1942, the most intense fighting | range of US bomber aircraft. In August 1945,
of British India in Burma. Australia seemed focused around Guadalcanal, which the US defeated in Burma and Okinawa, facing a Soviet
threatened, but Japan's southward push was eventually held. It was not until 1944 that the US had _ invasion of northeast China, and the destruction of
checked by a clash with US aircraft carriers at the built up sufficient strength for a sustained advance. cities by atom bombs, the Japanese surrendered.

Pr,
e -

Sea of
x
eer hr ds Dutch Harbot
Okhotsk
:
2° e gh ~-Kiska’,
u *
Aleutian
5 5
|s\2° S27 3Jun 1942
: = Cathe ee SN ain
sae ee ose ae ane
oe

oea
oS 2 Japan on the offensive
ca The Japanese onslaught, begun in
> December 1941, gave their armies
=
3 control of the Philippines, Indonesia,
iy=
Malaya, and Burma, while their navy
a established a defensive perimeter in
the mid-Pacific. A naval defeat at
Midway in June 1942 ended the
period of Japanese expansion.

Awa
paM
SW

73
Dy \\ N eco Ny

FRENCH Le
attle ofeae
INDOCHINA
ay Midway.

a ‘Hawaiian
_ Islands

- Pearl Har

ow
Borneo

AUSTRALIA
Se
 WAR IN THE PACIFIC

Number of Percentage of
The Big Six
Between 10 bet) 4G | REALIZE
THE TRAGIC
raids city destroyed March and
15 June 1945, six
50%
major Japanese

SIGNIFICANCE
31% cities, including
56% Tokyo and Kobe,
were decimated Sea of Japan

OF THE ATOM
26%
by heavy US (East Sea]
44% bombing raids.

BOMB... WE
33%

THANK GOD
aoe TEAS Onin
3 Burma campaign
eo TO
“Big Six” fire bomb target
US INSTEAD
eos % Atomic bomb target OF OUR '
: 3 es2 Sixty per cent (three in five] of the Attacks on Japan
is Japanese troops who fought in the Taking off from bases in the Mariana Islands, US B-29
_ Burma campaign in 1942-45 lost their lives. Total Superfortress bombers devastated Japanese cities with
Japanese casualties numbered around 200,000, incendiary devices from March 1945. The dropping of E, NE MIE S Ran
compared with the 71,000 British and British atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki [6 and 9
Indian men who were killed and wounded. August 1945] was followed by Japanese surrender.
US president Harry S. Truman, 9 August 1945

X ey,
Sea of ey Att ene
Dutch Harbour
Okhotsk = ue aieutan istands oe
enaed cea a

8-21 Aug 1945|

Allied counterattack
The US army led a fightback against the
Japanese in the southwest Pacific, from
New Guinea to the Philippines. In the
Central Pacific, the US navy and marines
Beijing spearheaded a thrust from the Gilbert
Islands to the Marianas. The loss of
CHINA Okinawa in June 1945 placed Japan under
: imminent threat of an Allied invasion.
Sea
me. East ee
>. China
F Sea oe x
we ‘Okinawa z : ee Midway
we Jun 1945
<1 Apr-22 oe oe
7Mara18 Jul 1944 if a
Formosa :
Pe .
a |
win
De 12 Reb-26 Mar 1945
= coe
PACE. i Hawaiian
Islands
rails "Hong Kong) a % ce OCEAN

renee |
: . ofthe
"Battle Cae
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“Rangoon la 94h
SIAM
, Bangkok
a

FRENCH
INDOCHINA &
2S 4 aS

Hollandia
New
Guinea

Darwin

AUSTRALIA
 Wounded Allied soldiers are carried through the jungle by New Guineans. The harsh
ehvironment was as deadly an enemy as the Japanese. :

ON 20 JANUARY 1942,SS GENERAL : in February after token resistance, ' worried that their country might
441 CAME OUT OF
BATAAN AND I SHALL
REINHARD HEYDRICH (1904-1942) : was a blow to the prestige of the : be next. An attack by Japanese
chaired a conference at Wannsee, : British Empire. About 80,000 : naval aircraft on the port of
a suburb of Berlin. The purpose : British, Australian, and Indian Darwin in Northern Australia

RETURN. 99
of the meeting was to brief : troops were taken prisoner. : in February caused over 500
German civil servants and foreign Determined resistance by ' casualties, and Japanese midget
ministry officials on plans to : American and Filipino soldiers : submarines penetrated Sydney
systematically deport Jews : on the Bataan peninsula in the : Harbour at the start of June. In
: General Douglas MacArthur, US commanding officer, after his
en masse from every country : Philippines ended in April. Large > asharp change of attitude, : escape to Australia following defeat in Bataan, 20 March 1942
in Europe. The Jews were to be : numbers of the troops died as ' Australia began to look on the
transported to camps - chiefly in : prisoners of the Japanese on the : US, rather than Britain, as its
Poland - from which, it was made : brutal Bataan Death March - a © chief military ally. : battles in which both sides : Movement, demanding full
clear, none would return. : 100-km (62-mile] trek that was Amid intense anti-Japanese | suffered heavy losses. In New : independence. Their campaign
: forced upon the malnourished feeling, in February President : Guinea, Australian troops played : of civil disobedience was
Meanwhile, a Japanese tide of
: and disease-ridden men. : Roosevelt signed Executive : aleading role in fighting in hostile : ruthlessly repressed by the British
conquest flowed across Southeast
Asia. The fall of Singapore, a As the Japanese advance swept - Order 9066, which allowed : jungle terrain. : authorities, and more than
: over Dutch-ruled Indonesia and : Japanese Americans living in the In India, the British faced a : 100,000 Indians were arrested,
major British base that was
: British-ruled Burma, Australians ! western United States to be : political as well as a military : including Gandhi. Some Indian
surrendered to the Japanese
: deported to internment camps. : challenge. With Japanese troops ! nationalists joined Subhas
: About 120,000 ethnic Japanese : threatening an invasion from : Chandra Bose’s Indian National
: were interned during the war. : Burma, in August Mohandas » Army, which fought alongside the
As the United States geared up : Gandhi (1869-1948) and other : Japanese, but far more fought for
© for total war, the fight back : National Congress leaders : Britain: around 2.5 million Indians
: against Japan began. The naval ; launched the Quit India : volunteered for the British army.
battles in the Coral Sea in May
: and at Midway in June were duels
SWEDEN ae
: between aircraft carriers, fought North Jungerhof @ ae
: without the Japanese and ines DENMARK Baie
Sea
: American fleets coming within
! sight of each other. The Coral Sea NETHERLANDS eMinsk
Maly Trostinets@
: encounter brought neither side BELGIUM POLAND
: decisive advantage, but Midway Berline @Treblinka USSR
Chelmno @ @ Warsaw. a
: was a disaster for the Japanese
GREATER GERMANY _ Maidanck@ © S9biber
: Navy, which lost four aircraft
Auschwitz- @Belzec
: carriers to American dive- Prague® Birkenau@ Cracow
: bombers and torpedo aircraft. FRANCE CZECH. cone
The Nazis murdered people from many groups, including Slavs, The American victory at Midway Viennae perotistaya ROMANIA
homosexuals, and gypsies, but their treatment of the Jews was : was a turning point, but far from SWITZERLAND — AUSTRIA ROR GARY
without parallel. By 1942 they had embarked upon the total : decisive in itself. When American
extermination of European Jews. To’achieve this “final solution”, : forces landed on Guadalcanal in
the Nazis transported Jews to purpose-built camps equipped with the Solomon Islands in August,
: Nazi death camps KEY
gas chambers. Most were killed within hours of arrival, but some : the Japanese responded with : The Germans built death camps, mostly in eNavilextenrmination
were kept alive and used as slave labour. About 6 million Jews : ferocious determination, landing : occupied Poland, expressly for the killing of camp
were murdered, two-thirds of Europe’s Jewish population. : their own troops to counterattack : Jews. There were many other concentration
: and initiating a series of naval camps in which tens of thousands died.

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322 v
 _ Soviet infantry fight amid the ruined buildings of Stalingrad. German defeat in
_ the city was a decisive turning point in Wortd War II. ;

Naval power : Operation Torch. Opposition

US Navy dive-bombers fly over from French colonial forces
Midway Island in the Pacific. This
loyal to the Vichy
was as th the locatior
ion of a decisive duel government (see 1940) ad
between American and Japanese : i Kec)
aircraft carriers in June 1942. MEE EOD OVENS, ; a
leaving Rommel
trapped between
In the desert war in North > armies to his east
: Africa, after suffering repeated : and west. The
defeats at the hands of Field : Germans responded
Marshal Erwin Rommel (1891- by extending their
1944}, the British Eighth Army, military occupation of
: Yank tank
commanded by General Bernard France to the Vichy-ruled area.
: American-built Grant tanks were
Montgomery [1887-1976], wona : The war being fought in the : supplied to the British in North
great offensive victory at Alamein : Soviet Union (see 1941] came : Africa. This one was used by General
in October-November. : to its climactic turning point at : Montgomery as an observation post.
As Rommel'’s Axis army the Battle of Stalingrad. The
; retreated westward across Libya, : eastward advance of Axis forces ' the city of Stalingrad - of
: Allied forces, including a large had continued through most of symbolic importance because
: contingent of American troops i the year, reaching the Caucasus of its name. German soldiers
commanded by General Dwight D. by July and threatening the vital entered the city in September,
Eisenhower (1890-1969), landed oilfields of Azerbaijan. Hitler but the Soviets defended it
in French North Africa during insisted his troops capture street-by-street amid the
ruined buildings. In November,
3,500 ~ 140 - » Soviet General Giorgi Zhukov
i q : (1896-1974) masterminded a
as) 3.000 J 120 - ; counterattack. Striking from
z north and south, his armies
5 a encircled the Axis forces
= 2,500~ 100- an
s i z i : trapping a quarter of a million
w § 4 i , bee men inside Stalingrad. Ordered
: 2 2.0004 2 804 oS by Hi
< i = : sf » by itler to stay and fight, by
S i = f ee : the end of the year they were
© 1590~ = 3 é i
= hae ay starving, freezing, and short
z @ § of ammunition. The German
c 1,000- > 40~ 3 S commander, Field Marshal
= ( i s eB os Friedrich Paulus, was among
> 500 20-7 = : the 90,000 men who lived to
: i A : surrender the following
o- & o-& ‘Mie : February- and one ofonly
WARSHIPS PLANES a handful who then survived
: ieee ; :
: American industrial miracle =uviet imprisonment.
pele
The output of US factories and shipyards soared during World War II.
: The number of workers employed in shipbuilding alone rose from
: around 100,000 in 1940 to 1.7 million late in the war.

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US President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill meet at French Resistance fighters pose for a group portrait. The Resistance carried out acts
Casablanca in January to discuss the conduct of the war. of sabotage, gathered intelligence, and mounted guerrilla warfare operations.

IN JANUARY 1943, Franklin D.

Roosevelt met British prime
<a at?
_ pe
Casablanca
The general release of the film 44 GERMANY IS A FORTRESS,
minister Winston Churchill for
a conference in Casablanca,
Casablanca was timed to take
advantage of the widely reported BUT IT IS A FORTRESS
WITHOUT A ROOF. 99
Casablanca Conference.
Morocco, which set the future
course of World War II in Europe.
Britain persuaded the US to plan fought hard against the Germans,
Franklin D. Roosevelt, US President, 1944
for an invasion of Sicily, knowing but were also actively hostile to
this meant an invasion of northern the Chetnik guerrillas, led by Serb
France would have to be nationalist and monarchist Draza disaster at Stalingrad, Axis forces totalled over
postponed until 1944. The Allied Mihailovic. In France, Resistance were able to mount a successful more than 6,
leaders also agreed that their air leader Jean Moulin strove to unite counteroffensive at Kharkov in aircraft. The
forces would mount a combined rival factions, but in May he was the spring. This left the Soviets on 5 July, initiating the largest
bomber offensive against Germany. arrested, tortured by Gestapo chief holding an exposed bulge of tank battle in history. So\
At the end of the conference, Klaus Barbie, and died in captivity. territory, or salient, at Kursk.
Roosevelt announced that the Spring 1943 brought the climax German generals planned to
Allies would accept nothing less of the struggle against German attack from north and south to
than the “unconditional U-boats known as the Battle of trap the Soviet forces inside the
surrender” of their enemies. the Atlantic. In March, the Allies salient and destroy them. But
The surrender of Axis forces at lost 260,000 tonnes of merchant deputy supreme commander
Stalingrad (see 1942] in February to conscript French men to work in shipping to German submarine Georgi Zhukov anticipated the
was a massive setback for : German factories. To avoid forced attacks and there seemed a real German offensive and prepared a
Germany, but the Germans labour, thousands of young men risk that Britain’s lifeline of formidable defensive system. The
remained in occupation of most : slipped away to form guerrilla seaborne supplies would be forces assembled at Kursk were mountedeS a -scalei invasion
of Europe. In many places, bands in remote rural regions. severed. German U-boats huge — the two sides together of Sicily. US and British armies
armed resistance movements Resistance movements were operated in groups known as
contested the occupation. A plagued by political divisions. In “wolf packs’, co-ordinated by
turning point for the resistance in : the Balkans, partisans led by the radio. But then, a combination of
France was the decision in 1943 communist Tito (see panel, below) factors, including increased use
of aircraft on ocean patrols,
JOSIP BROZ TITO (1892-1980) intelligence frorn decrypted
German naval messages, and the GeorgeS. Pattenand British
Born in Croatia, Josip Broz equipping of convoy escorts with general Bernard Screen
adopted the name Tito as a improved radar and radio direction-
communist activist in the 1930s. finding equipment, tilted the
After the German occupation of balance against the submarines
Yugoslavia in 1941, Tito led a By May, U-boat losses were so
guerrilla movement that took high that submarine commander
control of the country in 1945. Admiral Karl Donitz had to
He made Yugoslavia a withdraw his forces from the lin . After a vote
of no
communist state, but resisted Atlantic. The U-boat offensive was confidence from the Fascist
Soviet badge
the dominance of the Soviet never to regain its momentum. Grand Council, @ i
This badge was awarded to Soviet
Union. He remained Yugoslav By far the heaviest land fighting dismissed by King \
tank crewmen during World War II
president until his death. of 1943 was on Germany’s The Soviets lost around 5,000 tanks
eastern front. Despite the at Kursk in summer 1943
 eg
oe
- ——=—E.
ES i . %
~ wai =
Men of the US Coast Guard cutter Spencer watch the explosion of a depth
charge that sank a German U-boat in the Atlantic on 17 April.

Women at war Flying fortress

A US poster suggests that working The crew of an
in munitions factories can be as American Eighth Air
glamorous as joining the various Force B-17 Flying
uniformed womens services. Fortress at a base in
England prepare for
a bombing mission
Germany came under heavy air over Germany. The
attack through 1943. RAF Bomber Eighth Air Force lost
: Command, equipped with the new 26,000 men between
Lancaster bomber, achieved a 1942 and 1945.
: spectacular success
in the
: “Dambusters” raid in May. Using
“bouncing bombs”, Lancasters prevented food
: made a low-level night attack on from reaching
four Ruhr dams, breaching two of the starving.
: them. In July, bombers saturated In Asia, 60,000
: the port city of Hamburg with Allied prisoners of
|: incendiary devices. In hot, dry war (POWs) and
: weather conditions, separate fires The shortages experienced by almost 200,000 Asian labourers
bere sans blended into a single immense German civilians were replicated, were forced to build a railway
: firestorm. More than 37,000 people = in greater or lesser degree, in all from Thailand to supply Japanese
= were killed, most of them civilians. European countries, including troops in Burma. Around 16,000
NAVY NURSE While the RAF bombed Germany : neutral Spain. In Britain, labour POWs and 90,000 Asian workers
_. bynight, the US Army Air Force : shortages led to the conscription died while they were building it.
: began a daylight bombing of women for work in civil
: campaign. The US bombers, : defence, military auxiliary services, 650
: bristling with guns, were expected factories, and in agriculture. In Americans
RED CROSS
i tu fight off attacks by German the US, women workers were
: aircraft and drop bombs on : employed in heavy industrial jobs
: targets using technologically : traditionally reserved for men.
is
|} advanced bombsights. In practice, Black workers also took jobs 13,000
| | the B-17s and B-24s suffered : that in peacetime were reserved AUSTRALIANS

WWoW O rkER a alarmingly heavy losses and for whites. This led to racial
precision bombing proved hard to tensions that erupted into

man ORDNANCE Wo achieve under combat conditions. rioting in Detroit in June. White
The impact of bombing on the and black mobs clashed, and 34
German civilian population was : people were killed before federal 18,000
Marshal Pietro Badoglio : from captivity. They set him up as : huge. Apart from the casualties, : troops restored order. DUTCH
(1871-1956), signed an armistice : ruler of a puppet Italian Social : hundreds of thousands were One of the worst tragedies of
with the Allies in early September. Republic, which was founded in : made homeless and there were 1943 was the Bengal famine that
:; But the Germans had time to take : the town of Salo. As Allied forces : severe food shortages. Over two killed more than a million people
Building the Burma Railway
: over key positions in Italy and : fought their way northward from » million children were evacuated in British India. Responsibility for
Alongside Asian forced labourers,
defend the peninsula against Naples toward Rome, the from the cities. Many factories this catastrophe is disputed, but : chiefly British, Australian, and Dutch
Allied invasion forces. German Badoglio government joined the : were relocated underground to Prime Minister Churchill refused prisoners of war were used by the
: paratroopers rescued Mussolini =: Allies, declaring war on Germany. » avoid the bombing. : to allow shipping space, which Japanese to build the railway.

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320
iia THE NUMBER OF ALLIED
TROOPS THAT LANDED ON
THE NORMANDY BEACHES
THE NUMBER OF ALLIED
CASUALTIES DURING
THE LANDINGS

American soldiers wade ashore from a landing craft during the invasion of Normandy
on 6 June. The landings began the liberation of Occupied France.

IN EARLY 1944 THERE WAS HEAVY : movement (see 1942] Burma Star : exploded, devastating the room The breakout of Allied forces
FIGHTING IN ITALY as German : also suppressed, the This military medal was : and killing four people, but the from Normandy in August
troops blocked the Allied advance : British had reasserted awarded to British and : dictator survived unscathed. : (see p.315) led rapidly to the
Commonwealth soldiers : Stauffenberg and some of the : liberation of Paris. After
on Rome. In January, Allied : their authority over
for service in the Burma : French Resistance fighters began
seaborne landings at Anzio, : the subcontinent. : other leading conspirators were
campaign between 1947
behind the Germans’ defensive : Meanwhile, Allied ' shot by firing squad; thousands : an uprising in the city on
and 1945.
Gustav Line, failed to break the : preparations for an ; more were arrested and tortured, 19 August, General Charles de
deadlock. In February, Allied : invasion of Occupied ! many suffering lingering deaths. : Gaulle’s Free French forces,
commanders decided to bomb the : France turned soldiers arrived off shore. : Field Marshal Erwin Rommel : fighting as part of Eisenhower's
medieval abbey at Monte Cassino, : southern England into It was the largest : (1891-1944) was also implicated : Allied armies, raced for Paris. A
a key point in the Gustav Line, : an armed camp. Operation amphibious operation in : in the plot, but he was permitted column of French tanks reached
but this much-criticized act of : Overlord,
was commanded history. Three of the five : to commit suicide. : central Paris on 25 August.
desecration was also ineffectual. : by General Dwight D. landing beaches,
Monte Cassino eventually fell : Eisenhower (1890- codenamed Sword,
to the Polish infantry in May, : 1969). The Allies chose Juno, and Utah, were
allowing Rome to be liberated : Normandy as the target taken with relative ease
the following month. » for their invasion. by British, Canadian,
In the spring, British Indian : Postponed because and US troops, but
troops withstood a Japanese : of bad weather, the the British at Gold
attempt to invade northeast India : Normandy landings took place beach and especially the
from Burma. The Japanese : on6 June, referred to as D-Day. Americans at Omaha beach
offensive was so successfully : During the night, 18,000 airborne : suffered substantial losses before
repulsed that Allied forces were troops landed by parachute or : securing ground.
able to mount their own offensive - glider behind the German coastal Two ingenious innovations, the
to retake much of Burma later : defences. At dawn, a fleet of 5,000 : Mulberry floating harbour and
in the year. With the Quit India : ships carrying around 130,000 ; the Pluto undersea oil pipeline,
' allowed supplies to reach Allied
English Channel
: forces once ashore. A gruelling
e Cherbourg ; : struggle ensued to break out of
US 1ST ARMY BRITISH 2ND ARMY
: Normandy, and German resistance
sy is
: was not overcome until August.
-
UTAH
OMAHA
LS
: Meanwhile, Adolf Hitler
StMére SG : (1889-1945) survived an
Eglisee. er : assassination attempt. A plot
8 = Ube FO ae
‘ 4 Mh & Lion-sur=Mer was mounted by patriotic German
Pointe du Hoc Bayeuxe
ie
‘
ert Na3
: officers and officials to overthrow
Vierville Aecammanches| a, : the Fuhrer and seek peace with
eCaen ; the Western allies. On 20 July,
FRANCE : Colonel Claus Schenk von
: Stauffenberg (1907-1944) carried
: a bomb in his briefcase to a
D-Day Landings
The Allies landed on five Normandy
KEY : meeting at Hitler's headquarters
beaches - Sword, Juno, Gold, Utah, — Allied landing/advance : at Rastenburg, East Prussia. He
and Omaha. Allied troops also Allied parachute landing ; placed the bomb under a table
parachuted in behind enemy lines. - Allied front line 7 June 1944 : at which Hitler was sitting. It

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 44. AN OPERATION
OF THE MOST
EXTREME DARING. 99
General Alfred Jodl, Chief of Operations on Hitler's counteroffensive

Soldiers of US 7th Armored Division patrol the snowy Belgian town of St Vith, a site
of fierce fighting during the German Ardennes offensive in December.

: As the Germans withdrew, the : of thousands subjected to public : determination. Flying bomb
- celebrations in Paris began, and : humiliation - for exarnple, women : In the battle for The German unmanned V-1 flying
: so too did reprisals against : were paraded with shaved heads : the island of Saipan bomb was propelled by a primitive
: alleged collaborators. Around ' — before De Gaulle formeda : between 15 June and jet engine and packed with
explosives. In summer 1944
: 9,000 French people were provisional government 9 July, almost the entire
more than 100 a day were
summarily executed and tens : and restored order. : garrison of 30,000 Japanese fired at London.
At the beginning of August the : soldiers were killed. The
: Polish resistance movement Japanese Imperial Navy was
: Liberation of Paris
: Parisians celebrate the liberation staged an uprising against the : almost wiped out in two great : mounting
; of their city, and welcome the return : Germans in Warsaw. The Soviet : battles - the Philippine Sea in : dominance of Allied
: of General de Gaulle to France as : Red Army had almost reached June, and Leyte Gulf in October. : air forces. The V1 flying
! leader of the Free French. : the city, after pushing westward Facing near certain death in : bombs launched against
: through the summer, but Stalin : unequal combat with superior : London caused heavy casualties, Ardennes, which became known
had no desire to help the Poles, : US forces, some Japanese naval : but had no decisive effect, nor did : as the Battle of the Bulge.
who were mostly anti-Russian : pilots mounted “kamikaze” : the V2 rockets, the world’s first : German tanks broke through the
) } and anti-communist. The Red : suicide attacks, deliberately : ballistic missiles. Around 3,000 : US front line and headed for
: Army stopped short of Warsaw, : crashing their aircraft into US : V2s were launched, mostly at : Antwerp. Stiffening resistance,
: and did little for two months : warships. These tactics proved : London and Antwerp. They arrived : especially by US airborne troops
: while the Polish uprising was : without warning and there was : at Bastogne, was followed by a
: crushed by Nazi troops. Several 1 et BY : i} | no defence against them, but they =: well-organized Allied counter-
: hundred thousand Poles were Angee | _: were inaccurate, and failed to : attack. The German tanks ran
: killed. After the survivors Sere - = have the impact Hitler desired. : out of fuel, and improved weather
: surrendered in early October, +8 2 a 1 In December, the German : allowed Allied aircraft to strike in
: the Germans destroyed Warsaw. pare 5 | Fuhrer made his last gamble with : support of ground forces. Hitler's
: In the west in September, with po & ’ a surprise offensive in the : last throw of the dice had failed.
: the Allies in control of most of ate 6 H
: Belgium, British general Bernard rz - 250- Need Pine 1738 Ue a
s , : Montgomery (1887-1976) devised ]
s : a planto end the war quickly by +t bard
: _ an airborne invasion ofthe 4 a 7) i
° : occupied Netherlands. British, { NON NNE : i
Q : US, and Polish paratroopers Ehavey iorately : ou,
o 190 |i
: s i : For good luck, some Japanese
_ attempted to seize and hold a : servicemen carried their national ci j
series of bridges that would allow flag with a special prayer written e 100 1
: Allied tanks to advance into : onit, asking forasafe return. 2 i
northern Germany. The last 50 i
; bridge at Arnhem was not taken, = so effective that they were i
‘ however, and the operation failed | adopted as a form of mass attack, 0 ee ete,
: leaving the Netherlandsto suffer : using hundreds of virtually AT Baes
a harsh winter under the Nazis. : untrained rookie pilots. NAVAL UNITS
The US offensive in the Pacific Facing defeat in Europe, Hitler
US and Japanese naval strengths
gathered momentum through the : put his faith in secret weapons. : A combination of vastly productive
year (see pp.320-21]. Outnumbered The first
jetaircraft, the German US shipyards and heavy Japanese KEY A Aircraft carriers
and militarily outclassed, the ' Messerschmitt 262, entered the = losses enabled the US to win naval BH us B Battleships
: Japanese fought with suicidal ‘ conflict, but failed to reverse the : dominance in the Pacific. Japan S Submarines

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 44 THIS IS YOUR VICTORY! IT [5
THE VICTORY OF THE CAUSE OF
FREEDOM IN EVERY LAND. 99

Exuberant Londoners celebrate on Victory in Europe (VE) Day, 8 May, after the
announcement of the final unconditional surrender of German forces.

IN FEBRUARY 1945, JOSEPH : Landing on > on 9-10 March killed at least

STALIN, FRANKLIN ROOSEVELT, : Iwo Jima : 80,000 people.
AND WINSTON CHURCHILL met for © A™erican President Roosevelt did not
the last time at a conference at | Marines are : live to see the defeat of Germany
: pinned down by : and Japan. The news of his death
Yalta in the Crimea. Stalin agreed
; Japanese fire on : on 12 April came as a shock
to hold democratic elections in : a beach ofthe
Poland - a promise he did not : to the American people. The
: volcanic island of
intend to keep. To aid the Soviet Iwo Jima during ' inexperienced Harry
S. Truman,
troops invading Germany from the the landings on : vice-president for less than three
east, the Western leaders agreed | 19 February. : months, took over at the White
to step up bombing of German House, facing formidable
rail centres, including Dresden. : responsibilities.
On the night of 13-14 February, © their most The Allies had agreed that
Britain's RAF dropped explosive : graphic : the Soviet Union should have the
and incendiary bombs on : experience of : honour of capturing Berlin, and
Dresden, causing a firestorm that : Nazi barbarity : the heavy casualties that went
destroyed the city’s historic centre ' at Belsen, a : with it. Hitler was determined
and killed some 25,000 people. concentration camp in Saxony. : suffered 26,000 casualties : to fight to the end, although
There was little pity for the Liberating the camp in mid-April, : capturing the island of lwo Jima, : much of the defence of
Germans, as the liberation of : British troops found thousands of : avolcanic rock in the Pacific : Germany had devolved upon
the death camps exposed Nazi : prisoners dying of starvation, : defended to the death by an : adolescents and the elderly.
crimes. The major extermination mistreatment, and disease, and 18,000-strong Japanese garrison. » While American and Soviet
centres, including Auschwitz, bodies dumped in mass graves or The American invasion of the : troops advancing across
were liberated by the Soviet Red left unburied. Cinema newsreel » much larger Okinawa Island, » Germany from west and
Army. The Western Allies met : footage of Belsen convinced most : launched in April, resulted in : east met amicably at the
: people that the war against : a bloodbath. Japanese soldiers : Elbe River, the Red Army
» Germany had been justified. ' as uSual fought to the death and : fought street by street to
The human cost of the war with : tens of thousands of the island’s : take Berlin. As the
: Japan continued to mount. In : civilian population also died, - Soviets drew near to his
: February-March, US Marines many by suicide. The Allied fleet bunker, on 30 April
: offshore was battered by mass Hitler shot himself.
- kamikaze attacks (see 1944). : By then, former Italian
Dresden in ruins Meanwhile, American B-29 : dictator Benito
Inhabitants of the German city of
: bombers began the systematic : Mussolini
was also
Dresden attempt to cope with the
: destruction of Japanese cities. : dead, executed by
aftermath of Allied bombing that
created a firestorm in the city. : An incendiary raid on Tokyo > communist partisans.

THE
ESTIMATED NUMBER OF
“DISPLACED PERSONS”
IN EUROPE IN 1945

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A formally dressed Japanese delegation prepares to sign the surrender papers on board
the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September.

: between the Western Allies

H KEY i f ;
i He : and the Soviet Union were
' Military toll : Stali dt
15 f 6 Civilian tolt eee catia aa
j iS : Join in the war on Japan. At
wR i ~ : the end of the conference the
a i > » Allies issued the Potsdam
cet ; we : Declaration, calling on Japan to
=
: =
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= : surrender immediately or face
o i = $ : “prompt and utter destruction”.
2 i € 8 : The Japanese government
a i| . iS E ' rejected the calltosurrender
a) i E rs) : as of no important value”.
i < 5 4 = 3 : , :
a) } oO c e : Preparations for dropping atom = =
' i= ® - : bombs on Japanese cities were The American B-29 bomber,
mo] oO : <
€ = Z > :; well advanced even before the Enola Gay, piloted by Colonel
t 2 = £ & S$ © first atomic test. The first bomb Paul Tibbets, took off from
0 i Tn, BO sea “mi. = ~was dropped on Hiroshima as Tinian Island in the Marianas
: World War II casualties soon as it was ready and weather at 2.45 on the morning of
More civilians than servicemen died in World War II. The Soviet : conditions permitted (see panel, 6 August carrying an atom
Union and Germany had the heaviest military death tolls. Poland : right). Three days later, on bomb. It dropped the bomb
lost one in five of its population, including most Polish Jews. :9 August, a second bomb on the Japanese port-city
: devastated the city of Nagasaki, of Hiroshima at 8.15. Heat,
: His body and that of his mistress socialism outweighing the popular : killing at least 35,000 people. The light, and the explosion killed
Clara Petacci were hung upside appeal of Churchill's war record. : Soviet invasion of Manchuria some 70,000 people instantly.
:; down from meat hooks ina Milan On 16 July, the New Mexican : was a further shock to Japan. The lingering effects of
: petrol station. desert was lit up by the world’s Since June, the Japanese radiation raised total deaths
: The surrender of German first atomic explosion. This was government had been split to an estimated 140,000.
: forces was complete by 8 May, the culmination of the top-secret : between those who wanted a
: sparking heartfelt victory Manhattan Project, a feat of : negotiated peace and militarists
: celebrations in Allied countries. science and engineering that had : insisting ona fight to the death. : surrender if the status of the
: Although war continued with cost America $2 billion, spent on : On 10 August Emperor Hirohito : emperor was guaranteed.
Japan, the British Labour Party presidential authority without _ intervened decisively in favour : Although Truman refused to offer
withdrew from the wartime Congressional approval. of the peace faction. The : any such assurance, on 15 August
coalition to fight a general i The explosion produced Japanese agreed to : Hirohito told his people the war
: election against the Conservatives : temperatures higher than : had developed “not necessarily to
: led by Churchill. To general those at the core of the sun. : Japan's advantage”, and that he
: astonishment, Labour won a The successful atomic Time of death : was making peace.
: landslide victory, their promise test coincided with the A pocket watch The war had ended with
: of awelfare state and democratic gathering of Allied retrieved from the : unexpected suddenness. Dealing
leaders fora body of a citizen : with the aftermath of devastated
of Hiroshima
om: conference at : cities, broken economies, occupied
Raising the red flag records the exact
Taken by a Red Army photographer, Potsdam, ¢ moment when : enemy countries, refugees
this photo reconstructs the moment Berlin suburb. the atom bomb ( displaced persons’ ], and war
when soldiers raised the Soviet flag : Although exploded above __criminals posed almost as great
on the Reichstag building in Berlin. differences the city. : a challenge as the war itself.

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 Jewish refugees make their way to Palestine. Thousands attempted this journey before
Britain stopped allowing illegal entry into Palestine.

REPRESENTATIVES OF 51 NATIONS
BEGAN THE YEAR BY FORMING
: The Soviet Union tightened its grip
: on Europe by creating “satellite 46 AN IRON CURTAIN
HAS DESCENDED ACROSS
the United Nations (UN) General : states”. Communist governments
Assembly, the successor to the : were set up in Czechoslovakia,

THE CONTINENT. 99
League of Nations (see 1919]. Its : Bulgaria, Albania, Poland,
aims were to provide a forum for : Romania, and Hungary. In France
the nations of the world and to : and Italy, communist parties
uphold peace and security. ‘ narrowly missed seizing control.
The peace after World War II was Tensions increased in India Winston Churchill, British politician, 5 March 1946
short-lived, as relations between : following Britain's declaration that
Western allies and the Soviet : India would gain independence
Union continued to cool. In March, : after the war. The leader of the : 16 August, Jinnah declared a : longer allow illegal entry into
Winston Churchill summed up : Muslim League, Muhammad Ali : Direct Action Day, a mass protest ! Palestine, igniting a diplomatic war.
the threat of communism ina : Jinnah (1876-1948), demanded a : against British proposals for an France remained determined
speech that described an ‘iron : separate Muslim state, while : all-India government. Violent © to hold onto its colonies in
curtain’ falling across Europe. : Hindus opposed this idea. On : fighting erupted and thousands : Indochina, beginning one of
' died. In response, Mohandas - the longest guerrilla wars in
: Dead Sea Scrolls
Faroe Islands : Karamchad Gandhi (1869-1948) ; history. In November, clashes
: The discovery of the Dead Sea
(to Denmark)
: began a campaign for reconciliation : intensified between the Viet : Scrolls was one of the most
: between Hindus and Muslims. ' Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh : important archaeological finds of the
! The US granted independence : (1890-1969), and the Far East : century. The scrolls are fragments of
: to the Philippines in July, though : Expeditionary Corps, led by : manuscripts of the Old Testament.
: the gift had strings attached: the : France. The First Indochina
: US kept sovereignty over several . War, involving the rebellion of : The Argentine former secretary
: military bases, the Philippine : Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos : of labour, General Juan Domingo
' economy was dependent on US : against France, was declared » Peron (1895-1974), was installed
THE NETHERLANDS Si), : markets, anda parity” clause : on 19 December (see 1954). : as president of Argentina on
BELGIUM gave US citizens equal economic : 4 June. With strong working-class
ve : rights with Filipinos. : support and military backing, he
SWITZERLAND ___
: The drive for liberation in Africa : promised social security and
FRANCE H Q ; : aoe
oe 9, f Bagh Gan ; continued with the establishment ; :H higher wages.
ee : ;
Baers <p BULGARIA : . :
eS orsica : 4 : of the Pan-African Federation by Technicians at the University of
§& spain Seine ; oR : Kwame Nkrumah, ; from Ghana ; :P Wvania b began operating
: Pennsylvania rati the
& M GREECE and Jomo Kenyatta, from Kenya. _ first practical electronic digital
a GIBRALTAR oe,con They aimed to promote African computer. The machine was first
fain ‘eRes Cyprus SWRI, i Unity and end racial discrimination. : : used for military purposes. It
Malta Hea ee oN — In Palestine, conferences were : occupied 167 sqm (1,800 sqft),
ISRAEL | \RAG held to resolve the growing crisis : had 18,000 vacuum tubes, and
eet eg
= of : refugees
admitting Jewish | — weighed almost 50 tonnes.
; into Palestine, but no agreement :
; SOMES AIT was reached. The problem was
The division of post-war Europe ; dedinca P hawt : Juan Peron
After the war, Britain, France, and the US occupied eae ee bee a : Fiercely nationalistic, anti-US, and
West Germany, while the Soviet Union controlled East _ boats carrying refugees were : anti-communist, Peron pledged a
Germany. Lithuania, Latvia, Moldavia, and Estonia : blocked by British warships. : “Third Way” between capitalism
were absorbed into the USSR. : Britain told the US it would no : and communism.

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 en
The UN General Assembly in session in Central Hall, London. The General Assembly
is the only part of the UN where all members have equal representation. St arenas aoe
@

LORD LOUIS MOUNTBATTEN WAS : Therulers of Kashmir were left : war had broken out between : Anne Frank's diary
APPOINTED THE LAST VICEROY : with a momentous decision: to communists and the royalist The publication of
of India to oversee the end of become independent, or to join government. In response, 400 Het Achterhuis (The tstihye pride cf 4 Z ,
4 “ teh Fhe ame dtike Yillrhen
British imperial rule. He India or Pakistan. In October, war million dollars were sent to Greece Secret Annex] on Be heees Beatin ref, tate 7h
BN Aey thice Que’ Cts Z
believed that the only way forward 5 June introduced
broke out between India and to help end the communist threat.
Anne Frank, a young
for the country was to partition it, Pakistan after Pakistan President Truman’s doctrine : Jewish girl whose
dividing it in two parts based on supported a Muslim insurgency in pledged support to all states diary chronicled her
the religion of those areas. In Kashmir. India agreed to a request struggling to uphold democracy : years hiding from the
July, the British passed the Indian for armed assistance from against the threat of communism. Nazis in Amsterdam
Independence Act, dividing the Kashmir’s maharaja, in return for With fears that all of Europe during World War II.
Raj into India (Hindu and Sikh) the accession of Kashmir to India could fall to communist regimes,
and Pakistan (Muslim), leaving once the hostilities between India the US secretary of state George
Kashmir to determine its own and Pakistan ceased (see 1949]. Marshall (1880-1959) introduced The crisis in Palestine (see : While the British organized their
fate. Pakistan was split into East After six years of war, Britain's a plan to help Europe's shattered 1946) continued to worsen as : withdrawal from the region,
and West Pakistan, with India status had diminished, and the economies recover from the war, Britain referred the situation to Arab and Jewish communities
separating the two areas. On US emerged as the only power helping victors and vanquished the UN. A plan was devised to clashed and terrorist attacks
14 August, Pakistan gained capable of matching the Soviet alike. The European Recovery partition the area into separate intensified (see 1948).
independence, and Muhammad : Union. The “Truman Doctrine” Program, or “Marshall Plan”, _Jewish and Arab states. The UN
Ali Jinnah became its first : was established on 12 March, provided fuel, raw materials, loans, General Assembly agreed to this
governor-general. The next day when Winston Churchill requested food, and machinery, aiming to resolution on 29 November,
an independent India was born. US aid in Greece, where a civil help kick-start economic growth. but it was unpopular with Arabs.
Partition set off waves of violence
and displaced millions of Hindus
and Sikhs who had lived in what
was now Pakistani territory, as well
as Muslims who lived in newly
Indian territory.

PAKISTAN

The partition of India

Partition split the former British
Raj into two separate new States:
India and Pakistan. Pakistan was Uprooted by partition
formed of two territories, 1,700km Partition caused the largest mass migration in history - around 10 million people were displaced.
(1,050 miles) apart. These Sikh refugees are leaving the Muslim section of the Punjab

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ae
Mohandas Gandhi lies in state after his assassination by a Hindu fanatic
who blamed him for the partition of India.

: the independent states of the National Health Service

THE CROWNING ACHIEVEMENT : He based his policy on a system UN PARTITION
: PLAN 1947 = = : North and South America. They © (NHS) on 5 July.
OF MOHANDAS GANDHI (b.1868) : that became known as apartheid : LEBANON —
was realized when India won and enforced a racial hierarchy proposed : pledged to fight communism, With World War II over, the
; Arab State : Olympic committee (IOC) could
independence in 1947. However, ' privileging white South Africans : increase security, and aid
: proposed SN RUA : once again select a nation to host
the concessions he made to : (see 1994). Jewish State
: economic growth.
Anti-colonial sentiment grew Harry Truman (1884-1972] the Olympic Games. London was
Muslims led to his assassination : | proposed
: in the Malay Peninsula after International : had steered the US through : chosen, but six years of war had
by a Hindu fanatic who blamed
: World War Il. Groups of guerrillas
zone
: the end of World War Il and the : left Britain with shortages of food
him for the partition of India, even
: took to the jungle, led by : beginning of the Cold War. : and clothing, and the 1948
though Gandhi had bitterly
Mediterranean : However, he was not expected to : celebrations became known as
opposed the splitting up of the ‘ communist fanatic Chin Peng Sea
subcontinent. The news of : (b.1924]. In February, there were ; win the 1948 presidential : the “Austerity Games’. These
Gandhi's assassination had a : terrorist attacks on European :
Gaza Strip
: election against the Republican : Olympics saw the first defection
profound effect throughout the : settlers, and later an “emergency” : Thomas E. Dewey, due to his : from the communist East to
world, and a state of mourning : was declared. © pro-civil rights policies, which the West when the head of the
was declared in India. All-Korean elections had been : had alienated many southern : Czechoslovakian gymnastics
South Africa held May elections : called for in 1948, but Kim Il Sung : Democrats. As the campaign : team, Marie Provaznikova,
that saw the National Party take : (1912-94), the leader of North : continued, he won the following : refused to return home.
power from Jan Smuts United : Korea, persuaded the Soviets not : of the people and was re-elected Czechoslovakia had been
Party. Dr D.F. Malan (1874-1959) : to allow the UN north of the 38th : in one of the biggest election : moving towards democracy after
became prime minister, and : parallel (the boundary between | upsets in history. : World War II, but the Soviets did
formed the first government : the northern zone of the Korean In Britain, the debate over free : not intend to allow any state
dominated by Afrikaners. : Peninsula, occupied by the USSR, : healthcare had been ongoing : within their sphere of influence
Immediately after the election, : and the southern zone, controlled : since the 19th century. After : to become a democracy.
the government began © by US forces}, believing he could : Labour's election victory in 1945, » Communists, supported by the
: Plan for Palestine : Soviets, carried out a coupin
institutionalizing segregation. : not possibly win a free election. : Aneurin Bevan (1897-1960)
: The UN General Assembly proposed
Malan believed that Africans : As aresult, a month after the : to split Palestine into Jewish and : presented a plan to provide free ' Prague, in February. The Czech
threatened the prosperity and : South was granted independence : Arab states, with Jerusalem under : healthcare to all for the first : president, Edvard Benes
purity of the Afrikaner culture. : as the Republic of Korea, on : international administration. » time. Bevan formally launched : {1884-1948}, was removed from
- 15 August, the Democratic
: People’s Republic of Korea » 15 May. Five Arab armies from
: (DPRK] was proclaimed, with Kim : Jordan, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon,
* THE DIVISIONAe COUNCIL OF THE CAPE
: as premier. On 12 October, the : and Iraq immediately invaded the The founder of the state of
WHITE AREA BY OROER SECRETARY
: Soviet Union declared Kim’s
: regime the only lawful government
: new Jewish state but were
: repulsed. The Israeli army
Israel, Ben-Gurion was born
in Poland and emigrated to
: crushed pockets of resistance Palestine in 1906. He became

BLANKE GEBIED
DIE AFDELINGSRAAD VAN_ DIE KAAP : on the peninsula. By 1949,
: North Korea was a fully-fledged : and extended its borders in what an active supporter of the
OPTLAS SEKRETARIS ' communist dictatorship. : became known as the first H struggle for an independent
The UN had devized a plan to : Arab-Israeli War (see 1949). The | Jewish state and was expelled
: split Palestine into Jewish and ' realization that the Israeli nation from Palestine in 1915 due
: Arab-nations, but it was not : might survive increased anti- _ to his nationalist activities.
: adhered to when the state of : Israeli and anti-Jewish sentiment During World War II, he helped
Segregation sign : throughout the Arab world.
: Israel was proclaimed by its first Jews fleeing from the Nazi
Under apartheid, separate residency :
areas were created, and social prime minister, David Ben- The Organization of American holocaust. Ben-Gurion retired
contact between different races was : Gurion, on 14 May. The last : States (OAS) came into being from politics in 1970.
strictly prohibited. British troops withdrew on on 30 April. Its members were
 44 | KNOW OF NO OTHER MAN IN OURTIME, R Chicago. Daily

DEFEATS TRUMAN
Tribune Xl

OR INDEED IN RECENT HISTORY, WHO SO

CONVINCINGLY DEMONSTRATED THE POWER
OF THE SPIRIT OVER MATERIAL THINGS. yy:
Sir Stafford Cripps, British statesman, on Gandhi, 1948

Harry Truman holds up a newspaper that prematurely

announced Thomas Dewey had wontthe election.

: power and replaced by the leader The Berlin Airlift

: of the Czech communist party, : Acrowd of Berliners watch a
: Klement Gottwald (1896-1953; : Douglas C-54 Skymaster plane
: see 1989). This was a tense period carrying vital supplies to the Allied
: sectors of the city.
: in Czechoslovakia. Jan Masaryk,
: the Czech foreign minister, had
: tried to assure the Soviets that a : road and rail links between the
democratic Czechoslovakia posed : city and the West in June. The
: no security threat. However, he Allies responded to the “Berlin
: had been in favour of accepting : Blockade” by organizing a
: aid from the Marshall Plan [see : massive airlift to supply the
1947), which Stalin refused to people of Berlin, and the blockade
: endorse. On 10 March, the Czech : was lifted in May 1949.
; government reported that The end of World War II brought
: Masaryk had committed suicide. mass movements of refugees as
: Despite suspicions that the millions of displaced people fled
: communists had murdered : or were expelled from Eastern
: Masaryk, nothing was proven. : Europe. Many were treated
: Berlin was divided into four : brutally and found it hard to
: Zones after World War II, under ; assimilate. In response, the UN
: an agreement between Britain, : adopted the Universal
: France, the US, and Russia (see : Declaration of Human Rights,
: 1961). Berlin as a whole was an : which guaranteed a “right to seek
: enclave within Soviet-occupied © and to enjoy in other countries
: East Germany. The Soviets were : asylum from persecution”, as
! determined to force Western : well as the Convention on the
: powers out of Berlin and, in the : Prevention and Punishment of
: first crisis of the Cold War, cut : the Crime of Genocide.

J fresh yeast for baking

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i g salt Feeding Berlin
iG fat At the height of the
meat and fish Berlin blockade,
one plane reached
"| cereal
Berlin every 30
dehydrated vegetables seconds. This
dehydrated potatoes graph shows the
sugar quantity of food
that was flown in
5 ‘a Semeeenn wn mes ; = = oe orne = daily to sustain
£0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Berlin's
2million
i FOOD WEIGHT (TONNES) citizens.

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 44 ...A ROOF STRETCHING OVER
THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 99
Emest Bevin, British foreign secretary, describing
the North Atlantic Treaty

z
At the signing of the North Atlantic Tr eaty in Washington DC, on 4 April,
US president Harry S. Truman gave an address on its significance.

: Germany. West Germany held the Mao Zedong proclaimed the i as the capital of the Republic.
NORWAY
GERMANY WEN INDS ean : first free elections since 1932, and founding of the People’s Republic : On 26 September 1950,
ICELAND _— LATVIA © the Christian Democrats under : of China on 1 October. : Indonesia was admitted
UNITED LITHUANIA
CANADA KINGDOM___= POLAND : Dr Konrad Adenauer (1876-1967) The Dutch finally gave up their : tothe UN (see 1965}.
NETHERLANDS wr CZECH REPUBLIC = won a small majority. : struggle over Indonesia in New 7-inch vinyl records
BELGIUM__>__-_ SLOVAKIA
LUXEMBOURG HUNGARY In July, the Vatican issued the : December and conceded : (also called 45s] were
FRANCE ROMANIA
UNITED STATES ear
PORTUGAL — _ TURKEY : Acta Apostolicae Sedis under ! independence after four years : introduced in the US by record
SLOVENIA : Pope Pius XII, which effectively : of warfare. President Ahmed : company RCA on 10 January.
CROATIA : excommunicated Catholics who : Sukarno (1901-70), who had : With its format of one song
ALBANIA
GREECE : collaborated with or supported : co-operated with the Japanese : per side, the “single” was
KEY BULGARIA
; the Communist Party. The decree : during the war and had emerged : perfect for rock ’n’ roll, and
Original FRENCH
signatories GUIANA : represented a significant : as the strongest national leader, it went on to revolutionize
» counteroffensive by the Holy See ! was faced with the task of : the pop music business. In
Joined after
1949 : ina religious Cold War against : welding all the separate regions : the first year of production,
NATO alliance : the communist regime, following : into a united nation under a : RCA pressed more than
A TRUCE WAS REACHED IN THE : This map illustrates the 12 nations : the persecution of Catholics in : new constitution, with Jakarta : 25 million 45s.
: that originally signed up to NATO in » communist states.
STAM DRRES
ARAB-ISRAELI WAR [see 1948],
1949. The alliance enabled the US to On Easter Monday, 18 April, Eire
bringing an end to eight months of keep military bases In Europe.
hostilities. The Israelis referred to ' became the Republic of Ireland,
it as their “War of Independence’, : following the bill of 1938. It meant
while the Arabs called it “Al : threatened. The treaty also : Ireland had officially broken free
Naqba”, or ‘The Catastrophe”. provided that member countries : of allegiance to the British crown.
The Arab states negotiated : would try to settle disputes by : In May, the British Parliament
separate armistice agreements. : peaceful means. : approved a bill continuing the
Egypt was the first to sign on The Soviet Union stunned the status of Northern Ireland as a part
24 February, followed by Lebanon, : West by exploding its first atomic : of Great Britain; six northern Irish
Jordan, and Syria. The agreement : bomb, on 29 August, at a remote » counties had shown a majority in
established a line between Israel ‘ test site in Kazakhstan. Named © favour of remaining British in
and the Jordanian-held West ' “First Lightning”, its development : the Northern Ireland General
Bank, which became known as : was facilitated by US spies, such : Election held on 19 February.
the Green Line. : as Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, The Fourth Geneva Convention
Representatives of Belgium, : and British spy Donald Maclean, was adopted in August. It brought
Britain, Canada, Denmark, France, : who had passed technological : together the elements of the
Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the : secrets to the Soviets [see 1951). : previous three Geneva
People’s
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, : The loss of nuclear supremacy Conventions of 1864, 1906, and
Republic
and the US met in Washington DC, : led US president Harry Truman : 1929, and added rules to protect Following the
in April, to sign an historic treaty to order the development of : civilians during war. It came in proclamation
that established the North : the much more powerful : response to Nazi atrocities during of the People's
Atlantic Treaty Organization, : hydrogen bomb. : World War Il and the practise of Republic of China,
or NATO. The alliance was The Berlin Airlift (see 1948) : “total war”. The international posters showed a
intended for mutual defence; : by the Western Allies had aided : treaty governed the treatment smiling Chairman
Mao Zedong
countries promised to develop : solidarity with the West German of civilians during wartime,
encouraging his
their capacity to resist armed : leaders. On 23 May, the western : including hostages, diplomats, people to build a
attack, and to consult one another : occupied zones were united to : spies, bystanders, and civilians in new, prosperous
when any of the countries was : form the Federal Republic of : territory under military occupation. country.

334
 46 WE SHALL
LAND AT INCHON,
AND I SHALL
CRUSH THEM. 99
Douglas MacArthur, US General, 1950

AFTER NEARLY Emblem of India ; the main contingent for a United

100 YEARS OF India adopted this : Nations army that went to the
BRITISH RULE, emblem, taken : support of the South Koreans.
India became from a sculpture
: Within four months, the UN force
a republic on called Lion Capital
of Ashoka, after it
: had driven deep into North Korea;
26 January. India
became a republic. : only the intervention of China
had been managing The words ‘truth : saved North Korea from collapse
its own affairs since alone triumphs” : (see 1953).
the partition in 1947, are inscribed in The first human organ
but this day marked Devanagari script. : transplant took place on 17 June
the official cutting of : at the Little Company of Mary
all ties. In a formal : Hospital in Illinois, US. A kidney
ceremony, president to witness : from a dead body was used to
Rajendra Prasad increasing racial : replace a damaged kidney.
(1884-1963) tension. Whites : Although it was later rejected,
took the oath and blacks were : the transplant gave the patient's
of office anda segregated ona : remaining kidney time to recover.
new constitution large scale, and German-born physicist Albert Named for senator Joseph McCarthy (1908-57), McCarthyism
came into force. identity cards : Einstein (see 1919), who had became synonymous with the hunt for communists in US public
Since it was first created as : specifying a person's race were life during the 1950s. The triumph of communism in Eastern
Transjordan after World War |, : introduced. On1May,ageneral Europe and China provoked a severe crisis in the US. Fears of a
the Hashemite Kingdom of : Strike was held protesting against : South worldwide communist conspiracy resulted in a campaign against
Jordan faced problems arising all discriminatory laws. Police Korea people suspected of communist leanings. McCarthy held senate
from its disputed status, weak opened fire in the Alexandra hearings to “out” communists, and so-called “anti-American”
economy, and artificial frontiers. : Township, killing 18 people books were removed from public libraries.
On 24 April, King Abdullah of » and wounding 30. 9
MILLION
Jordan (1882-1951) annexed Anti-communist witch-hunter North
Arab Palestine to create an Senator Joseph McCarthy Korea : become actively involved in : pay in full. Merchants were quick
expanded kingdom, to the fury of : launched a “red scare” crusade in : advocating nuclear disarmament : to accept the card because they
his Arab neighbours. The annexed : America on 9 February, claiming POPULATION IN 1950 : and civil rights, published : found that customers who used
territory included East Jerusalem | that the US State Department was : “Onthe Generalized Theory of : acredit card usually spent more
and doubled Jordan's population. harbouring 205 communists. His 135,000 : Gravitation” in April's Scientific : if they were able to “charge it”.
South Africa, with its oppressive : claims were never substantiated, North : American. In this paper, he
apartheid laws (see 1948), began but many lost their jobs and their Korea : attempted to unify gravity and
: reputations (see 1954). : electro-magnetism in a way that
In June, a new crisis divided : led to a new understanding of

44 COMMUNISM
South
former wartime allies in Korea. quantum mechanics.
Korea
: Splitinto a Soviet-occupied The first modern credit card,
IS A HAMMER northern zone and an American- : which could be used at a variety

WHICH WE USE : occupied southern zone, once

: these two powers had withdrawn,
ARMY SIZE IN 1950 : of stores, was introduced in the
: US by Diners Club on 8 February.
TO CRUSH THE : the north - still backed by the
: Korean population and army
: Despite having less than half the
: It was established mostly for

ENEMY. 99 : USSR - invaded the south.

: The US, determined not to
: population of South Korea in 1950,
: North Korea's army was superior
:; businessmen to use for travel
: and entertainment expenses.
Mao Zedong, 1950 ! appease the Russians, provided : in size and much better equipped. : Cardholders had up to 60 days to

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44 IT HAD
TO BE. 99
Julius Rosenberg, convicted
spy, on his death sentence, 1951

Thousands of suspected Mau Mau activists in Kenya were arrested following

open revolt against British rule. »

INDOCHINA PROVED VOLATILE STALIN’S POLICIES WERE : met by reactions of foreboding in

EGYPT RENOUNCED ITS 1936
THROUGHOUT THE YEAR. In April, BECOMING INCREASINGLY : Western Europe. The doctors
TREATY THAT GRANTED BRITAIN
the French launched a big push to ANTI-SEMITIC. At the end of 1952, : were freed after Stalin died of
a lease on the Suez base, in
smash the Viet Minh resistance he told his Politburo that all Jews : a stroke in March.
October. Britain refused to
northwest of Saigon. In October, were sympathetic to America. Stalin's death led to a major
withdraw and a guerilla war
began in the Suez Canal Zone. another French operation On 13 January, nine doctors were power struggle in the Kremlin
targeted Viet Minh supply bases. arrested for conspiring to murder where a moderate coalition,
In March, the Iranian government
nationalized its oil industry, which A peace treaty that Japan had prominent figures in the Soviet headed by Georgi Malenkov
had been dominated by the Anglo- signed in San Fransisco, US, in armed forces. Six of them were : {1902-88}, took over. His moderate
Iranian Oil Company. Britain 1951 went into effect on 28 April, Jews. These accusations were policies became unpopular and
responded with a worldwide making the country an EVA PERON (1919-52) : Lavrenty Beria (1899-1953), who
embargo on Iranian oil. independent state again. : had been the head of Stalin's
On 27 May, East Germany closed Maria Eva Duarte de Peron, Hillary and Norgay secret police, tried to gain power.
A new era dawned in nuclear
Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Beria was charged with
power when the first nuclear its border with West Germany. or “Evita”, played a crucial
Tenzing Norgay become the treason and was then shot
power plant, in Idaho, produced A 10-m (30-ft) wide “control strip” role in helping her husband, first to successfully reach the
around 100kW of power - enough was dug along the border. Juan Peron, become in the back of a lorry, in
summit of Mount Everest,
for four 100 watt light bulbs. King George VI of Britain died Argentinian president. She the highest point on Earth, what seems to have
Fears about the spread of on 6 February. His daughter, was idolized by the poor, and during the British Everest been a summary
communism deepened as Julius Elizabeth, was officially began many programmes of Expedition of 1953. assassination.
and Ethel Rosenberg were proclaimed queen two days later. social welfare and reform.
accused of stealing information Opposition to British rule led to She died of cancer aged 32.
from the US for the Soviets. the Mau Mau Rebellion in Kenya.
British Foreign Office officials Guy The Mau Mau were an anti-colonial
Burgess and Donald Maclean insurgent army. They began raiding foundations for the future
disappeared on 28 May - it was white-settler farms, and by the : European Union.
later found out that they had end of the year the British had A military coup in Egypt headed
defected to the Soviet Union. declared a state of emergency. : by Colonel Gamal Abdal Nasser’s
The European Coal and Steel : Committee of Free Officers seized
Community came into being in : control of the government in July.
July. Comprised of six nations, it : Egypt became a republic in 1953.
created a common market” for The first atomic bombs had
coal and steel, and laid down the : been dropped on Hiroshima and
! Nagasaki in 1945. The much more
: powerful hydrogen bomb, or
: H-bomb, was tested by the US
: on 1 November.
The world's first successful use
: of amechanical heart was
: announced in the US, on 3 July.
: The Dodrill-GMR machine kept
THE NUMBER OF : blood circulating for 50 minutes
The Rosenbergs awaiting trial
Americans Julius and Ethel AFRICANS WHO : during open-heart surgery.
Rosenberg were found guilty of
smuggling atomic secrets to the
DIED IN THE MAU
Soviet Union. MAU UPRISING

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4. a boo est
The Indochinese conflict lasted eight years, ending in 1954. This photograph shows
French forces evacuating Hanoi.

ISRAELI FORCES CONDUCTED A

SURPRISE RAID on the Egyptian-
held Gaza Strip in February. The
A scientific breakthrough was made in 1953, when the blueprint raid was the largest of its kind Rosa Parks made history when
of life, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid], was mapped out by James against Arab forces since the end she refused to give up her seat
Watson and Frances Crick. DNA is the hereditary material that of the First Arab-Israeli War in on a bus for a white man. Her
contains the coded information needed to build and maintain all 1949 (see 1956). arrest mobilized a boycott of
living organisms. Watson and Crick proposed a model for Under its apartheid legislation, the bus system, which ended
DNA called a double helix. It explained heredity, and led to the South African government segregation on Montgomery's
the development of an entire biotechnology industry. forcibly evicted 60,000 black people | buses. The boycott also
from Sophiatown, in February, to brought international attention
chromosome
make it a white-only suburb. The to the civil rights cause. Parks
African National Congress (ANC), remained committed to her
an anti-apartheid organization, cause, and was a symbol of the
responded with a day of prayer. struggle for civil rights until
The Friendship, Cooperation and her death in 2005, aged 92.
Mutual Assistance Treaty, known
base pair as the Warsaw Pact, was signed
on 14 May. The treaty set up a : Austria remained neutral. The : 1 December, when Rosa Parks
military alliance of communist : Austrian State Treaty was signed : broke Alabama race laws by
: War in Korea [see 1950} ended FRENCH RULE IN INDOCHINA states to counter NATO in the West. : on 15 May, re-establishing Austria : refusing to move to the back of a
: when an armistice was signed on CAME TO AN END ON 21 JULY. The Soviet Union ended its : as an independent sovereign state. : bus. Thousands boycotted the bus
4 Dif July, but a state of suspended Laos and Cambodia became occupation of Austria, which had : It joined the UN the same year. : companyin protest.
hostility remained. The Republic independent, while Vietnam was been ongoing since the end of Juan Peron’s position as In the West, by the mid-1950s,
of Korea (South) and the divided into North Vietnam, with World War II, on condition that president of Argentina was : teenagers stood out as a distinct
: Democratic People’s Republic a communist government, and » weakened by the death of his wife ' group with interests, musical
: of Korea (North) chose not to sign South Vietnam. In all three : anda quarrel with the Roman : tastes, and their own fashions. This
Eastern alliance
: the peace treaty. non-communist states, communist : Catholic Church. He was : led to disapproval from adults who
The Warsaw Pact united the Eastern
Mount Everest, the world’s guerrilla movements sprang up. Bloc in a similar alliance to NATO. The : overthrown in a coup
: on 19 : feared juvenile delinquency. New
highest mountain, was first Senator Joseph McCarthy signatories were Albania, Bulgaria, : September, and exiled to Paraguay. : slang was condemned, dances
climbed on 29 May, by New intensified his campaign to root Czechoslovakia, East Germany, There was a turning point in » were closed, and some institutions
Zealander Edmund Hillary out communists [see 1950). He Hungary, Poland, and the USSR. © the Civil Rights movement on : banned the wearing ofjeans.
: (1919-2008) and the Nepalese set his sights on the US army
=CR a,
: Sherpa Tenzing Norgay and made unsubstantiated
: (1914-86). They stayed only allegations against them. This
: 15 minutes at the summit as they led to his being censored by the
: were low on oxygen. Senate on 2 December. Public POLAND

: Anew “absurdist” play, Waiting support dwindled, and McCarthy's EAST

GERMANY
for Godot by Samuel Beckett reign of fear ended.
premiered at the Theatre de A vaccine for Polio was tested
Babylone in Paris on 5 January. in a huge field trial in the US, in
Critics were at once divided over April. The trials were successful,
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
its merits. and a nationwide vaccination HUNGARY KEY
scheme was started the ALBANIA BULGARIA § Signatories of the
following year. Warsaw Pact
 44 WHAT COULD WE
DO? THERE WAS A REIGN
OF TERROR. 99
Nikita Krushchey, on Stalin, 25 February 1956

Nikita Krushchev, photographed during an eight-day visit to London. Khrushchev's The Soviets began the “Race for Space” with the launch of the world’s first
“de-Stalinization” of the USSR prompted a thaw in the Cold War. satellites, Sputnik | and Il - an achievement celebrated by this poster.

: Britain (see 1948). Eventually,

: Britain realized that this situation
: could not be resolved by military
: means, and made constitutional
advances that culminated in the
: independence of the Malayan
: Federation on 31 August.
President Sukarno of
: Indonesia had struggled to
> maintain a parliamentary
' democracy since independence
: in 1945. On 14 March, he decided
: to dispense with parliament
and imposed martial law. On
: 3 December, Sukarno nationalized
: Dutch businesses; two days later
THE US CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT ! 2 March, although Spain retained : Chevrolet Bel Air Convertible KASHMIR WAS FORMALLY : he expelled all Dutch nationals.
experienced a turbulent time this : control of Ceuta and Melilla on : The 1956 Chewy was just what the INCORPORATED INTO INDIA The Space Age began on
year when a black student began : the coast. Border disputes with : American public wanted - it was on 26 January, defying a UN ruling. : 4 October, when Russia launched
: fast, big, and affordable. It soon It was granted special status ; its Sputnik I satellite into orbit.
attending the University of : Algeria led to fighting in 1963.
: became a classic symbol of the
Alabama. White community Riots erupted in Cyprus, in under India’s constitution, which It was followed a month later by
: American Dream.
members attacked African- : March, after British authorities ensured, among other things, that : Sputnik 2, which carried a dog
Americans, and the activities of » deported Archbishop Makarios, non-Kashmiri Indians could not called Laika.
the Ku Klux Klan, an organization : leader of the campaign to unify : Egypt and Israel following the buy property there. Pakistan
of white supremacists, increased. : Cyprus with Greece. He was © crisis, which became known as the strongly objected (see 1917, 1965). :
Morocco declared its : accused of fostering terrorism. » Second Arab-Israeli War. Ghana became the first black
North
independence from France on Egypt's President Nasser : Nikita Khrushchev, Communist African country to gain its Sea
" nationalized the Suez Canal on : Party First Secretary of the Soviet independence from colonial rule
TURKEY :H 26 July. Britain and France had :
; Union, denounced Stalin as a
on 6 March. The first prime
CYPRUS sag shares in the Suez Canal Company, : “brutal despot” in a speech on 25 minister, DP Kwame Nkrumah
aad IRAQ IRAN : and met with Israel in Octoberto : February. This outraged Stalinists, (1909-72), initiated ambitious Serie cae
Sse own : conclude asecret agreement that but led to the prospect ofathawin development programmes ~BELGIUI
Suez Canal BAHRAIN TRUCIAL Israel should attack Egypt, : relations with the US. In Eastern and spearheaded the political LUXEM
EGYPT aaTaR>. STATES” providing a pretext for an Anglo- : Europe it had a dramatic effect on advancement of Africa.
Wear = : French invasion of the Suez Canal: raising expectations for change. The Treaty of Rome was signed
o a : Zone. On 29 October, Israel The Hungarian Revolution, in on 25 March. It set up the EEC Corsica ©
r : invaded the Sinai Peninsula.
:
The =: October, led to the formation of a (European: Economic Community) 4 af é
SUDAN YEMEN SOUTH YEMEN :
: US pressured Israel to withdraw, liberal government and Imre and provided for the countries’ SEINE
KEY : and UN forces were stationed : Nagy, a moderate, became prime social and economic programmes. ‘a
Areas affected by the Suez Crisis : along the Egyptian-Israeli border. minister. On 3 November, Nagy It also gave ex-colonies free trade
: The Anglo-French assault was : announced a plan to withdraw with the EEC, and made them
The Suez Crisis ; European Economic Community
The Suez Canal was a vital trading
: launched on 5 November. : from the Warsaw Pact (see 1955). eligible for aid.
: This map shows the composition
route from the Mediterranean to the : International criticism forced a : The next day, Warsaw Pact troops The suppression of communist : of the EEC at its inception in 1957,
Red Sea. It was especially important : ceasefire and then a withdrawal. : invaded, crushed the rebellion, guerillas in Malaya had been a : when six countries signed the
for the shipment of oil. Tensions remained high between : and re-established control. constant source of concern to : Treaty of Rome.

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 fil
Elvis Presley, seen here singing to an adoring yo ung crowd, joined the US Army
and set sail for Germany, putting a temporary halt to his extraordinary career.

THE MIDDLE EAST FELT THE

REPERCUSSIONS of the Suez
; US sent a battalion of marines
: into Lebanon in Operation Blue 44 THIS BOY HAD... THE LOOKS,
‘THE MOVES, THE MANAGER,
Canal crisis this year [see 1956). Bat, to help prop up the tottering
In February, Egypt and Syria ! regime of President Chamoun.
: Tensions eased, and the US

AND THE TALENT... 99

merged to form the United Arab
Republic. Pro-Western regimes : withdrew its forces on 25 October
in the Middle East saw the union : without a shot being fired.
as a threat to their security, and : French wars in Indochina, civil
Iraq and Jordan formed a loose : war in Algeria, and a series of Carl Perkins, Sun recording artist, on Elvis Presley
union. In July, a civil war broke : unstable governments led to the
out in Lebanon between the : recall of General Charles De | Founding of NASA
predominantly Christian and : Gaulle (see panel, above] to : Following the formal opening of NASA
strongly pro-Western regime of : French politics. He demanded : on 1 October, the US Army conducted
President Camille Chamoun : special powers for six months : the Juno Il satellite launches at Cape
and the Muslim Socialist : to restore order, and to draft a : Canaveral, Florida, on behalf of the
: newly created space agency.
National Front. On 14 July, a : new constitution for a Fifth
group of Iraqi Free Officers led by : Republic - submitted to the
Brigadier Abdul Karim Qasim : French public in a referendum : Eisenhower signed the National
captured power in Baghdad ina : on 28 September. De Gaulle : Aeronautics and Space Act,
savage military coup. King : won an easy victory to : and NASA opened formally three
Faisal Il, the regent Abdul Illah, : become president on 21 : months later.
and Prime Minister Nuri al-Said : December, 12 years after he Elvis Presley had become
were murdered. : had relinquished power. : a huge star with a series of
The Iraqi coup threatened to : Russia’s success in launching : chart-topping records, and this
destabilize Western control : asatellite in 1957 spurred the ; year would prove to be pivotal.
over the Middle East and its oil : Americans into forming NASA, : On 20 January, he began work
resources. To counter this, within : the North American Space : on his fourth motion picture,
48 hours of the Baghdad coup the : Agency. On 29 July, President : King Creole. Then, at the height
: of what seemed a promising

SAULLE (1890-1970) : career, Presley was conscripted

: inte the army, and in September
! he set sail for Germany. Billboard
A soldier, politician, and noted a drop in sales of his
statesman, Charles de Gaulle records and Elvis’s army years
became head of the provisional : would mark a clear line between
government of France in 1944. : the old Elvis and the new.
Elected president in 1945, he
resigned in 1946, returning to
power in 1958 to solve the
crisis brought about by the
Algerian War. He resigned
again in 1969 after being
defeated in a referendum on
constitutional reform.

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 44 A REVOLUTION IS NOT
A BED OF ROSES. 99
Fidel Castro, prime minister of Cuba from 1959-76

?
John F. Kennedy and his wife, Jacqueline, smile from the back
of an open-top car during Kennedy's inauguration celebrations.

THE RACE BETWEEN THE US AND THE STRAIN ON DIPLOMATIC TIES : invented by the US physicist
FIDEL CASTRO (1926-} BETWEEN CHINA AND THE USSR : Theodore Maiman (1927-2007).
USSR TO SEND A MAN INTO SPACE
oce n 1959. On 2 January, became public in June, at the : |t drew the attention of scientists
unched the first Fidel Castro was jailed for his congress of the Romanian : around the world and led
=scape Earth’s orbit revolutionary activities in Cuba Communist Party, when Nikita : to advances in engineering,
he Moon, Luna 1. The in 1953. After his release he Khrushchev and China's Peng : medicine, and technology.
d its first successful went into exile, but returned in Zhen clashed openly. The Soviets The influential civil rights
this year, when the Juno 2 1956. He was Cuban prime were alarmed with China’s “Great : activist Martin Luther King
nt the Pioneer 4 probe minister from 1959-76 and the Leap Forward” (see 1958], while : (1929-1968] rose to international
he Moon. Luna 2 was first communist head of state in the Soviets reneged on their : prominence in the early 1960s.
19
the Americas. His relations with earlier commitment to help China : King was arrested in Atlanta,
the US were originally good, but develop nuclear weapons, and : Georgia, during a “sit-in” on
Luna 3 gave mankind its first look speedily deteriorated. Although were seen as too conciliatory to : 19 October. He was sentenced
at the far side of the Moon stilla prominent figure, he the West. At a meeting in to a four-month term in prison.
Cuba had been ruled bya series retired as president in 2006. November, the Chinese delegation : Presidential candidate John F.
of dictators, culminating in the clashed with the Soviets again, - Kennedy (1917-1963) intervened
corrupt regime of Fulgencio but eventually a compromise was : to secure King’s release after
Batista (r.1940-44 and 1952-59). In Vietnam, northern guerrillas Anti-apartheid riots continued reached, preventing a formal split. : eight days in jail.
A group of revolutionaries led by under Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969) in South Africa. Those in the The Belgian Congo became John Fitzgerald Kennedy
law student Fidel Castro took up attacked the southern army in township of Sharpeville resulted independent on 30 June, ushering : was elected as 35th President
arms and set up a base in the March. Ho Chi Minh aimed to unite in the deaths of 70 demonstrators, in a period of turmoil. It was : of the US in November. He
Sierra Maestra mountains, Vietnam under communist rule. and the African National renamed the Federal Republic of : narrowly defeated the
provoking Batista to indiscriminate The US, seeking to stop the spread Congress (ANC, see 1994) was Congo, with Joseph Kasavubu as : Republican candidate Richard
repression. Batista’s regime of communism, trained the Army banned. These events prompted president, and Patrice Lumumba : Nixon after some fiercely
ollapsed, and Castro took over of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) worldwide condemnation of —a socialist - as prime minister. : contested television debates.
— he was sworn in as prime and provided advisors to South South Africa’s apartheid policies. In July, the province of Katanga
minister on 16 February. A Vietnam. On 8 July, two Americans When the British prime minister declared independence and asked Nixon Kennedy
“honeymoon” period with the US were killed by Viet Minh troops. Harold Macmillan visited the for Belgian help - Belgium sent
soon ended as Cuba became a These were the first American South African parliament in an invasion force in response,
totally socialist state deaths in the Vietnam War. February 1960, he made a speech causing Kasavubu to appealto
highlighting the “wind of change” the UN. In September, Kasavubu
which he believed would dismissed Lumumba as prime
n company bring independence minister, and in December he was
atle survived the we black Africans. arrested. Lumumba was
murdered the following year.
In September, the major
oil-exporting countries outside
the communist bloc set up the
Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC).
They combined to fix oil prices by
Race for the White House
controlling supply (see 1973).
The presidential race between Nixon
The laser was first operated on and Kennedy was incredibly tight.
16 May. A device that emits an Kennedy beat Nixon by less than
intense beam of light, it was 1 per cent - just 118,574 votes.

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Paratroopers hold back a crowd of French nationals angry at news
of self-determination for Algeria.

First man in space It became a republic and left the

Yuri Gagarin is pictured here in the © Commonwealth. In the same year,
cockpit of his spacecraft, Vostok 1. Nelson Mandela (b.1918) headed
His groundbreaking first flight into the ANC’s new military wing, and
space lasted 1 hour 45 minutes. launched a sabotage campaign.
President Charles de Gaulle
: place on 29 April, in Switzerland. : called for self-determination in
: The “Morges Manifesto” became : Algeria {see 1954), but the
: the blueprint for the first global : atmosphere between France and
; green organization, the World : Algeria remained murderous.
» Wildlife Fund (WWF). The French settlers living in Algeria
© organization's headquarters were : reacted with outrage, and France
: established in Switzerland, and : braced itself for civil war. On
: national offices were gradually set 17 October, thousands of
: up across the world, starting with : Algerians converged on Paris to
: Britain, in November. South protest against repressive
: America’s first ever National measures taken against them.
: Park was also established this © About 10,000 people were arrested
: year, in Brazil. The government : and hundreds were killed.
: created the 2.3 million hectare Berliners found themselves
: (5.6 million acre] Xingu National : living in a physically divided city on
: Park to resettle the indigenous 13 August, as troops in East
people of Brazil, as their lands : Germany closed the border
: were taken over and developed. - between East and West Berlin.
: Seventeen tribes were settled in : Barbed wire fences up to 2m [6ft]
) i the new park. : high were erected. Within days,
» South Africa focused on its these were replaced by concrete
: anti-British policies and won the blocks, and the wall became
: vote for independence on 31 May. permanent (see 1989).

Dividing wall
THE PORTUGUESE LUXURY : space. He orbited the Earth just invasion on the southern The Berlin Wall
coast was immediately repulsed enclosed the three
PASSENGER LINER SANTA MARIA once on 12 April, travelling at
was hijacked in January while : more than 27,000 km per hour (see 1962). FRENCH sectors of West Berlin,
seated : : ; ; é SECTOR separating it from East
Berlin and East
sailing in West Indian waters. : (17,000 miles per hour) in his One of John F. Kennedy’s first
The hijackers were Iberian : Vostok 1 spacecraft. : proposals as US president was Germany.
leftists who opposed the : In 1960, the Russians had scored ; the establishment ofa Peace BRITISH ovine
Portuguese government and : a triumph by winning the Corps to help In developing SECTOR SECTOR
the fascist regime in Spain. : allegiance of Fidel Castro, the nations. The aim was for young
The 900 people on board were : newly installed dictator of Cuba people to take one or two years URERICEN
released after 11 days. : (see panel, opposite}. Washington working abroad as teachers, SECTOR
The Soviet Union scored a : responded in April by financing : healthcare workers, or advisors —
: 1,500 anti-communist exiles inthe = in Africa, Asia, and South America. : KEY
victory in the space race when
Yuri Gagarin (1934-68) became ill-fated “Bay of Pigs” expedition. Worldwide action to conserve Berlin Wall
the first man to be launched into = This badly conceived attempt at the natural world was put in Bertin city limits

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 Soviet missiles are displayed at a parade in Havana. The US came close to confrontation with
the Soviet Union over the establishment of Soviet nuclear installations on Cuba. crowd from the Lincoln Memorial.

44 WE'RE EYEBALL TO Angeles apartment on 5 August.

She was 36 years old. There was
In the US, concerns were growing
over the alliance of Cuba and the
THE 1960S SAW THE REKINDLING
of the women’s liberation

EYEBALL AND THE OTHER much speculation about the cause

of her death; the coroner reported
USSR. The installation of Soviet
missiles on Cuba had reduced the
movement. Betty Friedan
(1921-2006) identified some of
FELLOW JUST BLINKED. 99 a “probable suicide”, but many
believed she had accidentally
warning time of a nuclear attack
on the US from 15 minutes to two.
the frustrations felt by American
housewives in her book The
overdosed on sleeping tablets. In October, President Kennedy Feminine Mystique, which was
Dean Rusk, US Secretary of State, on the Cuban crisis in 1962
Meanwhile, Nelson Mandela ordered a blockade of the island published in February, and
- leader of Umkhonto we Sizwe, to prevent the arrival of more helped to start a “second wave”
PRESIDENT CHARLES DE GAULLE made repeated attempts on the armed wing of the African missiles, and delivered an of feminism in the US.
OF FRANCE reached an agreement : De Gaulle’s life. Algeria gained National Congress (ANC) - was ultimatum to the Russian leader, In another display of unity, the
with Algerian nationalists in independence from France on arrested on 5 August after 17 Nikita Khrushchev, to remove heads of states of 32 African
March to proceed with Algerian : 3 July, after a referendum held months on the run. Convicted existing missiles. The world was countries signed a charter on 25
independence. The Organization - in January backed the move. It of sabotage, he was Jailed for on the brink of nuclear war, but May, setting up the Organization
Armée Secréte (OAS), a secret brought an end to eight years of five years on 7 November. Khrushchev finally backed down. of African Unity (OAU). Their
organization of army officers civil unrest and guerrilla warfare. Jamaica became independent This incident became known as aims were to promote African
who wanted Algeria to remain a : French officials estimated it had within the British Commonwealth the Cuban Missile Crisis. solidarity, end colonialism, and
French colony, launched a wave cost 350,000 lives; Algerian on 6 August, with Alexander India and China were fighting to co-ordinate the economic,
of bomb attacks across Paris and sources put the figure at Bustamante (1884-1977) of their own battle in a short but political, health, scientific,
1.5 million. the Jamaica Labour Party as bloody border war over their defence, and cultural policies of
Telstar, the world’s prime minister. He would oversee claims to the Aksai Chin Plateau, the members. The conference,
first communication several years of growth under on India’s northeast frontier. hosted by Haile Selassie of
satellite, was his moderately conservative : Chinese troops advanced into Ethiopia, also planned to support
launched on 10 July government. India on 20 October, but declared African freedom fighters by
from Cape Canaveral. The people of Berlin were not a ceasefire on 21 November. supplying arms, training, and
In the early hours celebrating any such freedom military bases.
of 11 July, live after the construction of the 5,000 around 150 were Kenya, an early member of the
transatlantic Berlin Wall (see 1961). Peter attempted to killed trying to OAU, became the 34th African
television pictures Fechter, an 18-year-old German cross the wall cross over
nation to achieve independence.
were sent from Maine bricklayer, became one of the first Jomo Kenyatta (1894-1978) was
in the US to Goonhilly victims of the Berlin Wall's border elected leader of the Kenya African
in Cornwall, England. guards after he was shot trying to National Union after nine years in
The US was back in cross from East to West Berlin. prison, and won the national
the news when In Britain, Liverpool-based election in May. Kenyatta became
| screen idol Marilyn rock band The Beatles finally prime minister and led Kenya
_ Monroe, was found signed with the record company from self-government to full
dead in her Los EMI on 4 June. They had independence on 12 December.
previously auditioned for several In Europe, US president
record companies, but despite John F. Kennedy made a
| Marilyn Monroe the enthusiasm of their manager,
| At the time of her
morale-boosting speechin
Brian Epstein, they had been Berlin on 26 June. In it he offered
death Marilyn Monroe : Crossing the Berlin Wall
was a huge star who turned down. “Love Me Do’, solidarity to the citizens of West
Many people made desperate
had appeared in 29 their first single, was released Germany, who were alarmed at
attempts to escape over the Berlin
movies. The Misfits on 5 October, and spent 18 weeks Wall from East to West Germany the construction of the Berlin
was her last film. in the charts. between 1961 and 1989. Wall. Thousands gathered in

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 44 WE CANNOT
WALK ALONE...
WE CANNOT TURN
BACK... |HAVEA
DREAM TODAY! 99
Martin Luther King Jr
speaking at a rally in 1963

His speech dashed any hopes through Dealey Plaza, Dallas, in plane, Air Force /, Vice President Oswald. He later stated that he
held by Moscow that the allies a open top car. Texas governor Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn had done it for Jackie Kennedy’.
would abandon West Berlin. John Connally was also injured. in as the 36th US president The murder was filmed and seen
Relations between East and Both of their wives, who were Kennedy's funeral took place live on televisions across the US.
The ‘first wave” of feminism West were still strained following with them, were unharmed. on 25 November. The world’s Oswald had denied he was
addressed legal obstacles, the Cuban Missile Crisis (see Secret Service agents immediately reaction to the news was one responsible for Kennedy's death,
such as votes for women, 1962). The incident had raised stormed the School Book of overwhelming shock. which fuelled conspiracy
while the second focused on worldwide concerns about Depository building, where shots Two days after Kennedy's theories. In an attempt to
sexuality and family. Simone nuclear contamination, which had been heard, and found a rifle assassination, Lee Harvey investigate the truth, the Warren
de Beauvoir’s Le Deuxieme led to talks about a treaty to with a telescopic lens. Just under Oswald, the man charged with Commission was set up on 29
Sexe defined the woman's ban nuclear testing in the an hour later, a policeman the murder, was shot and killed. November to examine the facts.
movement and exploded the atmosphere, space, and under approached Lee Harvey Oswald Oswald, a former marine, was
myth that women were water. The Test Ban Treaty was and was shot dead. Oswald was being transferred from police
second class citizens. signed in Moscow by the foreign arrested and charged with the headquarters to jail. He was
Kennedy funeral
ministers of the Soviet Union, the murder of the policeman and surrounded by police and
Over one million people lined the route
US, and Britain on 5 August. It Kennedy's assassination. journalists. In the melee, Jack of Kennedy's funeral procession, which
was ratified by the US Senate on Travelling back to Washington Ruby, a Dallas nightclub owner, ended at Arlington National Cemetery.
24 September and came into D.C. on board the presidential stepped forward and shot Millions more watched it on TV.
LE | force on 11 October.

DEUXIEME | Meanwhile, the campaign for

racial equality in the US moved
SEXE a step closer to victory on 28
August. A crowd of over 250,000
LES PAITS BT LES MYPHES
civil rights protestors gathered at
the Lincoln Memorial for a mass
“March on Washington’ for jobs
and freedom. Many leading figures
spoke, including Martin Luther
CALLIMARD King Jr who famously stated
“| have a dream’, while predicting
a day when the promise of
freedom and equality for all
front of the Rathaus Schoneberg would become a reality in the US.
(City Hall) to hear him speak. Ina Another historical day for the
strongly defiant message to the US was 22 November, when
Soviets, Kennedy described West president John F. Kennedy was
Berlin as a symbol of freedom. assassinated as he travelled

‘44 ALL FREE MEN... ARE

CITIZENS OF BERLIN. 99
» John Fitzgerald Kennedy, 26 June 1963

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 44 NOTHING [JS MORE IMPORTANT
THAN INDEPENDENCE AND
o8! FREEDOM. 99
Ho Chi Minh, president of North Vietnam, on a propaganda poster during Vietnamese wal

Nelson Mandela was among eight men sentenced to life imprisonment during
the Rivonia Trial - they left the court with their fists raised in defiance.

THE YEAR BEGAN WITH Meanwhile, race equality in the

INCREASING TENSION between US took a more positive turn when
Greek and Turkish Cypriots. the Civil Rights Bill became law
In March, the UN sent 7,000 on 2 July. The bill created equal
troops into Cyprus to try to keep rights for all, regardless of race,
the peace. Strong diplomatic : religion, or colour. The signing was
pressure finally brought an end to : witnessed by civil rights
the violence on 10 August. : campaigner Martin Luther King Jr,
On 27 May, Jawaharlal Nehru who had emerged as the symbolic we
ies
CRO

- the first prime minister of an : leader of the worldwide struggle

independent India, and regarded for civil rights. At 35, he became
by many as the founder of modern the youngest man to receive the
India - died, aged 74. Gathering in : Nobel Peace Prize for his work.
mile-long queues, 250,000 men, In Vietnam, the US was adamant
women, and children filed past his : that South Vietnam should not
body to pay their respects. fall to the communists. On 7
In South Africa, Nelson Mandela, August, US president Johnson
a prominent figure of the anti- received approval from Congress
apartheid struggle, was jailed for to ‘take all necessary action”
life on 12 June. During the trial, : against the communist regime in
Mandela and other members of : North Vietnam. As a result the
the African National Congress war escalated, but it was largely
(ANC, see 1994] admitted trying : kept from the American public,
to bring down the government. : and in November Johnson won a
landslide victory (see 1965). Hostile terrain
Capturing the American public's The US army was technologically In Vietnam, the conflict was following covert operations by
attention, the Warren Report, superior in Vietnam, but struggled escalating. President Johnson Pakistan across the ceasefire line.
with unfamiliar territory such as
: investigating the assassination of ordered Operation Rolling Thunder, Since the ceasefire line had been
the swamp that these marines
Kennedy [see 1963] was released a massive bombing campaign established in 1949, both countries
are wading through.
on 28 September. It asserted that against North Vietnam, and in had laid claim to Kashmir. After
there had been no conspiracy, and March the first American ground three weeks of fighting, they
concluded that gunman Lee ON 18 FEBRUARY, THE GAMBIA troops landed in South Vietnam. agreed to a UN ceasefire.
: Harvey Oswald had acted alone. ACHIEVED INDEPENDENCE from By June they were fighting President Sukarno of Indonesia
In the East, Nikita Khrushchev, British rule. Dawda Kairaba alongside South Vietnamese barely survived an attempted coup
: leader of the Soviet Union, Jawara became the first prime forces against the Viet Cong. in November. General Suharto,
“retired” in October, having been in minister, and was knighted the Back in the US, racial tension commander of the army's
: power since 1958. His policies had following year. By contrast, was at boiling point. Following the strategic reserve, emerged the
: become increasingly unpopular Southern Rhodesia, led by prime arrest of a black man for drink victor in the power struggle.
and he was voted out of office. minister lan Smith, announced a driving, Watts, a suburb of Los Meanwhile, the lights went out
The Beatles made it big this year, Unilateral Declaration of Angeles, erupted into violent race in the US on 9 November during
: sparking a hysteria known as Independence on 11 November. riots. Some blamed the heat the biggest blackout in US
Beatlemania begins
The Beatles took the US by storm in “Beatlemania”. Appearing on US Britain declared this action illegal, wave, while others pointed the history. More than 30 million
1964. Their faces were splashed Vin February, by April their and through the UN most countries finger at police brutality. people in the northwest were
across newspapers and magazines singles occupied all top five spots applied economic sanctions In September India launched left without electricity, which
as their tour of 23 cities sold out. on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. against Southern Rhodesia. an invasion of West Pakistan, was caused by human error.

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The Black Panthers, a black nationalist group based in Oakland, California, argued for working class unity. Here
——~:

Donald Campbell was attempting tu break the world speed record when
supporters hold up copies of Mao Zedong’s Little Red Book. his speedboat Bluebird crashed, killing him instantly.

WITH INCREASED FIGHTING IN By the end of 19664, the decade THE YEAR BEGAN WITH THE
VIETNAM, 1966 SAW THE US CHINA known as the “Swinging Sixties” TRAGIC DEATH OF DONALD
launch its largest offensive - so called because of the CAMPBELL, who was killed on
against the Viet Cong in Operation ' collapse of social taboos relating 4 January at Coniston Water in
Crimp, to capture the Viet Cong’s Gulf of : to race, sex, and gender - was in the Lake District, England, while
Saigon area headquarters. By the ‘Th Tongking
: full flow. It was epitomized by attempting to break his own
end of 1966, the number of US LAOS — : rock music, photography, and water speed record. He was
troops in Vietnam had reached @ Vientiane
fashion, with London and youth travelling at more than 480kph
385,000, amid increased public : culture at its heart. (300mph) when his boat flipped.
f
protests about the war. Tensions were running high in
Pakistani and Indian leaders “THAILAND. the Middle East after Egypt asked
met more peacefully in January at for UN forces in the Sinai to be
Tashkent in Uzbekistan to sign a removed. The Israelis responded
declaration agreeing to resolve with a pre-emptive attack, which
their dispute (see 1965] by ended after six days with Israel
peaceful means. Shortly in control of Sinai, Gaza, the Ernesto “Che” Guevara was
afterwards, Lal Bahadur Shastri, West Bank, the Golan Heights, born in Argentina in 1928,
prime minister of India, died of a Penh and Jerusalem. and became involved in the
heart attack. He was succeeded by Meanwhile, in Bolivia, Ernesto opposition to Juan Peron. He
Indira Gandhi, daughter of Nehru. “Che” Guevara (see panel, right] travelled extensively through
In Northern Ireland, violence was captured and shot dead, on Latin America, where he saw
erupted following the 50th the Bolivian president's orders, on 9 poverty and social injustice
anniversaries of the Battle of the : KEY June. Guevara was in Latin that helped forge his radical
Somme and the Easter Rising :© North Vietnam America helping guerrilla groups. political views. Che became
- symbolic dates for Protestants 1) South Vietnam More interested in saving lives, an associate of Fidel Castro,
and Catholics respectively. The :— Demilitarized zone South African surgeon Christiaan and played a role in the fight
murder of two Catholics by a for Cuba. He left Cuba to help
“loyalist” terror group called the : State of play in Vietnam revolutionaries abroad, and
: This map shows North and South was executed in Bolivia.
Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF)
: Vietnam in 1964, divided bya
sparked more riots in May and : demilitarized zone. In 1966 the North :
June. The UVF was banned, but : Vietnamese crossed the zone and :
the cycle of sectarian killings, : one of the largest battles to date Barnard conducted the first heart
known as the Troubles, had begun. : broke out near Dong Ha. ; transplant on 3 December.
The shock assassination of Although the patient died later of
Hendrik Verwoerd, prime the mid-1960s. Student radicals » pneumonia, the procedure was a
minister of South Africa and the were becoming impatient with great step forward for medicine.
architect of apartheid, raised Martin Luther King’s strategy of In Europe, Nicolae Ceausescu
queries about the future of South non-violence, and in June, activist : became premier of Romania on
Africa. He was stabbed to death on Stokely Carmichael popularized : 9 December, defying the Soviets
6 September by Dimitri Tsafendas, the term “Black Power’. In Syria by establishing diplomatic
: Swinging Sixties relations with Germany.
who claimed not enough was October he formed the Black
: The mini-skirt, popularized by Casualties in the Six-Day War
being done for whites. Panther Party, combining In Greece, after army officers
fashion models such as Twiggy, Israel won a decisive victory in the
Race continued to be a dominant traditional civil rights slogans with : shocked the Establishment as it Six-Day War between Israel, Egypt, seized power on 21 April, a counter
issue in the US, with race riots Marxist rhetoric, and the language : exposed the legs from mid-thigh. Jordan, and Syria, with 759 casualties. coup by King Constantine II failed,
occurring in many cities throughout of black separatism. : It became an icon of60s’ culture. Arab losses, in contrast, were high. and he fled to Rome.
 ms ~ = =
During the first manned mission to the Moon, the three astronauts on board
Apollo 8 beamed back images of Earth as a planet in space.

THE MY LAI MASSACRE IN he delivered his On 5 June, Robert Kennedy dramatic comeback; Nixon was
VIETNAM SENT SHOCK WAVES famous speech, ' was shot in a Los Angeles hotel Dwight D. Eisenhower's vice-
through the US political “| have seen the after giving a victory speech to president and lost the presidential
establishment. My Lai lies mountain top ...” : celebrate his win in the California race to John F. Kennedy in 1960.
in the South Vietnamese in Memphis, which ; Primary. A Palestinian Enoch Powell {1912-98}, a
district of Son My, an area seemed to predict his » immigrant, Sirhan Sirhan, fired British right-wing politician,
where the Viet Cong were end, “... I've seen the at Kennedy as he was being rade a hugely controversial
deeply entrenched. On promised land. escorted through the kitchen speech on 20 April, in which he
16 March, US troops, | may not get there pantry of the Ambassador Hotel. warned the government against
who had been ona with you”. » Robert Kennedy's support for opening the “floodgates” to black
“search and destroy” King's death ; Israel was believed to have : immigrants. He called for an
mission to root out sparked widespread ; prompted the attack. He died the immediate reduction in
communist fighters, killed ; race riots across the _ following day. His death, coming immigration, and viewed the
more than 500 Vietnamese US that cost dozens 63 days after that of Martin Luther future with foreboding. Quoting
civilians in cold blood, many of | of lives and led to ' King Jr, made 1968 one of the the Roman poet Virgil, he said,
them women and children. The damage worth » most volatile and traumatic, ".., like the Roman, | seem to see
massacre helped to turn public millions of dollars. : years in US history. the river Tiber foaming with much
opinion against the Vietnam War, It hastened the On 6 November, Republican : blood”. His speech caused a
although the story was not made process of “white Richard Nixon (1913-94) storm of protest, and ended
: War paraphernalia
public until the following year. : AChinese compass, a map case, and : flight” from the inner cities that - emerged victorious in the US * Powell's political ambitions.
By 1968, the Vietnam War was : amap with enemy bases marked on, : left many American downtowns presidential election. He had Elsewhere in Europe, France
costing the US $66 million a day. : formed the basic kit for Vietcong : virtually abandoned. James Earl : based his campaign on rising experienced student riots, mass
Protests against the war : militia during the Vietnam War. : Ray, a petty criminal, was : crime and claimed he would : protests, and strikes throughout
escalated as people questioned » convicted of King’s murder and : restore law and order. It was a May, which brought the country
the US's role in the conflict. Vivid On 4 April, the African-American : sentenced to 99 years in prison.
news reports showed horrific : civil rights leader Martin Luther Senator Robert Kennedy
civilian casualties. On 28 August, : King Jr (see panel, right) was > (1925-68), increasingly opposed to : |
during the Democratic national : assassinated in the southern US » the Vietnam War, struggled over
convention in Chicago, 10,000 : city of Memphis, Tennessee. King : his decision to challenge the A leading African-American
antiwar protesters gathered : was shot on the balcony of his : Democratic party's incumbent civil rights campaigner in the
and were confronted by 26,000 ; hotel as he was preparing to lead : president, Lyndon Johnson. His US, Martin Luther King Jr rose
police and national guardsmen. : amarch of sanitation workers younger brother, Edward (Teddy), to prominence in 1955, when
The event was covered live on : protesting against low wages. ' was against it; his wife, Ethel, he led a boycott of buses in
network TV. : The day before his assassination, urged him on. Many feared he Montgomery, Alabama, in
: would suffer the same fate as his protest against the state's
brother John, who had been transport segregation laws.
: assassinated in 1963. He In this, and his subsequent
; announced his candidacy on campaigns, he insisted on
: 16 March, and two weeks later non-violence. King was
: Johnson dropped out of the race. awarded the Nobel Peace
THE NUMBER OF WARSAW America was a wounded nation,
: reeling from the war and inner-
Prize in 1964. Four years
later, he was assassinated
PACT TROOPS THAT INVADED city riots. Kennedy based his by a white gunman in
' presidential election campaign on Memphis, Tennessee.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA » Inequality and social justice.
 44 THANK YOU APOLLO 8.
YOU SAVED 1968. 99
Anonymous telegram received by Frank Borman,
after the success of the Apollo 8 mission

: to its knees. It began as a series : called for new parliamentary a repressive regime (see 1989] beauty standards as racist — no
of student protests that broke : elections on 23 June. Although De The invasion drew condemnation black woman had ever made it to
out at universities in Paris, ; Gaulle won the election, the Paris from around the world. Jan the final. The demonstrators
following confrontations with ' riots were regarded as a cultural Palach, a Czech student, burned brandished signs that read
administrators and police. Further ' and social revolution. himself to death in protest over “Women’s Liberation”, and threw
police action inflamed the Troops from five Warsaw Pact the Soviet occupation. An bras into bins as a sign of protest,
situation, leading to a general : countries (see 1955) stormed into estimated 500,000 gathered to which began the myth that
strike by over 10 million workers
across France - roughly two-thirds
Czechoslovakia on 20 August
: to seize control and restore
watch his funeral procession.
On 7 September, a prominent
feminists “burn their bras”.
Americans, finally, had cause to
92
of the workforce. The government BEAUTY
: communism to the country. gathering of women disrupted the rejoice at the end of the year when
CONTESTANTS
came close to collapse; President During an eight-month period that . staging of Miss America, a : Apollo 8, the first manned craft to
Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970) : became known as the Prague ' long-standing beauty pageant : orbit the moon, was launched
| Spring, the incumbent prime ' held at Atlantic City’s convention into space on 21 December. Live
Beauty and backlash
minister Alexander Dubcek had halt. The protest was organized by pictures of the lunar surface were
Protest in Paris The glamorous contestants
When French strikers took to the : made substantial reforms, the New York Radical Women beamed back to Earth. The crew,
appearing in the Miss America
streets in May, the country was on : Including freedom of speech. (NYRW)], a group active in the civil Frank Borman, James Lovell, and Pageant, in Atlanta, were
the verge of revolution. The largest He was arrested, and his rights and antiwar movements. William Anders, returned on : outnumbered three to one by
rallies were held in Paris. government replaced with They attacked the pageant’s : 27 December as national heroes. the protestors.

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Neil Armstrong, on first setting foot on the Moon, on 21 July 1969

This photograph shows hijacked pianes that were set on fire by Palestinian
militants belonging to Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP).

: YASSER ARAFAT (1929-2004), A : free concert at Hyde Park, London; IN CAMBODIA, THE HEAD OF STATE, with up to 500,000 casualties.
PALESTINIAN FREEDOM FIGHTER, : the American musician, Bob Dylan PRINCE NORODOM SIHANOUK Alleging neglect and lack of help
became the leader of the : (b.1941], performed the headline (b.1922) was overthrown by from West Pakistan, the Bengalis
Palestine Liberation - act at the Isle of Wight Festival, General Lon Nol in a coup, on went on to vote for Sheikh Mujibur
Organization (PLO) in February. : England; aind up to 400,000 turned 18 March. Lon Nol claimed to Rahman's Awami League, which
He had formed the radical group : up at Woodstock, New York. have support from the US. In demanded autonomy from West
Al-Fatah in the late 1950s, which Millions marched across the US April, President Richard Nixon Pakistan in the following
was merged with the Popular : on 15 October to protest against (1913-94) ordered US troops and : elections (see 1971).
Front for the Liberation of : the Vietnam War. In Washington B-52 bombers into Cambodia to Elections were held in Chile on
Palestine (PFLP) to form the PLO. : DC, 250,000 people gathered to destroy North Vietnamese and ' 4 September, and Salvador
In Libya, Mu’ammar al-Gaddafi participate in anti-war rallies Vietcong sanctuaries and supplies. : Allende’s Marxist coalition was
(1942-2011) led a group of army : and hear activists speak. In early September, Palestinian elected. Allende instituted a
officers to depose King Idris On 21 July, Neil Armstrong militants forced two planes to fly programme of sweeping
(1890-1983) on 1 September, ina : {b.1930) and Edwin Aldrin to the Jordanian desert, where the nationalization and reforms.
bloodless coup, and established : (b.1930) took man’s first steps hijackers blew up the aircraft In April, the German
the Libyan Arab Republic. : onthe moon from their after releasing most of the : pharmaceutical company
Nigeria banned food aid from : spacecraft Apollo 17. Millions hostages. A third plane was flown : Gruinenthal pledged to pay DM
the Red Cross to the breakaway watched this televised event that to Cairo and was also blown up. ; 100 millionto thalidomide
Biafra starves
state of Biafra, bringing millions A child suffers the effects of hunger ! represented a symbolic victory After 24 days of talks, the : victims. Thalidomide, a drug
of people to the brink of and malnutrition during the Biafran : for the US over the USSR during remaining hostages were freed given to pregnant women for
starvation. Biafra accused blockade. Pictures of the famine : the Cold War. in exchange for seven Palestinian nausea, was withdrawn in 1961
Nigeria of using starvation and : garnered worldwide sympathy. prisoners. On 16 September, : after nearly 10,000 babies were
genocide to win the civil war Time spent on the moon: fighting broke out between born with major disabilities.
(1967-70), and pleaded for help Concorde, the supersonic 21 hours, 31 minutes, and Jordanian troops and PLO Charles De Gaulle (b.1890)}, who
from the world. : airliner, made its maiden flight in 20 seconds guerrillas. Egyptian President : led the French resistance to the
On 14 August, Britain sent : March. Piloted by Andre Turcot, Gamal Abdel Nasser (b.1918) : Nazi occupation during World
troops into Northern Ireland : the Anglo-French plane took off brokered a settlement on 27 War Il and became the President
following three days of violence in : from Toulouse in France; it September. However, Nasser died of liberated France, died on
the predominantly Catholic ! reached 3,050m (10,000ft), and of a heart attack a day later. He 9 November. His funeral was held
bogside area of Londonderry. was in the air for 27 minutes. had become the most powerful : on Armistice Day, 11 November.
Although intended to be a brief Elsewhere in Europe, Beatle figure in the Middle East while The Beatles, the most famous
intervention, the troops remained : John Lennon (1940-80) and his attempting to unify Arab nations. : music band in the world, split
after the violence intensified. wife Yoko Ono spent two weeks A catastrophic cyclone hit East ' when Paul McCartney (b.1942]
Willy Brandt (1913-92) was : in bed, drawing the world’s Pakistan (modern Bangladesh) on : announced his decision to leave
sworn in as the Chancellor of attention to peace. They spent the : 12 November. The Bhola Cyclone in April. The group officially
West Germany on 21 October, : first week at the Hilton Amsterdam, was the deadliest ever recorded, disbanded on 31 December.
becoming the first Socialist ! in March, and the second at the :
: politician to lead a German © Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal, Mission duration
government since 1930. : where the song Give Peace a i 8 days, 3 hours,
: Chance was recorded, in May. 18 minutes, and 35 seconds
Large-scale music festivals THE NUMBER
Eagle returns : The lunar mission
Apollo 11's lunar module Eagle,
: were held in Europe and the US The prime mission objective of KILLED IN THE
: during a summer that epitomized
holding astronauts Neil Armstrong
» the hippie movement. The British
: Apollo 11 was stated simply
: as: ‘perform a manned lunar
CYCLONE IN
and Buzz Aldrin, makes its way back
to the command module. ' band The Rolling Stones played a landing and return”. BANGLADESH

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 44 [AMNOTA
POLITICIAN, BUT
A SOLDIER. JJ
Idi Amin, in his first speech to the Ugandan nation,
January 1971

British troops remove civil rights protestors from Londonde rry, Northern Ireland, after the army opened fire
on demonstrators during.“ Bloody Sunday”. Among the 13 civilians killed were seven teenagers.

IN UGANDA, GENERAL IDI AMIN In October, US national security BRITISH MINERS WALKED OUT ON The prime ministers of The terrorist group
SEIZED POWER from President : adviser Henry Kissinger (b.1923], NATIONAL STRIKE on ? January India and Pakistan, Indira : Black September, a faction
Milton Obote in a military coup : began talks with the USSR, after refusing a government pay : Gandhi (1917-84) and Zulfikar : of the Palestine Liberation
on 25 January, while the president : which led to a number of formal offer. All 289 pits across the : Ali Bhutto (1954-79), signed : Organization (PLO), tock
was out of the country attending : agreements, including one country were closed. On 19 : the Simla Agreement in July, : members of the Israeli team
the Commonwealth conference regarding access to Berlin. February, they agreed to anew : in the wake of the 1971 war. : hostage during the Summer
in Singapore (see 1979}. pay deal and returned to work : The agreement reiterated ; Olympics at Munich, West
Sierra Leone, in West Africa, on 25 February. the promises for peaceful Germany. They later killed 11
and Qatar, in the Middle East, On 30 January, British troops : negotiations made in Tashkent : athletes, launching a new era
formally achieved independence opened fire on demonstrators : (see 1966). : of international terrorism.
from Britain in this year. in Londonderry, Northern
In March, a civil war broke Ireland, killing 13 people and
out between Pakistan and its injuring 14. The marchers were
dominion, East Pakistan (modern protesting against the policy
Bangladesh). Nearly nine miltion of internment without trial.
refugees fled to India. In This day came to be known
December, Indian troops entered as ‘Bloody Sunday”.
East Pakistan, following a In the largest attack on
surprise attack on Indian mainland Britain since ‘The
airfields. There was also heavy Troubles” (see 19664], the IRA
fighting in Kashmir. In a campaign bombed the 16th Parachute
lasting only 13 days, Indian troops Brigade headquarters at
crushed Pakistani forces in the Aldershot, Hampshire, on 22
ek
so eet a4
Sah see ®
east. On 20 December, the February, killing seven civilians. RR
independent state of Bangladesh On 8 June, South Vietnamese
SS
Ne .* \ \ s

was born (see 1972]. planes dropped a napalm

In Northern Ireland, the
Provisional IRA stepped up its
\ bomb on Trang Bang, which
was under North Vietnamese
campaign against British security IDI AMIN (1925-2003) occupation. Napalm was an
forces (see 1969). In August, the incendiary liquid that burned
Northern Ireland government Idi Amin became known as everything it touched. Images
introduced internment without the “Butcher of Uganda”. of burned civilians were shown
trial to stop the growing violence. After seizing power in 1971, around the world and increased
On 15 September, a small team he ruled by terror - an pressure on the US to withdraw
of activists set sail from Vancouver, estimated 300,000 people from Vietnam.
Canada, on the ship Phyllis died during his reign. His
Cormack to protest against US behaviour was both barbaric
nuclear tests in Alaska. They later and eccentric: famously, he
adopted the name Greenpeace. declared himself the “King of
The Walt Disney World resort Scotland”. Idi Amin’s rule
New horizons
officially opened near Orlando in ended in 1979 after he was
For the Munich Olympics, leading
Florida, USA, on 1 October. It ousted by troops from artists made 35 posters, including
featured Adventureland, neighbouring Tanzania then the one shown below. Their aim was
Fantasyland, Frontierland, Liberty forced to flee the country. to erase the memory of the 1936
Square, and Tomorrowland. games, held during Hitler's reign.

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}METHEREWILLBENO
WHITEWASH AT THE * sSeraial
WHITE HOUSE. 99 =
Richard Nixon, US president, in a TV speech
on Watergate, 30 April 1973

The White House, the official residence of the US President, was rocked by the Emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie,
Watergate scandal and the subsequent resignation of President Nixon. had been crowned “King of Kings”.

ON 30 JANUARY, SEVEN MEN WERE | Ina landmark judgement 12 THE OIL EMBARGO OF 1973 HAD A
CONVICTED of breaking into : referred to as the Roe v. Wade 10 j DRASTIC EFFECT on the developed
the Democratic Party's : case, the supreme court i ; world, leading to a long-term
Watergate headquarters in : legalized abortions in the US. recession. Unemployment and
Washington DC and bugging it. : The ruling came after Norma inflation soared, and stock
President Nixon, who had just : McCorvey, under the pseudonym markets crashed globally.
been re-elected, continually : ‘Jane Roe”, challenged the In Portugal, General Antonio
denied any connection between criminal abortion laws in Texas. DOLLARS
PRICEIN de Spinola (1910-96) led a
Watergate and the White House. The Vietnam war was officially bloodless military coup, ending
However, Washington Post over for the US, when it signed a 0- = 50 years of dictatorship. Known as
reporters, Bob Woodward and : ceasefire agreement in January 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 Ne 1973 1974 the Carnation Revolution, this
Carl Bernstein, brought to light : after months of talks in Paris. : Costing dear event ushered in a new era of
the president's involvement in the Britain, Ireland, and Denmark : When OPEC shut off oil supplies to the western nations democracy in the country.
bugging, which would eventually : became fully-fledged members : that had supported Israel, it sent prices shooting up In Britain, the IRA attacked the
lead to his impeachment and : of the European Economic : from less than $3 a barrel to $11 in a matter of weeks. Houses of Parliament on 17 June,
resignation from office (see 1974). : Community (EEC) in January, the Tower of London in July, anda
Their work on the ‘Watergate ' bringing the number of member Heavy fighting broke out between : deal, signed on 11 November Guildford pub in October.
_ scandal”, helped by crucial states to nine. It was the first : Arab and Israeli forces in what : between Egypt and Israel, ended In July, Turkish troops invaded
information from the mysterious : enlargement of the organization came to be known as the Yom : the strife. Following the war, the northern Cyprus following a coup
informant, “Deep Throat”, led to : since its inception in 1957. : Kippur War, in October. Eayptian : Arab oil-producing countries in which President Archbishop
the Washington Post being The IRA extended its bombing : forces broke the Israeli line on the imposed an oil embargo on all Makarios, a Greek Cypriot, was
awarded the Pulitzer Prize. : campaign in mainland Britain. On : eastern bank of the Suez Canal, : the countries that had supported deposed. The island was split in
: 8 September, there were bombs in and in the north, Syrian troops : Israel. In October, oil prices two parts, with Greek-Cypriots
Manchester city centre and at battled with Israeli defences along : soared around the world, from fleeing to the south and the
: Victoria station, London. Two days ' the Golan Heights, seized by : under $3 a barrel before the war Turkish community, to the north.
: later, explosions ripped through : Israel from Syria in 1967. A peace : to over $11 by early 1974. After years of war and famine in
King’s Cross and Euston stations. Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie
: On 14 November, an IRA gang was (1892-1975] was overthrown ina
convicted of the bombings. coup, on 12 September. General
In September, Chilean president The Arab oil embargo Tafari Benti (1921-77) became
© Salvador Allende (1908-73) was caused global chaos. The head of state.
killed in a coup led by his trusted Organisation of Petroleum In the US, the Watergate
: ally General Augusto Pinochet Exporting Countries (OPEC) break-in (see 1973] was traced to
© (1915-2006), and backed by the US. switched off supply at a time a Nixon support group. In July, the
: Pinochet killed 3,000 supporters when the market was already Supreme Court ordered Nixon to
: of the Allende regime, shut the starting to suffer shortages. turn over the tape recordings
: Chilean Parliament, and banned The crisis revealed oil as a relating to the scandal. He was
all political activity. In 1974, he powerful political weapon. impeached, and resigned from
: made himself president (see 1998). Countries in the Middle East office in August.
In December, the Basque were seen to have acquired Disco, a genre of dance music
: separatist movement, ETA, killed control of a vital commodity, that had started in the clubs of
Allende’s reforms
The Chilean president's sweeping
: Spanish prime minister Admiral and Western nations were New York in the late 1960s,
nationalization and reforms resulted : Luis Carrero Blanco in Madrid, in : vulnerable because they peaked at this time with new
in costly welfare schemes and : retaliation for the execution of i relied on oil imports. music, polyester suits, and films
economic chaos in the country. : Basque militants (see 1959). such as Saturday Night Fever.

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44 VIETNAM WAS LOST IN THE LIVING
ROOMS OF AMERICA, NOT ON THE
BATTLEFIELDS OF VIETNAM. 99
Marshall McLuhan, media commentator, writing at the end of the Vietnam War

~
3 <a ¥ uf = = . ox
Two punks kiss on the Kings Road in London. Punk rock emerged during
the mid-70's as an angry expression of contempt for politics and society.

THE MARXIST PEOPLE’S MOVEMENT THE ARCHBISHOP OF UGANDA,

MARGARET THATCHER BECAME
FOR THE LIBERATION OF ANGOLA DR JANANI LUWUM (b.1922), was
THE FIRST WOMAN to lead a
(MPLA) took nominal control of murdered on 16 February for
political party in Britain on
the whole country by February, being an Anglican, and for
11 February, when she won the
and the new Angola People’s protesting against the excesses
Conservative Party vote.
Republic was recognized. This of Idi Amin’s regime (see 1971).
In the Middle East, Saudi
was preceded by intense fighting Steven Biko (see panel, right), a
Arabia's King Faisal (1906-75)
that also involved the National prominent black rights leader in
was assassinated by his nephew,
Front for the Liberation of Angola South Africa, died in prison on
Prince Faisal Ibu Musaed.
(FNLA) and the Union for the Total 12 September. He had been
Prince Juan Carlos was sworn
Independence of Angola (UNITA). detained under the terrorism act.
in as King of Spain, two days after
Anti-apartheid protests in His death caused international
dictator General Francisco Franco
Soweto, South Africa turned outrage but an inquest cleared
died on 20 November.
violent on 16 June. Demonstrators the police of any wrong doing.
In April, the Cambodian capital,
clashed with police and more than In Pakistan, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's
Phnom Penh, fell to the radical
communist movement, the 300 people were killed. Pakistan People’s Party (PPP]
: Fall of Saigon Mao Zedong (b.1893), the was accused of vote rigging. This
Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot.
: The North Vietnam troops (pictured) : Beirut. This started a civil war founder of the People’s Republic prompted Army Chief General
They transformed Cambodia into
a communist, rural society. All : met little resistance in Saigon, but » that lasted for 15 years (see 1990}. of China, died of a heart attack Mohammed Zia ul-Hag to depose
: the final hours of America’s This was a year of global on 9 September. Bhutto in a military coup on 4 July.
inhabitants of cities were expelled
presence were marked by chaos. The right-wing Menachem
to work in agricultural communes. : terrorism, as Arab terrorists Syrian peacekeeping troops
After almost two decades of : held hostages at Orly airport in entered Lebanon on 9 June. In Begin (1913-92) had a surprise
: ended on 30 April as the : Paris; a German left-wing group December, after more than 50 win at the Israeli elections in May,
fighting, the Vietnam War finally
: governmentin Saigon : seized the German Embassy in ceasefires had been violated, ending 29 years of Labour rule. As
: surrendered to the North : Stockholm, Sweden; and South uneasy peace prevailed. premier, he initiated a peace
1,200 > The Seychelles gained process with Egypt (see 1979).
: Vietnam forces. Saigon was : Moluccan terrorists took over
: renamed Ho Chi Minh City and : the Indonesian Embassy in independence from Britain on
: the following year, North and : Amsterdam, the Netherlands. 29 June, with James Mancham
: South Vietnam were reunified. In November, oil began to flow as president and France Rene as
Mozambique became from the North Sea from sources prime minister of the coalition.
independent on 25 June, after a : that British Petroleum (BP}
: coup in Portugal ended colonial : discovered six years earlier.
: rule (see 1974]. Four Microsoft was officially
' months later, Angola founded on 4 April by
: also gained its Bill Gates (b.1955) and
THOUSANDS)
(IN
DEATHS Paul Allen (b.1953},
: independence (see 1976).
Iraq stepped up its starting the world of
military pressure against personal computing.
‘= Kurdish rebelsin northern
Vietnam Vietnam
: Iraq. The Kurds were
US Purple Heart
: ¢rushed with the razing A US military decoration Fruit of knowledge
Vietnamese war casualties
: of Zakho and Qala Diza. awarded to the wounded Apple Inc. computers went on sale
More than one million North
Vietnamese troops died, compared In Lebanon, Christian or killed, 351,794 Purple this year. The distinctive logo - a
to around 220,000 from South militia attacked a bus Hearts were awarded rainbow-coloured apple with a bite
Vietnam, and 58,000 from the US. : full of Palestinians in during the Vietnam War. taken out - symbolized knowledge.

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 44 ALL EXAMINATIONS
SHOWED THAT THE BABY
IS QUITE NORMAL. 99
Obstetrician Patrick Steptoe, after the birth of Louise Brown

-
Dr Robert Edwards holds the world’s first test tube baby, Louise Brown.
It was a medical breakthrough fraught with controversy.

ISRAELI SOLDIERS CROSSED THE : Pol Pot’'s army was not completely :
LEBANESE BORDER on 14 March, : defeated; thousands of his troops
in Operation Litani. Thousands fled to the Thai-Cambodia
of Palestinians fled the area and : border, where they were able
hundreds died. Israel claimed : to build up their strength, and
Palestinian fighters were using skirmishes forced the Vietnamese
southern Lebanon to mount to stay in Cambodia for the next
attacks against civilian and decade [see 1991].
military targets in Israel. Former Italian prime minister
Demonstrators on the streets of Aldo Moro was kidnapped in
Tehran, capital of Iran, had been Rome on 16 March. The extreme
shouting dissent all year, but in left-wing Red Brigade, who
September, protests grew against : wished to overthrow capitalist
the policies of Iran's supreme ruler, Italy, claimed responsibility and
Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi demanded that the trial of their
(1919-80). The challenge stunned leader, Renato Curcio, be stopped. |& y
STEVEN BIKO (1946-77 the Shah and his generals, and The government refused, and eight ae
rioters were attacked. Many weeks later, Moro’s body was i
In 1968, Steve Biko was the people were killed, and martial found in the boot of a car in Rome.
first president and co-founder law was imposed in maior cities. The oil tanker Amoco Cadiz ran
of the all-black South African Egyptian President Anwar Sadat : aground on Portsall Rocks, three
Students’ Organization (1918-81) arrived in Washington : miles off the Brittany coast when
{SASO], which aimed to raise DC for talks with President Jimmy its steering mechanism failed. The
black consciousness. The Carter (b.1924), in February. His : entire cargo of 1.6 million barrels
government banned him in visit represented a change in : spilled into the sea, causing an oil
1973, but he continued Egyptian foreign policy which : slick 30km (18 miles) wide and
to spread his word. On had previously sought favour from : 130km (80 miles) long. Dozens of
18 August 1977, the police the Soviet Union. Shortly after, Breton beaches were polluted.
seized Biko, held him for 24 Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Devastating scenes of marine
days, and tortured him to Begin met President Carter. animals covered in oil and dying
death. The Rand Daily Mail These initial talks paved the way : were broadcast around the world.
exposed their brutality. for historic joint meetings at The world’s first test tube baby
Camp David, Maryland, from : was born on 25 July. Louise
5-17 September. Here, both sides : Brown was born in Oldham,
Amnesty International, the signed the Camp David Peace : Lancashire, England, with the
: human rights organization, won Accord for peace in the Middle : help of gynaecologist Patrick
the Nobel Peace Prize for having East. Sadat and Begin later : Steptoe, who had pioneered the
“contributed to securing the received the Nobel Peace Prize. : technique along with Dr Robert
ground for freedom, forjustice, Cambodia was invaded by : Edwards (see 1969).
: and thereby also for peace in the Vietnam on 25 December ina
: world”. The movement proclaimed lightning assault. The Vietnamese
Khmer Rouge fighter
1977 “Prisoners of Conscience forced out Pol Pot’s Khmer
: Under Pol Pot, Khmer Rouge
Year”. The following year Rouge regime, but the war that : soldiers, often teenagers, controlled
Amnesty also received the United followed continued to be a major : Cambodia. They were responsible
Nations Human Rights Award. source of international tension. : for killing over 1 million people.

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 44 IN ISLAM, THE LEGISLATIVE
POWER AND COMPETENCE
TO ESTABLISH LAWS BELONG
EXCLUSIVELY TO GOD. 99
Ayatollah Khomeini, from his lectures on Islamic Government

Iranian women holding posters of Ayatollah Khomeini show support for the Islamic Revolution.
Mass demonstrations brought the country to a halt.

China viewed the Vietnamese Afghanistan on 24 December. rear sight _

attack on Cambodia as a serious In doing so, they were confident
provocation, and, on 17 February, of military superiority. However,
Chinese forces invaded Vietnam. : the US had been covertly
: Casualties on both sides were : training anti-
high, and each side claimed to government forces, | barrel
: have won the upper hand. : the Mujahideen
When Afghan communists took : (warriors), and the
AK-47 Kalashnikov assault rifle
: power through a coup in 1978, : Soviets were met The AK-47 became an iconic weapon
they found themselves pulled : with fierce resistance : during the Soviet war in Afghanistan.
» three ways: between the Soviets, when they stormed : Used by both sides, Kalashnikovs
: the Americans, and the Islamic into Kabul. were cheap and readily available.
oy War casualties
( : regime in Iran. In March, a : As the political detachable
Fs Afghans paid a magazine
heavy price for the resistance group declared a holy : situation in Iran : this year. On 30 March, shadow
Soviet invasion - for every Soviet : war against the “godless” Marxist : deteriorated (see 1978], the Shah : Northern Ireland secretary Airey
who was killed or wounded, 20 : regime and killed Soviet citizens : was forced into exile. Ayatollah ; Neave was killed by an INLA car
Afghan soldiers lost their lives. : in Herat, western Afghanistan. : Ruhollah Khomeini (1902-89), Ayatollah Khomeini, angered by bomb. On 27 August, Lord Louis
: In the countryside, revolt grew : a Shi'ite Muslim cleric, returned America’s long support of the Mountbatten {a member of the
VIETNAMESE FORCES ENTERED against repressive government from 15 years of exile to jubilant : Shah, took control of the US British royal family) was killed by
CAMBODIA in 1978, in response to initiatives, and the Afghan army : crowds, and the Istamic Republic : embassy in Tehran. They seized : an IRA bomb blast. Hours later, 18
repeated border attacks by the faced total collapse. In light of : of Iran was proclaimed on 1 April. 68 hostages, and vowed not to : soldiers were killed in booby-trap
Khmer Rouge [see 1978]. On : this, the Soviet Union feared an : Western influences were : release them until the US : bomb explosions close to the
7 January 1979, they seized the : lranian-style Islamist revolution. : suppressed, and many who had returned the Shah for trial. In border with the Irish Republic.
Cambodian capital of Phnom : Citing the 1978 Treaty of : been educated in the West fled : response, President Carter The deaths unleashed a series of
Penh and the Khmer Rouge were : Friendship, the Soviets invaded : the country. Young supporters of » embargoed Iranian oil. Female : civilian killings.
driven from power. Pol Pot, leader : : and non-US citizen hostages were Ugandan leader Idi Amin
of the Khmer Rouge, fled to the : released, and then a male : (1925-2003) was forced to flee the
jungle in Thailand and began a > A : hostage who became Seriously ill, capital city of Kampala on 11 April
guerrilla war against a succession : in 1980, but 52 Americans : as Tanzanian troops, along with
of Cambodian governments. On : remained hostage until 1981. : exiles and the Uganda National
2 April, Vietnamese forces The left-wing Sandinista _ Liberation Front, closed in. Two
discovered a mass grave in : National Liberation Front : days later, Kampala fell and a
the northeast - this was the first : succeeded in overthrowing : coalition government took power.
of many mass graves from the ' the US-backed regime in the : Yusufu Lule (1912-85), who had
Pol Pot era to be discovered. It : republic of Nicaragua and took been driven into exile by Amin,
became apparent that between : the capital, Managua. This ended ; became president. Amin escaped
1975 and 1979 Pol Pot was : seven years of civil war against - to Libya, leaving behind a country
responsible for the slaughter of : the Somoza government. The with its economy in tatters.
more than 1 million people. : Sandinistas established a The Sony Walkman was
: revolutionary government on : launched in Japan on 22 June.
Rings of Jupiter
: 20 July, led by Daniel and : The first Walkman featured a
An image taken by NASA's Voyager 2 : Humberto Ortega. cassette player and the world’s
spacecraft shows Jupiter's ring Both the Irish Republican Army : first lightweight headphones.
system, never seen before, being (IRA) and the Irish National It cost US$200, and sold out
bombarded by tiny meteorites. : Liberation Army(INLA]} were active | within a month.

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 THE HEIGHT OF THE ERUPTION
COLUMN IN THE MOUNT
ST HELENS EXPLOSION
Mount St Helens in Washington State erupted, with a massive avalanche in May,
and a cloud of ash that screened out all sunlight as far as 400km (250 miles) away.

ROBERT MUGABE WONA = people died from smallpox in : six gunmen from a group opposed nationalist differences flared, Mount St Helens, a volcano
SWEEPING VICTORY on 4 March, the 20th century alone. : to Ayatollah Khomeini took over and individual republics began in Washington State, northwest
becoming prime minister of The Iranian Embassy in the building. They demanded the pushing for independence. US, violently erupted on
Rhodesia. A Marxist guerrilla : London became involved in a release of 91 Iranian political A huge bomb ripped through a 18 May, spewing a huge cloud of
fighter, he was hated by lan Smith's dramatic siege on 30 April, when : prisoners. The siege ended after a railway station in Bologna, Italy, ash. It triggered an earthquake
white-minority regime. On 18 April, : raid by the Special Air Service on 2 August, killing 85 people and measuring 5.2 on the Richter
Rhodesia became Zimbabwe. : (SAS]. Nineteen hostages were injuring hundreds in one of the scale; the north face of the
Parts of Africa suffered extreme : set free, but one died and two worst terrorist attacks in Italian : mountain collapsed, and
deprivation due to famine in 1980. : were injured in the cross-fire. history. Right-wing extremists 57 people died.
Drought, cattle raiding, anda On 22 September, Iraq invaded were thought to be responsible. Ronald Reagan, a former
breakdown in civil order caused Iran sparking a bitter eight-year Poland experienced a turning Hollywood actor and Republican
a food shortage. The famine in war, which destabilized the whole point with the Gdansk shipyard governor of California, won the
Uganda is regarded as one of the region. By the end of October, : strike: the first political mass US presidential election on
worst in history - 21 per cent of : Khorramshahbr, the largest port movement to emerge in the Soviet 4 November, beating Jimmy
the population died. 10% in-Iran, fell to Iraqi forces. : bloc. On 30 August, the Polish Carter in a landslide victory. He
Smallpox was declared extinct SURVIVED Under President Tito’s grip (see government reached an agreement would go on to serve two terms.
on 8 May by the World Health 1943), Yugoslavia had achieved with striking shipyard workers,
Organization, 21 years after the internal peace. Tito’s death, on led by Lech Walesa. It authorized
Smallpox eradication Iran-Iraq War
global eradication programme : A global vaccination campaign led to
: 4 May, combined with the decline : the establishment of Solidarity,
An Iraqi soldier watches an oil
had begun. The last natural case WHO declaring smallpox eradicated of communist ideology, led to a new trade union free of refinery burn during the Iran-Iraq
of smallpox was in Somalia in : in 1980. Smallpox was a devastating the weakening of Yugoslavia’s communist control. Membership war. Ojl fields and refineries were
October 1977. Around 300 million : illness, with a mortality rate of 30%. unifying factors. Ethnic and : rapidly swelled to over 10 million. heavily targeted by both sides.
 a *
Demonstrators carry a banner reading Solidarnosc, or “Solidarity”, The frigate HMS Antelope exploded
the name of the first non-communist Polish trade union. on 23 May, during the Falklands War.

: He was 36 years old. Bob Marley ARGENTINA INVADED THE BRITISH

FORMER ACTOR RONALD REAGAN
BECAME THE 40TH PRESIDENT
4G IF WE RESIGN TODAY WE WILL : and the Wailers was the world’s TERRITORY of the Falkland
of the US on 20 January. Two -BURY OUR HOPES FOR FREEDOM |
: most recognized reggae band. Islands in the South Atlantic on
2 April. The sovereignty of the
months later he survived an -FOR MANY YEARS TO COME. SEVERAL |: theAIDS (see panel, below} came to
fore in June after the deaths islands had long been disputed.
assassination attempt by John
Hinckley, who was obsessed with THOUSAND PEOPLE CANNOT : of five men in Los Angeles. British prime minister Margaret
Thatcher (b.1925) sent a naval
actress Jodie Foster, and believed _OVERCOME TEN MILLION. 99 : Previously, no cases had been
: reported outside the gay task force to liberate the islands.
an assassination of the president
would impress her. : community; it became clear that The subsequent conflict cost the
Solidarity, trade union, message to the people of Poland, December 1981
Pope John Paul II survived : the disease affected other groups. lives of hundreds of Argentine and
being shot four times on 13 May : The unknown condition came to British servicemen, many of them
as he travelled through crowds in On 20 January, Iran finally ; the Spanish parliament along with : be named Acquired Immune through missile attacks on navy
his “popemobile” in St Peter's : agreed to release 52 American 200 soldiers. Armed forces put : Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). warships. The conflict ended on
Square, Rome. Police arrested : hostages, who had been held for : down the coup on 23 February. 14 June, when the commander of
Mehmet Ali Hagca, a Turkish : 444 days. This followed a guarantee Israel shocked the world by the Argentine garrison at Port
citizen, who was sentenced to life ' from the US that it would release blowing up a nuclear plant near Stanley surrendered to the British.
imprisonment in July. : Iranian assets that had been frozen Baghdad, Iraq, on 7 June. They Iran launched Operation
A state of emergency was : in American banks since the US : claimed it had the capability of Undeniable Victory in March, as
declared in Egypt after President : embassy was seized in Tehran. : making nuclear weapons to part of its war against Iraq (see
Anwar Sadat was assassinated Iran also saw renewed political : destroy Israel - Iraq denied this. 1980). This marked a major turning
at a military parade. A group : terrorism this year. The Mujahidin, In the face of union protests, the point, and Iran forced the Iraqis
calling itself the Independent ' a group of muslim fighters, : Polish government declared to retreat. Within a week, Iran
Organization for the Liberation : mounted waves of bombings and : astate of emergency on succeeded in destroying a large
of Egypt said it carried out the : assassinations. In August, both 13 December, and placed leaders
attack. Vice-President Hosni : the new president Ali Rajai - of the Solidarity trade union HIVVIRUS
Mubarak succeeded President : and the prime minister Javad : under arrest. In response,
Sadat as head of state. : Bahonar were killed. In October, : members of Solidarity called for HIV is a virus that causes
Ali Khamenei was : anational strike (see 1982]. Acquired Immune Deficiency
elected president ina Brixton, south London, erupted Syndrome [AIDS], a disease
landslide victory. into riots on 11 April after a black of the immune system.
Spain was in turmoil : man was arrested by police. The The HIV virus was discovered
after an attempted : violence spread to other cities in May 1983 by doctors at
right wing coup, led : where there had been unrest due the Pasteur Institute in
by Lieutenant Colonel : to poor relations between black France. The isolation of the
Antonio Tejero Molina : communities and the police. HIV virus meant that drugs
(b.1932], who stormed Columbia became the first could be developed that
: shuttle to fly into space on dramatically extended the
: 12 April. The maiden flight was life expectancy of those with
Spanish coup : piloted by veteran US astronauts AIDS, athough no vaccine
Colonel Antonio Tejero : John Young [b.1930) and Robert has yet been found. At least
stormed the Spanish
: Crippen (b.1937), and heralded a 28 million people worldwide
parliament, firing shots
into the air as he new era in space exploration. have died from the disease;
announced a military Bob Marley (b.1945), the Africa has been the worst
coup. The coup international face of reggae affected area.
collapsed within hours. : music, died of cancer on 11 May.

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 44 A FLAGRANT
VIOLATION OF
INTERNATIONAL LAW. 99
UN Security Council, on the US invasion of Grenada in 1983

King of pop ON 17 JANUARY, NIGERIA

The dominant pop ANNOUNCED that it would expel
star of the 80s, all resident aliens. Over a million
Michael Jackson

2:5
foreigners were forced out. The
released the album
move was condemned abroad, but
Falklands casualties Thriller in 7982. It
became, and remains, appeared popular in Nigeria.
During the Falklands
- War, which lasted the best-selling album Drought struck Ethiopia this
: 74 days, 255 British and 649 of all time. year. Harvests failed and there
: Argentine soldiers were killed. were massive food shortages. The
: More than 11,000 Argentine crisis was exacerbated by the
: soldiers were taken prisoner. Solidarity (see communist government's military
1981), the Polish spending and censorship of the
part of three Iraqi divisions. Iranian Trade Union emerging crisis.
: president Ali Khamenei (b.1939) Movement, was The US embassy in Beirut
: rejected an Iraqi offer of a ceasefire banned by the Polish was hit by a suicide bomber on
: and sent thousands of young : Secret hunger
government on 19 April. The US government
f . : A mother holds her child during the
Iranians to their death in 8 October. This believed the attack was carried out :: Ethiopian famine. The Ethiopian
“human-wave’ attacks that Israel invaded Lebanon on was greeted by by Hezbollah, a militant Islamic : government initially hid the famine
cleared the way for Iranian tanks. : 6 June, in an attempt to wipe out : international condemnation and group. Later in the year, terrorists : from the rest of the world.
However, by the year’s end, Iraq : guerrilla positions on Israel's : street protests. US President bombed the French and American :
had been resupplied with new : northern border. By 15 September, : Ronald Reagan put pressure on peacekeeping headquarters in : 23 July. These followed a deadly
: Soviet arms, and the ground war : the Israeli army occupied West : Poland by imposing economic Beirut, with extensive loss of life. : ambush by Tamil Tigers, which
: entered a new phase (see 1983). : Beirut. From 16-18 September : sanctions. Lech Walesa (b.1943}, In the Iraq-Iran War, Iraq had : killed 13 Sri Lankan soldiers. The
: the Phalangists, loyal to Israel, the Solidarity leader, was released begun using chemical weapons : year marked the start of civil war.
: killed hundreds of Palestinians in : after 11 months of internment - the blister agent mustard gas The Soviets were accused of
refugee camps. Defence minister : on 12 November. was deployed as Iraq fought back shooting down a Korean airliner
Ariel Sharon resigned after an Leonid Brezhnev (b.1906), against attacks from the “human : on 1 September. They claimed the
: Israeli inquiry stated he had failed - leader of the Soviet Union, died on waves’ of Iranian troops. : airliner flew into their airspace and
: to act to prevent the massacre. : 10 November. He had served as Vicious attacks were carried : did not respond to communication.
The IRA continued their : general secretary for 18 years. He out against members of the Tamil President Reagan had
: Campaign against British rule in : was succeeded by Yuri Andropov ethnic group in Sri Lanka on : spearheaded a strategy to support
J» Northern Ireland by exploding : (1914-84). During his leadership, : anti-communist insurgencies
J © two bombs in London parks. The : Brezhnev had pushed for better : bent on overthrowing Marxist
: first, at Hyde Park, killed four "relations with the West, and : regimes. In May, Reagan openly
: soldiers from the Household : increased Soviet military and : expressed support for the Contras,
: Cavalry. Horses were also slain. : industrial strength, but living : the Nicaraguan opposition to
: The second, placed underneath : standards remained poor. ; Communist Sandinista rule. In
: the bandstand in Regents Park, The world's first test tube twins : October, the US overthrew the
© killed seven soldiers. = were born in Manchester, ' Marxist government of Grenada.
! England, on 28 April. The twins On 23 March, President Reagan

THE PROPOSED
: were conceived outside the womb : launched his Strategic Defence
Israel attacks Lebanon
: after their mother underwent : Initiative (SDI), an ambitious

COST OF
Many cities were bombarded by
heavy artillery during the Israeli : in-vitro fertilization (IVF). scheme to combat nuclear

“STAR WARS”
invasion of Lebanon - an attempt weapons in space. Reagan's SDI
to drive out the PLO. » became known as “Star Wars”.

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307
 bi re

Arthur Scargill, leader of the National Union of Miners [NUM], confronts a battalion of Two billion viewers in 60 countries
police during the British miners’ strike, which lasted a year. watched the Live Aid concerts.

: BRITISH COAL MINERS WENT ON : Red ribbon TANCREDO NEVES (1910-85) WAS
: STRIKE from 12 March over pay : A symbolof y ELECTED PRESIDENT OF SRAZIL on
: and pit closures. The dispute : solidarity for those ’ 15 January, after 21 years of
lasted an entire year. : suffering from military rule. Democracy also
Police constable Yvonne Fletcher
:: HIV/AIDS, the Red : returned to Uruguay, in March,
: Ribbon Foundation 4 =
was killed outside the Libyan : was formedin
and to Bolivia, in August.
es, » Embassy in London during a : 1993 to promote On 25 May, hundreds died in
demonstration on 17 April. : awareness about attacks on Palestinian strongholds
Her death led to a police : the disease. in Beirut by Syrian-backed Shi'ite
siege of the building. troops. Prime minister Shimon
Subsequently, the UK Peres (b.1923) withdrew Israeli
expelled Libyan diplomats : 12 October, targeting the British troops from Lebanon, but Israel
from the country. cabinet who had gathered for the held a 19km- (12 mile-] wide
On 19 December, : Conservative Party conference. security zone in the south. Later
. a China and Britain Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the year, on 7 October,
Sy signed a treaty to : (b.1925) had a narrow escape. Palestinian Liberation
OO .. transfer Hong Kong, a : Major General Mohammed Organization (PLO) militants
x’ British colony, to Chinese : Buhari (b.1942} seized power in hijacked an Italian cruise liner, the
rule in 1997. : Nigeria in a bloodless military Achille Lauro, demanding the
: An IRA bomb went off at : coup on 1 January, citing the release of 50 Palestinian
: the Grand Hotel, Brighton, on : government's corruption record. prisoners held in Israel. The
: Indira Gandhi (b.1917), the
: prime minister of India, was 30
: assassinated on 31 October. The
: killing was carried out by Sikh
: extremists in response to an
: attack on the Sikh shrine, the
: Golden Temple of Amritsar. 20}
: Ghandi ordered the attack, known
: as Operation Blue Star, to remove
: Sikh separatists, who were thought
SE ; to be amassing weapons at the
have died since
; temple. The operation resulted 10
died within weeks | : in up to 1,000 deaths. KM)
(MILLIONS
SQ
SIZE
: On3 December, a poison-gas
Bhopal gas victims
The Bhopal tragedy injured many
© leak at the US-owned Union
: thousands and killed 3,000 people : Carbide pesticide plant near
tf
: within weeks. At least 15,000 are : Bhopal, India, became one of the 0
: thought to have died subsequently. ; worst industrial accidents in history. 1985 1990
: The US president Ronald
» Reagan (1911-2004) declared the Hole in the ozone layer
Free in space This graph shows the average size
US astronaut Bruce McCandless : withdrawal of peacekeeping
of the hole in the ozone layer in each
floats free in space. He used a jet : troops from the Lebanese capital
year from 1985-95. As a comparison,
pack to fly nearly 91m (300 feet] ; of Beirut, on 7 February, following the area of Europe is about 10 million
away from the shuttle Challenger. : increased terrorist attacks. sq km (4 million sq miles).

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358
 The Russian space station Mir (peace) provides a home for visiting
astronauts. The first crew arrived on 15 March.

: crisis ended on 10 October, when KEY The Soviet Union admitted to

the hijackers abandoned the liner "Highly Reykjavik @ : an accident at a nuclear power
: in exchange for safe conduct. contaminated area : station in Chernobyl, Ukraine, on
: The Siege of Gibraltar ended — Broad range of : 26 April. The accident was the
radiation
after 16 years, when the Spanish : worst disaster in the history of
government opened the border, : nuclear power. It released a high
on 4 February. The dispute over Londone | : level ot radioactive contamination,
Paris
the island’s sovereignty continued. : which spread to Europe.
: British scientists discovered a Mir, the Soviet space station,
: hole in the ozone layer over
Nuclear fallout Madride : was launched on 20 February,
Following the nuclear
: Antarctica. Their findings, power plant accident
: as part of a space city to house
© published in the May issue of at Chernobyl, radiation © cosmonauts. The first crew
Nature, rallied environmentalists. spread across Europe : arrived on board the space station
Live Aid rocked the world in July as far as Paris. : on 15 March.
with two huge concerts held On 12 June, South Africa
simultaneously in London and WITH THE IRAN-IRAQ WAR IN ITS by Islamic terrorists in Beirut, on : imposed a state of emergency Olof Palme led the Swedish
Philadelphia to raise money for SIXTH YEAR, Iran launched a 17 April. On the same day, three : before the 10th anniversary of the Social Democratic Party
famine relief in Ethiopia. surprise assault and captured : British hostages were killed in : black student uprising in Soweto. from 1969. As prime minister
the abandoned Iraqi oil port of : retaliation for Britain's support of ' The government enforced curfews | he initiated major reforms
Faw in February. Iraq was » the US bombing of Libya [see 1991]. and banned television cameras and was an avid supporter of
accused of using mustard gas in Yemen experienced turmoil in : from filming “unrest”. women’s rights, healthcare,
its efforts to hold off the attack. : January as power struggles within Ferdinand Marcos (1917-89) and welfare standards. His
“Irangate’, a scandal involving ' the Yemen Socialist Party [YSP) : was forced to quit as dictator of party was also a forerunner
US president Ronald Reagan, : led to a brutal war between the : the Philippines on 25 February, of green politics. He was
came to light in October in the US. : north and south. Britain’s Royal : after the military and a tide of accused of being pro-Soviet,
The Reagan administration had - yacht, Britannia, helped to : world opinion turned against him. which some thought led to
been selling arms to Iran to evacuate British citizens. > Corazon Aquino (1933-2009), the his death in 1986.
secure the release of US hostages : first female leader of the country,
in Lebanon. The profits of the deal : was sworn in as his successor.
were used to fund Contra rebels Nearly 50,000 students : right across China held
fighting the Marxist regime in : gathered in Shanghai's People’s : demonstrations in major cities
Nicaragua. Reagan survived, but : Square on 21 December, urging : demanding democratic reforms.
his chief of staff, Donald Regan : for more social freedom. Students Spain and Portugal joined
Mikhail Gorbachev became and national security adviser, : the European Union (EU) on
leader of the Soviet Union on John Poindexter, resigned. 1 January, taking its membership

50,00
11 March 1985. He was the US planes bombed military : to 12. Anew flag was also adopted
architect of glasnost [openness] targets in Tripoli, Libya, on : as the official symbol of Europe.
aS Zs | a a
and perestroika (restructuring). 15 April. President Reagan cited The Australia Act, signed on
He built bridges with the self-defence to justify the move. THE NUMBER OF : 3 March, made Australian law
- independent of the British legal
West and renounced Stalinist Days earlier, US soldiers had died
ideas. He won the Nobel in a bomb attack at the La Belle STUDENTS WHO : system. It also transferred control
: Challenger badge
Peace Prize in 1990, but his disco in West Berlin, believed to : On 28 January, the American space MARCHED IN : of Australian constitutional
have been ordered by Libya. : documents into Australian hands.
policies led to the implosion
of the Soviet Union. John McCarthy (b.1956), a
: shuttle Challenger broke apart 72
: seconds after take off, leading to the
SHANGHAI FOR
British journalist, was kidnapped : death of all seven crew members. DEMOCRACY
 BILLION DOLLARS
THE DECLINE IN THE
VALUE OF QUOTED
SHARES ON BLACK
MONDAY

The New York Stock Exchange crash on “Black Monday”

saw the Dow Jones drop more than 500 points.

Terry Waite (b.1939), special : Stock markets around the globe

envoy to the Archbishop of ——+—— Payment in : also plummeted. The crash was
: Canterbury, travelled to Lebanon, < return for : triggered by fears about the weak
: in January, to seek the release of agents : dollar and the UStrade deficit. It
: hostages from Western countries, : was aggravated by news of the US
: including
the journalist John : retaliating against Iranian attacks
: McCarthy (see 1986). However, he | ! in the Persian Gulf by bombing an
' himself was captured by militants | : oil rig. ‘Black Monday”, as it
| : and held in Beirut (see 1991). : Use : came to be known, was almost
| ae bs > In May, France was forced to pay $8.6 : twice as bad as the crash of
| THE WORLD : $8.6 million to Greenpeace for MILLION : 29 October 1929.
| : the sinking of their flagship, : Margaret Thatcher (b.1925)
| POPULATION _ Rainbow Warrior. The vessel, | visited Moscow in March. It was
IN 1987 which was to lead a Greenpeace Payment to| : the first official visit by a British
: flotilla protesting against French Greenpeace 1987 : prime minister in 12 years, and
: nuclear testing in the Pacific, had : marked the normalization of
: French compensation
IN JULY, THE WORLD POPULATION : been sunk by an explosion on : France paid New Zealand $6.5 million
: British-Soviet ties. During the
| REACHED FIVE BILLION. This was 10 July 1985, in Auckland harbour, : to return its agents. It also paid $8.6 : talks, Mikhail Gorbachev
double what it was in 1950, and New Zealand. A photographer, : million to Greenpeace for the sinking :: (b.1931), the Soviet premier,
a billion higher than in 1974. Fernando Pereira, was killed in ! of its ship, Rainbow Warrior. : condemned the Brezhnev doctrine
The population of the world was : the blast. The incident provoked : and called the “Iron Curtain”
growing at a rate of 220,000 an international scandal and led : On 20 March, the drug archaic, suggesting more liberal
people a day. Much of the growth : to the cooling of relations between azidothymidine (AZT) was policies towards Eastern Europe.
was seen in parts of the world : New Zealand and France. Two : approved by the US Food and The next month, Gorbachev visited
least able to sustain it. The concern : French secret agents, implicated : Drug Administration. It was the Prague, Czechoslovakia, and
about the social and economic in the bombing, were imprisoned. ! first antiretroviral drug made implied that the Eastern Bloc
impact of population growth led to ! France paid $6.5 million to New ' specifically to combat HIV/AIDS. countries could be independent.
11 July being known as the Day of Zealand as compensation and - While AZT could not cure AIDS, it In December, the leaders of the
Five Billion. Thereafter, 11 July for returning its agents to : proved that the disease could be USSR and US signed a treaty to
became World Population Day. : French jurisdiction. : managed, and that HIV was not reduce the size of their ground-
: a death sentence. based nuclear arsenal. Known as
On 19 October, the Dow-Jones the Intermediate-range Nuclear
average in the US declined by : Forces (INF) Treaty, its aim was
| | 22.6 per cent - the largest : to reverse the nuclear arms race
: single-day percentage drop in its by destroying all medium- and
: history. The next day, the London short-range nuclear weapons in
: Stock Exchange saw €50 billion Europe, capable of hitting targets
! wiped off its share values. at ranges of 500-5,500km
(300-3,000 miles}. This was the
first time the superpowers had
Negotiating freedom
' agreed to reduce their massive
Terry Waite became a familiar figure
in Lebanon. As achurch envoy, he — : nuclear arsenals.
made many missions to negotiate
the release of hostages held by
Islamic militant organizations.

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 44 READ MY LIPS, NO
NEW TAXES. 99
George Bush, accepting the Republican presidential nomination
in New Orleans, 18 August 1988

THREE MEMBERS OF THE IRISH : Liberation Organization (PLO) George Bush (b.1924) became
REPUBLICAN ARMY [IRA) were shot accepted the ‘two-state the first US vice president since
dead by the Secret Air Service solution” {see 1947}, officially 1836 to win the presidential
(SAS) in Gibraltar, on 6 March. The recognizing Israel's right to exist. : election. On 8 November, he
IRA was planning to detonate a On 2 December, Benazir Bhutto : claimed a comfortable victory over
bomb during a ‘change of guard” : (see panel, below] was sworn in : democrat Michael Dukakis.
ceremony in the British territory. ' as Pakistan's first female prime South Africa’s border war with
The event was to be attended by minister. At 35, she also became : Namibia and Angola had been
the 1st Battalion Royal Anglian the youngest leader of a world : ongoing since 1966. South Africa
Regiment, following a tour of : nation (see 2007). : Was under intense pressure from
Northern Ireland. The incident led Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika : the international community to
to a wave of violence in Belfast. (economic and political reforms), grant Namibia independence.
This year saw the first : and glasnost (open debate], played : They agreed to do this, but only if
documented use of chemical : akey role in ending the Cold War : Cuba removed its troops from
weapons in the Iran-Iraq war, when : (see 1948). In a dramatic speech to : Angola. Initially the UN rejected
Iraq dropped bombs containing : the UN, on 7 December, Gorbachev this proposal, but on 22 December
mustard gas and nerve agents : announced unilateral arms and : the participants met in New York
on the Kurdish city of Halabja in : troop reductions, and withdrawal : where a bilateral agreement was
Iraq, in March. Between 3,000 and : of forces from Eastern Europe. : signed by Cuba and Angola, anda
5,000 civilians died, and many On 21 December, Pan Am flight : tripartite accord, by Angola,
more suffered long-term health © 103 crashed at Lockerbie, : Cuba, and South Africa.
problems. The massacre is known : Scotland, killing all 259 passengers In April, Stephen Hawking
as “Bloody Friday” (see 2010). and crew, and 11 on the ground. (b.1942) published A Brief History
On 8 August, a UN-arranged Evidence of a bomb instigated a : of Time, a story of the Universe
ceasefire ended the Iran-Iraq : huge investigation. Two Libyan : from the “Big Bang”. The most
war (see 19780). Lasting eight : intelligence agents were linked to : popular science book ever, it was
years, the war resulted in more : the bombing, although it took over : translated into 40 languages and
than 1 million casualties. : 11 years to bring them to trial. : sold more than 10 million copies.
Throughout 1988, Palestinian
Arabs of the Gaza Strip and West BENAZIR BHUTTO (1953-2007)
Bank continued a mass uprising
against Israeli occupation of Benazir Bhutto set up the
Palestinian territories. Known Pakistan People’s Party (PPP] in
as intifada”, it took the form of London after her father, Zulfikar
general strikes, boycott of Israeli Ali Bhutto, was assassinated in
products, demonstrations, and 1979. She returned to Pakistan
use of petrol bombs. On in 1986 and served as prime
14 November, the Palestine minister from 1988-90 and
1993-96. Benazir was exiled in
1999 on corruption charges,
Horsehead nebula
but returned in 2007 for fresh
The resumption ofshuttle flights,
elections. Two months later,
in 1988, meant that NASA's Hubble
Space Telescope programme was she was assassinated in a
back on track. Hubble would produce suicide attack.
stunning images of the universe.

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 Thousands gather during the Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia, a bloodless uprising
that saw the overthrow of the communist government on 29 December.

IN SOUTH AFRICA, F.W. DE KLERK : Vaclav Havel became President

(B.1936) WAS ELECTED LEADER of of the Czechoslovak Republic
the National Party on 2 February. : in the non-violent Velvet
The party had governed the country : : Revolution. In Romania, the
since 1948 on the principle of : incumbent president, Nicolae
apartheid. However, De Klerk : Ceausescu was removed from
was more willing than his ‘ office and shot in December.
predecessors to modernize the : Erich Honecker, leader of the
political system. On 15 August,the : & : German Democratic Republic,
incumbent president, PW. Botha > entered 1989 confident that the
(1916-2006) suffered a stroke and : reforms in neighbouring countries
De Klerk took over. Klerk began : would not affect his country,
releasing prominent black : but protests grew. The Hungarian
leaders who had been imprisoned, =. government demolished the
including Walter Sisulu, a close electric fence along the Austrian
friend of Nelson Mandela (b.1918]}, ) = frontier, part of the Iron Curtain
one of the leaders of the African : - the heavily guarded border
National Congress (ANC). between the countries of the
On 14 February, Ayatollah Eastern Bloc and the rest of
Khomeini (1902-89}, the spiritual Europe. By September, when the
leader of Iran, issued a fatwa, or border controls were lifted,
decree, calling for the death of 60,000 East Germans were in
author Salman Rushdie (b.1947] Hungary waiting to pour through
and the publishers of his book, : Exxon Valdez oil spill : to the West. On 2 October, a huge
The Satanic Verses. The book was : More than 11 million gallons of crude : On 17 April, Solidarity, Poland's : Acoup in Bulgaria brought down : protest calling for reform
considered to be a blasphemy : oil poured into the Prince William :: free trade union movement, was : party leader Todor Zhivkov. On : gathered in Leipzig, and decided
: Sound when the oil tanker Exxon
against Islam. Rushdie was legalized after a ban of seven ; 28 November, the Czechoslovak ' to keep meeting every Monday
: Valdez struck Bligh Reef, off the
forced into hiding, under armed
: coast of Alaska, on 24 March 1989. : years. It grew into a political : communist regime surrendered : until their demands were met. On
guard, to protect his life [see 1998). : movement, and in elections © tothe people. A month later, : 9 October, the army refused to fire
Later in the year, on 3 June, » held on 5 June, Solidarity won
Khomeini died in Tehran. His : ensure that the Cambodian civil an overwhelming majority. After
death was mourned by millions. ! war was truly over and that Khmer : 45 years, communist rule in
Eight people were killed in the : Rouge leader Pol Pot (see 1973) ' Poland ended. Solidarity formed Espionage epitomized the Cold
stampede and hundreds more : would never be allowed to return : anewnon-communist government : War. Intelligence gathered by
injured while approaching the : to power again. : in the former Eastern Bloc. On electronic devices, satellites,
body to pay obeisance. The Almost a decade after they had 12 September, Tadeusz Mazowiecki and spies was used for military
incumbent president, Ali : stormed the country, Soviet troops : became prime minister. information and technology. The
Khamenei became Supreme : withdrew from Afghanistan in By the start of 1989, communist US Central Intelligence Agency
Leader of Iran. : February. They left the economy regimes had ruled Eastern Europe : (CIA), the Soviet KGB, and East
Vietnam promised to withdraw : in ruins. Many Afghans had fled, : for 45 years. By the end of the German secret police, or Stasi
its troops from Cambodia by the : and civil war continued as the : year they had all been routed by (see badge, right), spent decades
end of September, a decade after : Mujahideen (Persian for "warriors") extraordinary public uprisings. spying on the enemy and
invading the country (see 1979]. : pushed to overthrow President : Following
the election of Solidarity undermining rivals through
In a declaration made on 5 April, : Najibullah’s Soviet-backed : in Poland, Hungary's rulers covert action.
Vietnam also urged the world to : government (see 1992). : published a plan for independence.

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44 WE HAVE BEEN TOO LONG
IN DARKNESS. ONCE ALREADY
WE HAVE BEEN IN THE LIGHT,
AND WE WANT IT AGAIN. 99
Alexander Dubcek, Czechoslovakian leader, 1989
es
e Penal 2 pet 4 Pa
3 & C.. we is
Huge crowds demo nstrate for the end of communist rule in Hungary. The Republic
of Hungary was proclaimed on 23 October, marking a new era in Europe.

; on the crowds. Honecker was

ousted from office on 18 October.
: After the fall of Honecker’s low-gain
regime, the leader of the East antenna —-\
: Berlin communist party, Gunter
: Schabowski, announced on radioisotope ia
' + 9 November that the border with thermoelectric
: West Berlin would be opened generator (RTG)
: for “private trips abroad”. That
© night, 50,000 East Berliners
rushed to the Berlin Wall (see
1961). The guards let them
: pass. The crowds were met by
: ecstatic West Berliners on the
: other side. The next
i morning, they started
bringing the wall down.
: On 3 December, the US and the Jupiter
: USSR met in Malta and declared atmospheric
: the end of the Cold War. At a joint probe high-gain
: news conference held on board antenna

: the Soviet cruise ship, Maxim

. Galileo space probe
: Gorky, President George Bush majority Albanians. When
: Named after astronomer Galilei
: (b.1924) and President Mikhail : Slobodan Milosevic became : Galileo, the probe travelled a
: Gorbachev (b.1931] announced president of Serbia on 8 May, he : distance of more than 4.5 billion
plans for substantial reductions used this alleged persecution as a ! km [nearly 3 billion miles),
in weapons in Europe. Praised by justification for stripping Kosovo | circling Jupiter 34 times.
those outside the USSR, internally : of its autonomy and became a
: it placed Gorbachev's position as : champion of Serbian nationalism. : The US launched Galileo, an
: Soviet leader at risk. On 20 December, US troops : unmanned probe to Jupiter and
Kosovo, an autonomous invaded Panama in a bid to oust : its moons, aboard the space
province of Serbia, had been dictator Manuel Noriega. Over 200 © shuttle Atlantis on 18 October. At
: clamouring for independence civilians died in the fighting. ' acost of $1.5 billion, Galileo
i = since the death of Josip Tito : A new government, headed by : reached its final destination in
: (see 1980). There was increasing : Guillermo Endara, was installed. : 1994 after taking detailed images
: ethnic tension between Serbs In New York, Wall Street : of Venus and the asteroid belt
and Albanians for control of the = suffered acrash on Friday 13 : on the way.
:P rovince. Serbs argued
g that the y October, as a failed buyout of
» were being gp persecuted byy the i United Airlines caused share
: values to plummet. It was the
second largest drop of the Dow
The Wall falls : ; ‘
: r
An East German border guard peers : pies Mea cste agers rock
through a hole in the Berlin Wall, market index, in LetOry, and
brought down in 1989, a potent : became known as the ‘Friday-
symbol of the end of communism. : the-13th mini-crash”.

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Nelson Mandela and his wife Winnie punch the air in a victory salute after A man tries to put out a fire at an oil well in Burhan, Kuwait. Iraqi troops had
his release from Victor Verster prison. He was held in captivity for 27 years. set alight more than 600 oil fields during their occupation of the country.

THE 30-YEAR BAN ON THE AFRICAN (b.1929)] became the first female ON 13 JANUARY, SOVIET TROOPS : Communist Party of the Soviet
NATIONAL CONGRESS (ANC) : president of Nicaragua. STORMED INTO LITHUANIA to : Union to end its rule in Russia.
in South Africa was lifted by In the Persian Gulf, Iraq suppress dissident nationalists. In The USSR disintegrated into
President De Klerk on 2 February. : invaded Kuwait on 2 August. The the crackdown, 14 people were 15 separate countries as the
This started the long process : Invasion was preceded by border killed and more than 500 injured. : world looked on in amazement.
of dismantling the apartheid ' disputes between the two Protestors had gathered to protect : On 8 December, heads of three
system. In sweeping reforms, : countries, and Iraq’s inability to a TV station after a broadcast : of the Soviet Union's 15 republics,
De Klerk also announced that the : repay money borrowed from called for people to defend Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus,
outlawed South African Communist: Kuwait during the Iraq-lran War government buildings from the met to disband the Soviet Union
Party and the Pan-Africanist : {1980-88}. On 8 August, Iraqi Soviet troops. and form a new union, the
Congress would be allowed to : leader Saddam Hussein (1937- On 13 June, Boris Yeltsin : Commonwealth of Independent
resume legal political activities. : 2006) announced that Kuwait had (1931-2007) became the first States. On 21 December, eight
Nine days later, Nelson Mandela : become a part of Iraq. World popularly elected president of : others joined it. After four days,
(b.1918], the leader of the ANC, : leaders condemned the invasion. Russia, inflicting a heavy defeat on » Mikhail Gorbachev announced he
walked free after spending 27 : Soon after, allied forces led by the : the Communist Party. The win gave : was resigning as Soviet president;
years in jail. : US were sent to the Gulf (see 1991). One of the founding members him a power base to challenge the : the USSR was no more.
Neighbouring Namibia became On 23 August, Saddam Hussein of Poland's Solidarity trade incumbent leader of the Soviet Yugoslavia was also breaking up
the 47th African country to gain : appeared on television with union movement, Lech Union, Mikhail Gorbachev (b.1931). _ - Slovenia and Croatia declared
independence after 25 years of : Western hostages, mostly of Walesa was awarded the A military coup attempted to : independence in June. Serban
struggle against South African : British origin, captured in Iraq. He Nobel Peace Prize in 1983. remove Gorbachev from power : president Slobodan Milosevic
rule. Sam Nujoma was elected as : denied accusations that he was In 1990, he became Poland’s when he was on holiday in August. : sent troops to both regions to
the first president in March. : using these hostages as “human first post-communist Yeltsin organized a resistance and : stop them from seceding. The
In Central America, free : shields” against a potential US-led president. He failed to gain a the coup collapsed on 21 August. : city of Vukovar in eastern
elections were held in Nicaragua : Coalition attack. second term in office, as he Subsequently, Yeltsin ordered the : Croatia was devastated after
on 25 February. National : Further north, Soviet troops were had alienated voters with his : a three-month siege by Serbs,
Opposition Union, a coalition of : ordered into Baku, Azerbaijan, on erratic leadership style. 24 : which ended in November.
political parties backed by US ; the evening of 19 January to put In Northern Ireland, the main
funding, defeated the left-wing : down a separatist movement by political parties held an historic
Sandinistas. Violeta Chamorro : Azerbaijani nationalists. The next day, thousands of Azerbaijanis : meeting on 18 June to discuss
: set fire to their Communist Party NH
=fon
oO
: the future of the province.
Warbah IRAN : membership cards. : Northern Ireland had suffered
Germany was reunited on ' years of sectarian violence and
ns)
: 3 October, nearly a year after the : there was an overwhelming public
: fall of the Berlin Wall (see 1989). : desire to end bloodshed.
: Helmut Kohl (b.1930) was elected
8~
Persian War zone Peace talks were also held on
Gulf Kuwait, a small : as the first chancellor of the » the Middle East between Arabs
oil-rich Arab nation, ' reunified nation. 64
; and Israelis in Spain, on 30 October.
THOUSANDS)
(IN
LOSSES
MILITARY
was annexed by
neighbouring Iraq.
On 1 December, the Channel
: Tunnel, the world’s longest
=i 7, : It was the first time in over
40 years that Israel had sat down
~@ Mina’ al Anmadi The seven-month-long : undersea rail tunnel linking Iraq Coalition
~@ Mina’ “Abd Allah occupation ended forces : with allits Arab neighbours to
: Britain with France, came a step : discuss peace.
after military lraq-Kuwait war casualties
: closertocompletion. The
SAUDI intervention by US-led The superiority of coalition forces Elsewhere, the United Natiens
ARABIA forces in Operation : construction workers drilled is starkly illustrated by the : (UN) issued an ultimatum to
Desert Storm, a through the final section of rock to disproportionately heavy losses : Saddam Hussein to withdraw Iraqi
largely air offensive. join the two halves of the tunnel. inflicted on the Iraqi military. : troops from Kuwait by 15 January
 Residents of Sarajevo, Bosnia, duck sniper shots at a peace march during
the Bosnian War as radical Serbs open fire on them.

THE IDEA OF A UNITED EUROPE : Salvation Front, a fundamentalist

AUSTRIA
CAME CLOSER TO REALIZATION : party, whom many believed was
HUNGARY
when leaders of 12 European : responsible for the assassination.

THE NUMBER
aur
countries signed the treaty on US Marines waded onto the
European Union and the : shores of Somalia on 9 December.

OF BOSNIANS
SLOVENIA © Zagreb
Maastricht Final Act on 7 : Somalia was stricken by famine,
CROATIA Vojvodina ROMANIA
February. It heralded common : but extortion and looting prevented
e Novi Sad
citizenship, and common AND CROATS ' foreign aid from getting through.

HELD IN : The US-led operation aimed to

e economic and defence policies.
Belgrade
BOSNIA AND The break up of Yugoslavia : hold Mogadishu’s airport to
HERZEGOVINA
SERBIA continued as Bosnia and OMARSKA : enable supplies to be airlifted to

‘DEATH CAMP
Sarajevo : Starving locals.
Herzegovina declared
independence on 3 March. Serbs The Los Angeles police
living in Bosnia, however, resisted department was accused of
MONTENEGRO
e Pristina BULGARIA the move. War broke out and the : Yugoslav army under Slobodan : racism and excessive force after
e Kosovo : Milosevic attacked the Muslim : a video of four policemen savagely
Titograd
e@Skopje
: population of Bosnia. The capital, : beating a black man, Rodney
: Sarajevo, came under siege from : King, was broadcast in 1991. The
MACEDONIA
ITALY : Bosnian Serbs. Supplies became : officers were acquitted in a trial,
: short and people struggled for : triggering race riots on 29 April,
: survival (see 1996). : which led to 55 casualties.
ALBANIA GREECE
= In August, footage of Serbian On 4 November, Democrat
The division of Yugoslavia KEY : prison camps, showing starving : Bill Clinton (b.1946) beat
After 72 years, Yugoslavia disappeared from the New Countries men behind barbed-wire fences, : George Bush (b.1924) in the
map of Europe after war and political upheaval UN PEACEKEEPING — : sparked outrage around the world. | US presidential elections.
led to the formation of six independent countries. ! The camps, mostly in Bosnia, were : Clinton promised to lift the
United Nations Peacekeeping : part of Serbia's “ethnic cleansing : US out of economic stagnation.
(see 1990). He refused to comply, : killed by a bomb in the town of emerged out of World War II : policy” that called for the removal :
and on 17 January, the US and : Sriperumbudur
while campaigning as a way to place military : of other ethnic groups from
coalition forces launched with his party for the forthcoming personnel between warring :; Serb-dominated communities.
“Operation Desert Storm’, also ? elections. A female suicide countries or communities to : On 20 December, Slobodan
known as the First Gulf War : bomber from Liberation Tigers stop fighting. UN forces were ! Milosevic was re-elected as
(1990-91). Kuwait was liberated : of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a guerilla first used as an observer to : Serbian president. Prime minister
after five weeks. © group in Sri Lanka also known as monitor the armistice : Milan Panic called for fresh
The First Gulf War left Saddam : the “Tamil Tigers’, was later between Israel and the Arab : elections, citing fraud. After nine
Hussein vulnerable in Iraq. There found to have been responsible. states in 1948. Its role has days, Panic lost a parliamentary
were anti-government uprisings : On 8 August, John McCarthy, a grown substantially since : vote of no confidence.
43%
by Shi'ite Muslims in the south of : British journalist held hostage by then: supervising elections, Algerian president Mohammed BILL CLINTON
the country and by Kurds in the : an Islamic extremist group in checking human rights, Boudiaf was assassinated on
north. During March and April, : Lebanon, was released after five clearing land mines, and : 29 June at a rally in Annaba.
thousands of people were killed : years in captivity (see 1986). Later intervening in failed states. : Boudiaf had been instrumental in
: Clinton's victory
as Saddam crushed the revolts. : in the year, fellow British hostage By 1992, UN Peacekeeping : the Algerian uprising against
: Bill Clinton became the 42nd
In India, Rajiv Gandhi (b.1944), : Terry Waite, and Americans Terry forces had made 26 : France (see 1958). He had recently : president of the US by beating
- the former prime minister, was Anderson and Tom Sutherland interventions worldwide. : returned from exile to help the : opponents Ross Perot and
assassinated on 21 May. He was : were also freed. ! government combat the Islamic : George Bush.

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Prague, famed for its architecturally diverse castle district shown above, became the capital Refugees flee the civil war in Rwanda
of the newly formed Czech Republic. The castle is the official seat of the Czech head of state. and head for refugee camps in Zaire.

THE SINGLE MARKET CAME INTO : opposition to his ‘shock therapy” A series of bomb blasts rocked IN SOUTH AFRICA, ZULUS AND
FORCE across European Union : programme of reforms, which he : India’s financial capital Mumbai AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
(EU) countries in January. It gave - had initiated in 1992. The measures (formerly Bombay) on 12 March, (ANC) supporters clashed on 28
greater freedom to citizens of : were aimed at loosening the state's killing 257 people and injuring 713 March - more than 18 people
were killed. The Zulus were
431,
member states to live and work in : grip on the economy and moving others. They were carried out by
other EU countries and paved the : towards a market-driven model, : an underworld crime syndicate. responding to calls by their
way for a single currency, the Euro. : but they were widely regarded as The Irish Republican Army WOUNDED leaders to boycott the forthcoming
On 1 January, Czechoslovakia : being capitalist and “Western”. (IRA) exploded a massive bomb in national elections. The elections
was split into Slovakia and the : The Russian parliament tried to : the City of London, the economic went ahead, and on 10 May,
Czech Republic, dissolving the : impeach Yeltsin, who responded heart of the English capital, on 24 Nelson Mandela became South
74-year-old federation. The : with a decree dissolving the ' April. This came a month after an Africa’s first black president
: Coup casualties
creation of the Czech Republic, : parliament on 21 September. : IRA blast in Warrington, which after more than three centuries of
: Russian president Boris Yeltsin
with its capital in Prague, and : Under increasing pressure from : killed two children. Later in the : seized absolute authority by storming white rule. His party, the ANC [see
Slovakia, with its capital in : his political opponents, Yeltsin : year, on 19 December, the leaders : the parliament in Moscow, ending a panel, opposite], won 252 of the
Bratislava, became known as the : ordered parliamentarians to : of Northern Ireland and Britain : rebellion by hardline opponents. 400 seats in the first democratic
“Velvet Divorce” following the : vacate the parliament building. : signed a peace declaration, aiming | elections in South Africa’s history.
Velvet Revolution [see 1989). : When they refused, Yeltsin : to end violence in the province. : Palestine Liberation Organization Elsewhere in Africa, the
Russian president Boris Yeltsin : ordered the army to seize Moves towards peace were also : (PLO). They signed the Oslo president of Rwanda, Juvenal
(1931-2007) faced mounting » the building. » underway between Israel and the : Accords in Washington, D.C. in Habyarimana (b.1937], a Hutu,
: the presence of the US president was killed when his plane was
: Bill Clinton (b.1946] in September. shot down above Kigali airport
: Aimed at mutual recognition, the on 6 April. The incident catalyzed
: accords were preceded by secret a mass genocide. Between April
: talks between the two parties, and June, about 800,000
: encouraged by the Norwegian Rwandans were killed, most
4 = government. of them Tutsis killed by Hutus.
On 19 April, a siege at the On 1 July, PLO chairman Yasser
' headquarters of a US religious Arafat (1929-2004) returned to
' } sect, the Branch Davidian, near the Gaza Strip after 27 years in
: Waco, Texas killed at least 70 exile. It marked the start of the
: people, including its leader, David enactment of the Declaration
: Koresh, when it ended in a fire. of Principles agreed at the Oslo
: The Federal Bureau of Investigation Accords, signed in Washington
_ (FBI) had surrounded the building D.C. the previous year {see 1993].
: since February, when four agents Israel and Jordan signed a
: with the Bureau of Alcohol, historic peace deal on 26 October,
» Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) were ending 46 years of war. US
: killed while trying to arrest Koresh president Bill Clinton witnessed
: for illegally possessing firearms. the treaty between Israeli prime
minister Yitzhak Rabin (1922-95)
and King Hussein at a ceremony
Mostar Bridge
A 16th-century bridge spanned the in Wadi Araba, on the Israel-
Neretva River for 427 years before it Jordan border.
was destroyed during the fighting On 31 August, the IRA declared
between Croats and Muslims. a ceasefire after 25 years of

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 44. THE GREATEST
FAILURE OF THE WEST
SINCE THE 1930s. 99
Richard Holbrooke, US Assistant Secretary of State,
on the Bosnian crisis

armed struggle against British : An investigation into the accident THE CITY OF KOBE IN JAPAN WAS
rule in Northern Ireland. The : found that stormy weather, poor DEVASTATED BY AN EARTHQUAKE
ceasefire indicated the IRA's : maintenance, and high speed on 17 January. Measuring 7.2 on
willingness to enter into peace : contributed to the disaster. the Richter scale, it resulted in
talks on the political future of the Millions watched in horror as hundreds of deaths and over
province. The Irish prime minister, : the Formula One racing champion, 13,000 injuries.
Albert Reynolds, asked loyalist : Ayrton Senna, ploughed off the Barings, a British investment
paramilitaries to toe the track at the San Marino Grand bank, was declared bankrupt
same line. However, loyalists j = Prix, on 1 May, ina fatal crash. after an employee, Nick Leeson,
were suspicious of this » Astate funeral was held in his risked huge amounts of money on
declaration and feared that : home city of Sao Paulo. Senna the Nikkei, the Japanese stock
: Eurostar’s maiden run
Northern Ireland's position in : was a national hero in Brazil and market index. The index collapsed
: The high-speed rail service, Eurostar,
Great Britain would be threatened, : which travels through the Channel ' had given millions to help the after the Kobe earthquake.
but in the end, on 13 October, they : Tunnel, linking England and France, ; country’s underprivileged children. On 20 March, Turkey launched
announced their own ceasefire. : made its maiden voyage in 1994. a major military offensive,
involving 35,000 troops, against : Oklahoma bombing
War continued in Bosnia and
: A massive truck bomb exploded in
Herzegovina, and on 5 February, : was believed to have been carried the Kurds in northern Iraq. This
: front of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal
a marketplace in downtown ; out by Serbians. was an attempt to pursue rebel : Building in Oklahoma City, US, on 19
Sarajevo was devastated by a On 11 December, Russian Turkish Kurds who had fled into : April. It was felt 48km (30 miles) away.
mortar bomb, killing 68 people : president Boris Yeltsin ordered the region and prevent them from
and injuring a further 200. The ' troops into the rebel region of setting up permanent bases : The Turkish government hold the
international community : Chechnya to prevent it from there. The Kurds had been : separatist Kurdistan Worker's
condemned the atrocity, which : breaking away from the country. engaged in an armed struggle for : Party (PKK) responsible for more
: This Muslim-dominated region a separate homeland since 1984 : than 30,000 deaths over the
had declared its independence and had grievances over the lack : course of the conflict. Repeated
from Moscow three years before of rights for Kurds within Turkey. : military operations by Turkey
under the leadership of General against the PKK have not proved
315 cases
Dzhokhar Dudayev. : effective and the conflict continues.
On 19 September, the US led A powerful bomb exploded in
an invasion force in Haiti to Founded in 1912 with the aim : Oklahoma City, US, on 19 April,
bring the military junta to an end of increasing the rights of : killing 168 people. Timothy
and restore democracy under black South Africans, the : McVeigh, a Gulf War veteran,
President Aristide, exiled three African National Congress was convicted of the attack. The
: years earlier. No shots were fired. (ANC] came to power in : bombing was in reaction to the
On 6 May, Queen Elizabeth 1994, when Nelson Mandela : government's handling of the
- (b.1926) of Britain and President was elected president of : Waco siege (see 1993).
: Francois Mitterand (1916-96) of South Africa. The ANC still Srebrenica, a Muslim enclave
: France formally opened the enjoys majority support, but ; and UN-designated safe haven,
: Channel Tunnel. Linking England is troubled by internal power : was overrun by Bosnian Serbs
: and France, the tunnel took eight struggles between Thabo : on 10 July and “ethnically
: years to build. : Mbeki and Jacob Zuma, the ' cleansed”. In December, the
Brazil's Samba Boys The Ebola scare
| MS Estonia, a car and passenger two successors of Mandela, An outbreak of Ebola occurred in
: leaders of Bosnia, Serbia, and
Marcio Santos of Brazil holds the : Croatia signed the Dayton Peace
FIFA World Cup trophy to celebrate
' ferry, sankinthe BalticSeaon and the challenges of poverty 1995 in Zaire. Of the 315 cases
28 September - 852 passengers and AIDS. identified, 254 died, giving a fatality : Accord in Paris, bringing three
victory. Brazil, known as the Samba
Boys, beat Italy in the final. : died, half of whom were Swedes. rate of81 per cent. : years of war in Bosnia to an end.

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 7
THE GROSS REVENUE EARNED AT THE
BOX OFFICE BY THE FILM TITANIC
Dolly the sheep, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult animal's
DNA, in her pen at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland.

CHECHNYAN REBEL LEADER VIOLENCE IN ZAIRE ESCALATED in : government insurgents began : October. The inspectors had been
Salman Raduyev was shot on February, intensifying the misery : nearing the capital Tirana, those : sent in the aftermath of the 1991
6 March and reported dead (he 1,353 of Rwandan-Hutu refugees who : loyal to President Sali Berisha : Gulf War with a remit to destroy
had in fact disappeared abroad Ireland had fled there to escape the civil : armed civilians in Tirana, : Iraq's nuclear, biological, and
for medical treatment). A war in Rwanda. In April, rebel ! opening up stores of guns and : chemical weapons arsenal. This
900 _/
ceasefire was signed between soldiers, mainly Tutsis, sealed off : ammunition. The result was : action provoked a diplomatic
France
Russia and Chechnya (see 1994) camps in eastern Zaire, where : chaos, and foreign nationals were : crisis which was defused by a
on 31 August. 183,841 refugees were trapped in : urged to leave. : Russian-brokered compromise.
UK In Japan, the Kyoto Protocol
Romanian elections were won appalling conditions. Thousands Hong Kong was handed back to
by the Romanian Democratic were massacred. The government : the Chinese authorities on 1 July was signed on 11 December. It
Convention, bringing 48 years of Zaire collapsed on 3 April, and : after 150 years of British rule. The ' committed industrialized nations
of communist rule to an end. Etienne Tshisekedi (b.1932] : new chief executive, Tung Chee : to reducing emissions of
BSE cases
Civil war began in Afghanistan, became prime minister of the new Hwa, formulated a policy based greenhouse gases, principally
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy,
when Taliban rebels seized Kabul or “mad-cow disease”, caused a government. As the violence : On one country, two systems,” to : carbon dioxide, in an attempt to
on 27 September, forcing major health scare in Europe. Most escalated 56,000 Zaireans fled : preserve Hong Kong's role as a : combat global warming.
hundreds to flee the war-torn city. : cases of BSE occurred in the UK. into Tanzania. : capitalist centre in Asia. : The film Titanic, about the
The Kurdish civil war continued, Albania was consumed by Diana, Princess of Wales, : ill-fated voyage of the famous
and Iraq seized a city inside the sides to find a solution to Northern anarchy during March and April, : died ina car crash on 31 August : passenger liner that sank in 1912,
Kurdish “safe haven” protected by : Ireland's political problems. as law and order collapsed. When : ina Paris underpass. The news : was premiered in December. At the
US president Bill Clinton : of her death was greeted with : time, it was the most expensive
: won another term in office on Guggenheim museum : unprecedented scenes of : film ever made, but also the
: 6November. When Clinton This museum in Bilbao, Spain, mourning around the world. : most successful, grossing over
: reshuffled his cabinet on 12 designed by US architect Frank : Iraq refused to allow UN : $1.8 billion. It also won 11
: December, Madeleine Albright Gehry, was opened on 18 October. : weapons inspectors entry in : Academy Awards (Oscars).
a : became the first female American
: Secretary of State.
THE NUMBER : Science fact metscience
OF MONTHS : fiction when Dolly, a sheep, was
© born on 5 July in Edinburgh,
THE IRA : Scotland. Dolly was the first
CEASEFIRE mammal to be cloned from
: an adult cell.
LASTED
US-led troops on 31 August. In
response, America launched
Operation Desert Strike,
firing missiles at Iraqi
military targets.
The IRA (Irish Republican
Army] exploded a bomb in
: Grline shopping
the Docklands area of East
: The online auction site eBay boomed
London on 10 February, ending : in 1996 with clever technology and a
a 17-month ceasefire {see 1994], : forum for rating buyers and sellers. It
which had tried to enable both : Is nowa global phenomenon.

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Bill Clinton hugs White House intern Moni ca Lewinsky the day after his re-election Police confront demonstrators at the WTO conference in Seattle, northwest
in 1996. The image was later said to be evidence of their relationship. US. The protests were against large corporations and globalization.

IN JANUARY, US PRESIDENT BILL ; be impeached (Andrew Johnson : Tanzania and Kenya earlier in the A SINGLE EUROPEAN CURRENCY,
CLINTON became the centre of a : was the first, in 1868). Clinton was month. America said one target the Euro, was launched on
scandal involving his relationship charged with committing perjury was a base for Osama Bin Laden, 1 January. Eleven European Union
with a former White House intern, : in front of a grand jury, but : founder of the Islamic extremist member states decided to adopt
Monica Lewinsky. Clinton was acquitted the following year. : organization al-Qaeda. the Euro, which became a full
already implicated in a sexual A devastating earthquake General Pinochet, former economic currency in 2002.
harassment case and was being hit northern Afghanistan on Chilean dictator (see 1973], was The international community
investigated by independent 4 February. It killed an estimated arrested in London on 16 October accused President Slobodan
counsel Kenneth Starr. The : 4,000 people, and left around by police acting on behalf of Milosevic of ‘ethnic cleansing”
president denied the relationship. : 30,000 homeless. Spain, who alleged Pinochet had when 45 ethnic Albanians were
In December, he became only the The Good Friday Agreement committed atrocities against found dead, apparently executed by
second president in US history to : was signed on 10 April. It marked Spanish citizens. Pinochet was Serbs. Kosovo peace talks ended
Solar eclipse
: a major breakthrough in the deemed too ill for extradition and without agreement on 23 February A total solar eclipse occurred
: Northern Ireland peace process. released in 2000. and a week later NATO forces on 11 August 1999. It was
: Areferendum held in Northern On 1 May, Saddam Hussein announced they would escalate watched by over 350 million
Ireland and the Republic of Ireland wrote an open letter to the UN their bombardment of people in Asia and Europe.
on 22 May was overwhelmingly in Security Council threatening “grave Yugoslavia. The purging of
: favour of the accord. consequences’ if sanctions against Albanians by Serbian troops (b.1943), who took the role of
Pol Pot, former Khmer Rouge : Iraq were not lifted. The attempts increased, and half a million “chief executive”. The
THE MAGNITUDE "ruler of Cambodia (see 1978}, : by UN weapons inspectors to Albanians fled Kosovo. Milosevic international community
OF THE : died on 15 April. The Khmer verify the weapons arsenal in Iraq agreed to withdraw his troops on condemned the coup and many
: Rouge had deposed him as leader ended on 16 December, when the 9 June, in response to unrelenting nations imposed sanctions
AFGHANISTAN and sentenced him to life Iraqis refused to co-operate. US NATO bombing. against Pakistan.
EARTHQUAKE > Imprisonment in 1997. and British air strikes on Iraq, Thabo Mbeki won the South The World Trade Organization
Eritrean and Ethiopian border known as Operation Desert Fox, African presidential elections (WTO) held a conference in
clashes turned into a full-scale war began hours later. on 2 June, succeeding Nelson Seattle, US, late in the year, which
in May. Both countries, among the Mandela. He faced huge economic was delayed by protesters
: poorest in the world, spent millions 2.5% and social challenges, including campaigning for environmental
: on sophisticated weaponry. the terrible impact of HIV/AIDS. issues and against globalization.
India and Pakistan went East Timor, in Southeast Asia, Demonstrators clashed with
2.0
nuclear this year. India performed asked for intervention from police before being dispersed.
» underground nuclear explosions international troops after a NASA lost contact with its Mars
on 12 May near the Pakistani complete breakdown in law and Polar Lander shortly before its
border; Pakistan responded order in September. This followed planned entry into the Martian
: by carrying out its own tests a referendum, which voted for atmosphere. The failure of the
> on 28 May. independence from Indonesia. mission was blamed ona
Japan officially entered a Anti-independence Timorese software error.
recession on 12 June. It was the rebels, supported by the Macau reverted from
PERCENTAGE)
[IN
GROWTH
GDP
© first time its economy had shrunk Indonesian military, killed Portuguese to Chinese rule on
: in 12 years. The news caused 1996 1997 1998 1999 an estimated 1,400 Timorese, : 20 December, after 442 years of
: global stock markets to slump. and 300,000 people fled to Portuguese control. Macau was
Recession in Japan
US missiles pounded targets in neighbouring West Timor. the last remaining colonial state
Japan's recession was at its worst
Afghanistan and Sudan on 20 in 1998. It was caused by a drop in A military coup in Pakistan on in Asia. Edmond Ho Hau-wah
August, in retaliation for the exports, weak domestic demand, 12 October brought to power : (b.1955), a banker, became leader
bombing of US Embassies in and a fall in property prices. General Pervez Musharraf : of the new government.

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A trader despairs at the fall of the Nasdaq Stock Market and the New York Stock Exchange Géorge W. Bush was elected president of the US in 2001. Here he shakes hands
when the dot-com bubble burst. The Nasdaq never fully recovered. Al Gore, the defeated Democrat candidate, outside the US Capitol in Washington.

Millennium celebrations
Fireworks explode in a spectacular
display over Sydney Harbour Bridge
and Opera House as Australia
THE AMOUNT
welcomed in the new millennium. OF MONEY LOST
BY ENRON
Israel announced its withdrawal
SHAREHOLDERS
: from South Lebanon in May, 22
: years after occupying it. The
: occupation had become unpopular THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA : a further 17 were infected. The
: with the Israeli electorate. WAS ON THE BRINK OF WAR ' suspect committed suicide.
: North and South Korea held a in March, as ethnic Albanian In October, the US and Britain
: summit in June, the first since the rebels demanding equal rights » launched attacks on targets in
» peninsula was divided in 1945. clashed with government : Afghanistan, where Osama Bin
The South Korean president Kim forces. In August, NATO : Laden (1957-2011), head of the
: Dae-jung received the Nobel announced it would send a ; militant Islamic organization
| : Peace Prize for his efforts. peacekeeping force to this : al-Qaeda, was believed to be
: More than 800 followers of a former Yugoslavian republic. ‘ hiding. Operation “Enduring
: Ugandan cult known as the The US experienced an : Freedom’ aimed to remove the
» Restoration of the Ten unprecedented day of terror on : Taliban regime and replace it with
: Commandments of God died in 11 September, when 19 al-Qaeda : a democratic government.
: their churches in March. It is terrorists hijacked four passenger : Large parts of the world were
: uncertain whether they committed airlines. Two flew into the twin : tipped into recession after the
IN JANUARY, THE UN WARCRIMES : between the Danish capital, : mass Suicide or were murdered towers of the World Trade : 9/11 terror attacks, and many in
TRIBUNAL in The Hague : Copenhagen, and the Swedish port : by the leaders of the cult. Centre, another into the : the business community were
sentenced five Bosnian Croat of Malmo — was opened to traffic > The year ended in bloodshed Pentagon. The fourth crashed : mourning deceased colleagues.
militiamen to 25 years in prison © this year. : asa series of terrorist bombs into a field near Pittsburgh. ' Economic problems worsened
for a 1993 murder spree that In March, stock markets around : went off on 30 December in the Nearly 3,000 people were killed. : when Enron, an American
emptied a Bosnian village of all the world crashed when internet : Philippines. They became known These events left America, and : power-trading company, went bust
its Muslim inhabitants during the companies began to fail and the - as the Rizal Day bombings the world, in a profound state of : in December in the world’s biggest
Bosnian War (1992-95). : dot-com bubble, caused by : because of the national holiday shock. The devastating impact of : corporate collapse.
Opposition supporters from speculative investment into : celebrated on this day. what became known simply as : In December, Argentina
Serbia stormed the Yugoslav : internet-based companies, burst. “9/11”, September 11, prompted plunged into financial ruin.
parliament building in Belgrade Anti-globalization protestors President Bush to declare a ‘war : The government announced
on 9 October using a bulldozer, : descended on Prague in on terror”. NATO met the day : that its foreign debt could not
proclaiming Vojislav Kostunica : September during meetings after the attacks, offering full © be paid back and billions of
as the new Yugoslav president : between the World Bank and the support and invoking a Cold : dollars in government spending
after discrepancies in September : International Monetary Fund. War-era treaty clause that stated ? would be cut.
elections caused outrage. : The police presence was huge, when one member is attacked; all : Another attempted terrorist
President Milosevic announced : and more than 600 people were members are attacked. : attack occurred towards the end
his resignation the next day. : injured in riots. First crew of ISS
= . The International
Only a week after 9/11, letters : of the year. Richard Reid, a
In 1991, Denmark and Sweden The first crew arrived at the were mailed to several news : British passenger flying from
Space Station received
agreed to build a bridge connecting : International Space Station its first crew in 2000. The crew was offices and two Democratic US : Paris to Miami, was caught trying
the two countries. The 16-km (10- : in November, with NASA astronaut composed of three men: two Senators containing anthrax - to light a fuse protruding from his
mile) long Oresund Link - running : Bill Shepherd as commander. Russians and one American. spores. Five people died and : Shoe. Reid, an Islamic

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44 PEACEFUL TRANSFER OF AUTHORITY
IS RARE IN HISTORY, YET COMMON
IN OUR COUNTRY. WITH A SIMPLE
OATH, WE AFFIRM OLD TRADITIONS,
AND MAKE NEW BEGINNINGS. 99
George W. Bush, opening his inaugration speech, 20 January 2001

fundamentalist and supporter

of al-Qaeda, was sentenced to
life imprisonment.
As the terrorist threat from
al-Qaeda took centre stage,
the Irish Republican Army (IRA)
made an historic announcement.
On 23 October, it stated that it had
begun to disarm and had put
some of its weapons beyond use.”
In India, the state of Gujarat was
rocked by an earthquake on
26 January, which registered 7.9
on the Richter scale. More than
20,000 people died and 400,000
homes were destroyed.
The free online encyclopedia
“Wikipedia” was launched on
15 January by Jimmy Wales and
Larry Sanger. By the end of the
year, it held more than 20,000
articles in 18 languages. Articles
are written by volunteers and can
be edited by anyone.
The Human Genome Project
(HGP] aimed to identify all
the genes in the human body.
In February, the HGP published
its first draft: a 90 per cent
complete sequence of all
three billion base pairs in
the human genome.
US technology company, Apple,
had high hopes for its new digital
music player, the iPod, which
was launched on 23 October.
The device could store hundreds
of music tracks, yet was around
the same size as a pack of cards.

Terror attack
Hijacked United Airlines Flight 175
crashed into the South Tower of the
World Trade Centre, and exploded,
killing hundreds of people.

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 : =
e
Members of a Chechen militant group speak to journalists inside a theatre
in Moscow, during a stand-off with Russian troops.

THE EURO BECAME LEGAL TENDER : : Common currency Sierra Leone in West Africa THE BEGINNING OF THE YEAR
at the start of the year when 12 : Anew currency for 12 members of : emerged from a decade of civil war was marred by tragedy when the
countries in the Eurozone the European Union, the Euro, : with the help of a strong diplomatic US space shuttle Columbia
(see 1999] abolished their was launched in January : and military presence from Britain, disintegrated as it re-entered
2002. It has since become
individual currencies. : its former colonial ruler. the Earth's atmosphere. All seven
secure as global tender.
Slobodan Milosevic, The 26-year civil war in Angola crew members were killed. An
the former Yugoslav ji
: ended in April when a ceasefire investigation confirmed that a
president, went on trial Members of a violent ' was agreed between the Angolan heat shield had malfunctioned
on 12 February, charged Islamist group, Jemaah » Army and UNITA (National Union on take-off, causing it to break
with crimes against Islamiyah, were convicted : for the Total Independence of up upon re-entry.
humanity. He chose to defend : of the attack. : Angola). The civil war had been The last commercial flight of
himself, and the trial faced many US-led forces began the first ' ongoing since independence from Concorde, the supersonic aircraft,
delays due to his ill-health. large-scale campaign against the : Portugal in 1975. was made in October. Concorde
Milosevic died in 2006, before the : Taliban in Afghanistan - Operation : The African Union replaced the was given an emotional farewell at
trial was completed. and threatened those inside if : Anaconda began in March. Organization of African Unity in Heathrow airport in London,
President George W. Bush of : Russia did not withdraw from The US journalist Daniel Pearl © July. The new union was intended England. It had flown for 27 years
America and President Vladirnir : Chechnya. Russian special forces : was kidnapped in January in : to reflect the different challenges but spiraling costs and dwindling
Putin of Russia agreed to cut pumped gas into the building : Karachi, Pakistan. Pearl was : facing the continent. ticket sales led to its demise.
numbers of nuclear warheads by : before engaging the rebels ina : investigating extremist Muslim Yugoslavia voted to end its
two-thirds each in the Treaty of : gun battle - 118 people were killed. : groups. His ransom dernanded existence in February, becoming
Moscow, signed on 24 May. A nightclub on the Indonesian : the release and return to Pakistan ‘44WE, ... TRUE Serbia and Montenegro. The
In Moscow, a gang of heavily
armed Chechen militants
: island of Bali became the target
; of a terrorist attack in which
: of prisoners from Guantanamo
: Bay, a US prison camp in Cuba.
OWNERS OF Yugoslavian Federation had
existed for 74 years, but had
besieged a theatre on 23 October, » more than 200 people died. : Pearl's body was found in May. THIS LAND, lost its other four republics in
India and Pakistan came close SHALL NOT
:
i MS
to war in May, following a major
: terrorist attack on the Indian BUDGE, THE Speedy exit
: parliament in 2001, which India
: claimed was carried out by
LAND IS OURS. 99 The supersonic airliner Concorde
retired in 2002. Concorde was an
international icon and epitomized
: Pakistan-based militant groups : Robert Mugabe, president of the advance of modern technology.
© fighting Indian rule in Kashmir, : Zimbabwe, December 2002
© north India. Both countries :
: positioned troops either side of the : Robert Mugabe, president
f : international border with Kashmir. : of Zimbabwe, ordered white
Tamil rebels signed a ceasefire : farmers to leave as part of his
: with the Sri Lankan government : policy on land redistribution
: in February as part of a : to the black populace. The
: Norwegian-led initiative that ' declaration was
: ended 19 years of civil war. ' defied by many
: farmers.
Meltdown US millionaire Steve Fossett
A massive chunk ofAntarctica’s became the first person to fly a
Larsen ice shelf broke up in 2002 - : balloon solo non-stop around the
it lost a total of about 3,250 sq km : world. He completed the journey
(1,255 sq miles]. : on 2 July in 13 days and 12 hours.
 464 WE HAVE CONQUERED THE
SARS EPIDEMIC IN 2003. 99
Wen Jiabao, Premier of China

‘a
Doctors and healthcare workers attend a symposium on Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome (SARS] in Hong Kong.

3 : create an EU president and

j : foreign minister.
Arnold Schwarzenegger, a
: former actor famous for playing
the"Terminator” in Hollywood
movies, became governor of
California, US, in October.
Istanbul, Turkey, was rocked
by two bombs on 20 November,
which targeted the British
consulate and the headquarters
: of the British-owned HSBC bank.
The explosions claimed 60
. Star power
lives and were linked to al-Qaeda.
: Arnold Schwarzenegger, former
movie star, greets supporters during Iraq’s regime crumbled on
his election campaign for governor - 20 March when US-led troops
of California in the US in 2003. : invaded and toppled Saddam
Hussein's government. They
a series of bloody conflicts : argued that Iraq was hiding
throughout the 1990s. : weapons of mass destruction
The treaty establishing a : (WMD). This triggered years of
Constitution for Europe was : civil conflict in Irag between
approved in June. It aimed to rival religious factions. The war
create a consolidated constitution : was hugely controversial and Fall from grace
for the European Union (EU). It : many questioned its legality. As discontent. Mass protests were Civil war erupted in the western : Astatue of Saddam Hussein in
was to replace the existing : Western troops began losing their held all over the world. : region of Darfur, Sudan, as rebels : Baghdad, Iraq is toppled from
: its plinth by Iraqi civilians, aided
European Union treaties with a : lives, extensive media coverage Neighbouring Iran ended the ! rose up against the government,
i by US marines.
simplified single text, and would : fanned the flames of public : year with an earthquake in the : claiming the region was being
: southeast, which devastated the : neglected by the authorities in the
> ancient city of Bam. On the : capital, Khartoum. So far in this - Syndrome [SARS] is a disease
: UNESCO list of World Heritage : civil war, an estimated 200,000 found in humans, which is highly

THE NUMBER OF : Sites, the city was more than

' 2,000 years old. The earthquake
: people have died, and 2.5 million
: have fled to refugee camps.
: infectious and can be fatal. In
: 2003, an outbreak spread from
PEOPLE WHO FLEW killed more than 26,000 people. A virus made headlines around : China to 37 other countries.

WITH CONCORDE — The US offer of aid helped improve

relations between the two nations.
ena
: the world and caused considerable
: panic. Severe Acute Respiratory
: Governments took rigorous
measures to contain the virus.
Camera phones, which can
make calls and take photographs,
ooppepepepeuposeusepppeeeueteepupenpoeeaes
AS Hise BAAD ID IE EE RER IIE ABD IN SD LO De SE WSO LOS AT oOo RCCL ro
came into their own this year.
: They had a profound social
impact. Used for surveillance,
news gathering, but also
; enabling voyeurism, they ignited
: debates about privacy. Some
: countries banned their use.
 < ave NA se

Afghan citizens in Kabul wait in line to vote at the Jaffaria Mosque, in the first An perialview of New Orleans in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina,
presidential elections since the overthrow of the Taliban government. in which 80 per cent of the city was flooded.

THE NEW AFGHAN CONSTITUTION : statement of responsibility for YASSIR ARAFAT DIED IN 2004, : to remove their troops from
was signed in the capital Kabul on : the terror attacks of 9/11. and the leader of the Palestine » Lebanon. On 26 April, they
26 January. Hamid Karzai, leader US and Iraqi forces stormed into Liberation Army, Rawhi Fattouh, ‘announced that they had
of the transitional government, : western areas of Fallujah, Iraq, became interim president of : withdrawn. This was regarded as
was Officially declared the winner : arebel stronghold, early on the Palestinian Authority. Under an historic day in the Middle East.
of Afghanistan's presidential : 8 November. The aim was to put Palestinian law he held the post Former leader of lrag, Saddam
election on 3 November. The ‘ anend to guerrilla control of the for 60 days until elections were : Hussein, went on trial in
result of the election had been : Sunni Muslim city. held. Mahmoud Abbas became October, nearly two years after
delayed due to an investigation The European Union {EU} grew the new president on 6 January. : his capture, for atrocities he
into voting irregularities. : on 1 May, as ten more countries Abbas and the Israeli prime : carried out during his rule. He
In April, the CBS news : joined. It was the largest single minister, Ariel Sharon, announced : refused to acknowledge the
programme Sixty Minutes” : enlargement in its history. Many a ceasefire on 8 February. It was : authority of the court trying him,
: Beslan crisis
broadcast shocking images in the ‘of the new member states were seen as the best chance for peace and claimed that he was not
: A group of armed Chechen
US showing abuse of prisoners at : former Eastern Bloc countries. : separatists took more than 1,000 in the region for many years. : guilty. Hussein was sentenced
Abu Ghraib in Iraq by members of : Chechen president Akhmad : people hostage at a Russian school The former Lebanese prime : to death and executed in 2006.
the US military police. President : Kadyrov died in an explosion : = 331 died, many of them children. minister Rafik Hariri was killed Four explosions ripped across
George W. Bush issued an : at astadium in Grozny, the capital by a suicide bomb in west Beirut _ London on 7 July. Co-ordinated
apology. Bush was re-elected for : of Chechnya, on 9 May. The three days - hundreds of hostages on 14 February. Hariri had been
» died, including 186 children.
44 IT’S TOTALLY
a second term as US president on : assassination, during a parade, planning to make a comeback
2 November. He portrayed himself : was thought to be the work of Spain also experienced terrorist in forthcoming elections. He
as a Strong leader ina time of war. : Islamic militants.
On 29 October, Arabic TV station Trouble continued in Chechnya
: attacks when explosions tore
: through three Madrid train
had called on Syria to cease its
involvement in Lebanese affairs
WIPED OUT. 99
al-Jazeera aired a video in which : when separatists stormed a stations on 11 March, killing 191. - Syria denied any involvement
George W. Bush, US president,
Osama Bin Laden threatened » school in Beslan, North Ossetia, : Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility. in his death. The assassination surveying the damage to New
fresh attacks on the US. The ‘ on 1 September. They held The Summer Olympic Games put further pressure on Syria Orleans, 31 August 2005
video was Bin Laden’s clearest : children and staff hostage for : were held in Athens, Greece,
_: birthplace of the ancient games, for EXTREME WEATHER ~
» the first time since 1896. The US
: won the most medals - 103 in total. Weather became increasingly
An earthquake under the Indian wild in the 2000s. Hurricane
: Ocean near the Indonesian island Katrina (pictured) in 2005 was
: of Sumatra on 26 December only one of an unprecedented
: unleashed a series of killer waves, series of hurricanes and
: tsunami, that sped across the tropical storms. Other weather
: sea. More than 200,000 people phenomena included record
- died and millions made homeless levels of rainfall, melting
- in 11 countries, making this the icecaps, and severe drought,
' most destructive tsunami in history. all contributing to increased
concerns about the prospect
of global warming. The
forecast is for more extreme
Wave of destruction
Tsunami waves travelled 1,600 km weather, disrupting lifestyles,
(1,000 miles) across the Indian Ocean making animal species extinct,
in only 90 minutes. They caused a and threatening human lives.
massive amount of damage.
 44 FUTURE GENERATIONS a
MAY WELL ASK THEMSELVES,
WHAT WERE OUR
PARENTS THINKING? 99
Al Gore, US politician, An Inconvenient Truth, 2006

Former prime minister of Pakistan, Benazir Bhutto, campaigning

in Karachi before elections.

terrorist attacks struck three THE BASQUE SEPARATIST GROUP Another nuclear power, North BULGARIA AND iPhone
Korea, announced it had tested ROMANIA joined the A new type of
underground trains and a ETA declared a permanent
multi-media phone, the
double-decker bus, killing ceasefire on 22 March. They : anuclear weapon on 9 October, European Union
iPhone connects to the
52 people, and injuring several aimed to pursue independence : provoking severe international on 1 January. They © internet via a touch
hundred more. The four suicide for the Basque region through ; condemnation. took the screen. It was launched in
bombers, all British men, were a democratic process. » Construction began on the membership of January by US technology
backed by al-Qaeda. Montenegro became a : Freedom Tower in New York on the grcup from company Apple.
Weeks after the al-Qaeda sovereign state on 3 June after 26 April. The skyscraper was to 25 to 27 member
attack on the London transport a referendum in which just over : replace the twin towers destroyed states.
system, the provisional IRA - 55 per cent of the populace voted : in the 9/11 attacks (see 2001). Direct rule to end the “dictatorship”
the paramilitary wing of the Irish for independence. It meant the Seven bombs exploded on the over Northern of President Musharraf.
Republican Army - announced it end of the former Union of Serbia suburban railway of Mumbai, Ireland by Within weeks he was
was ceasing its armed campaign and Montenegro, created only : India, on 11 July. Over 200 lost London deported to Saudi Arabia.
on 28 July. Two months later three years earlier from the : their lives. Tension between India officially Another former leader of
there was a verification statement former Yugoslavia (see 2003). > and Pakistan increased when ended on Pakistan, Benazir Bhutto,
from the independent arms Iran announced that it had : evidence suggested that the 8 May. Democratic was assassinated on 27
decommissioning body that the produced the enriched uranium Pakistani intelligence agency was Unionist Party leader lan : December during a political rally.
IRA had put all its weapons needed to make nuclear fuel. : involved in the attacks. Paisley and Sinn Fein’s Martin Islamist militants were thought to
beyond use. It insisted this was for generating : The Three Gorges Dam in McGuinness were sworn in as be responsible.
The Kyoto accord came into nuclear power, but the West was : China was completed on 20 May. first and deputy first ministers On 24 December, Nepal
force seven years after it was first concerned that Iran was making : At 2.3km (1.4 miles) long, it is one of the new executive. > announced that it would abolish
agreed (see 1997]. It aimed to a nuclear bomb. : of the world’s largest dams, and Iranian forces captured 15 : its monarchy after elections,
curb the air pollution blamed one of the most controversial British sailors on 23 March. The : which were to be held in 2008.
for global warming. The US, : public works in modern times. sailors were accused of entering Some parties had refused to
Power generator : serve in government until Nepal
the world’s top polluter, did not : The dam was engineered to Iranian waters and were held
The building of the world's largest
sign up, as the protocol was not ' prevent flooding along the prisoner for 11 days. : became a republic.
hydroelectric installation, the
thought to be in the best interest Three Gorges Dam, was completed ' Yangtze River, but had a huge Nawaz Sharif, former prime A major scientific breakthough
of the American economy. in 2006, in China. : social and ecological impact. minister of Pakistan, returned was made when the first artificial
Hurricane Katrina hit New home from exile in August, vowing sperm was created in April. It was
Orleans in the US, on 29 August grown from human bone marrow
causing unprecedented : samples in a laboratory in
destruction. The hurricane also
battered large swathes of the
44 | PUT MY LIFE : Newcastle, England.
The mysterious dark matter
Louisiana and Mississippi IN DANGER AND that makes up a quarter of the
coastlines, leaving two oil rigs
adrift in the Gulf of Mexico and
CAME HERE : Universe was revealed in May by
a 3D map made by the Hubble
causing damage estimated at BECAUSE I telescope. It helped explain how
£14.4bn ($26bn). BELIEVE MY : the universe was formed.
The final book in the Harry
YouTube, a video-sharing
website, was launched in COUNTRY TO BE Potter series by J.K. Rowling was
February and soon grew into one INDANGER. 99 released on 21 July. Harry Potter
and the Deathly Hallows became
of the most popular websites
on the internet. After only a year : the fastest selling book of all time.
Benazir Bhutto, Pakistani
100 million videos were being politician, in a speech shortly
viewed every day. before her assassination

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Usain Bolt became the fastest man on Earth when he sprinted his way
to anew 100m world record at the Summer Olympics in Beijing.

THIS WAS THE YEAR OF “BLACK The Austra rime minister Kosovo declared independence ~— Olympics held in Beijing, China source of enormous national
MONDAYS” in the world of finance. Kevin Rudd (b.1957] made an from Serbia on 17 February, Bolt, from Jamaica, ran the 100m pride for China.
On Monday 21 January, the London official apology for years of but the legitimacy of this was final in a time of 9.69 seconds, Twenty years in the making,
Stock Exchange experienced a mistreatment inflicted on the disputed. Kosovo's bid to be breaking his own record of 9.72 the world’s largest “atom
dramatic fall in overall value. On country’s Aboriginal people on recognized as Europe's newest seconds set earlier in 2008. The smasher’, the Large Hadron
Monday 15 September, the US 13 February. He singled out the country was the latest episode in decision to pick Beijing as the host | Collider, built near Geneva,
investment firm Lehman ‘Stolen Generations” — mixed- the dismemberment of the former : for the Summer Olympics of 2008 Switzerland, was started on
Brothers declared bankruptcy, race children who were forcibly Yugoslavia, 17 years after its was controversial, as critics cited 10 September. It was designed
and on the US stock market the removed from their families under dissolution began. China's record of human rights to look at the “big bang” and
Dow Jones Industrial Average lost a government-sanctioned policy of Radovan Karadzic, Europe's violations. The event became a other mysteries of the Universe.
4.4 per cent of its value. On white assimilation most wanted man, was arrested
Monday 2? September, there was On 7 January, New Jersey on 21 July. The former Bosnian
a seven per cent drop in the Dow. Serb leader had been on the run
the US to apologize for its part in for 12 years, facing charges
the slave trade. It prohibited the of genocide
importation of slaves after 1786, South Ossetia became the focus
but was the last northern state to of a war between Russia and
emancipate them Georgia in August when it tried to
Democrat Barack Obama won break away from Georgia. Georgia
the US presidential election on launched a full military offensive
4 November, becoming the first to try and reconquer the region,
African-American president, and which lead to violent clashes with
winning 52.5 per cent of the Russia. After Georgia's troops
popular vote. Obama's main rival were ejected, Russia withdrew
was Republican John McCain. and recognized South Ossetia’s
BARACK OBAMA (1961-} Cuba's leader, Fidel Castro, independence.
retired after half a century on Irish voters plunged the EU into
Democrat Barack Hussein 19 February. He had not appeared disarray on 13 June by rejecting
Obama made history when in public since undergoing the Lisbon Treaty, which was
he was elected to the stomach surgery. Castro's brother, designed to bring more European
White House as the 44th Raul, became president. integration. All European member
President of the US. Born in Pakistan's president Pervez states had to ratify the treaty for
Hawaii, he is the first Musharraf bowed to intense it to go into force in 2009. It had
African-American to hold the pressure and resigned on 18 been approved by 18 countries,
office, and gained admirers : August ahead of impeachment but Ireland was the only one to put
for his relaxed charm and proceedings. He launched a the treaty to a public vote.
stirring oratory. However, his passionate defence of his record Usain Bolt sprinted into history
first year met with fierce India suffered a series of with a world record-breaking run
opposition as he attempted :; co-ordinated terrorist attacks on 16 August at the Summer
to change America’s : on 28 November across the city of
healthcare system, tackle Mumbai - 146 people were killed.
The Hadron collider at CERN
climate change, and reach India blamed the attacks on
The most intricate machine ever
new agreements on nuclear Pakistan-based militant groups built, itis hoped that the Large
disarmament. : and the attacks derailed peace Hadron Collider will unravel the
talks between the two nations. mystery of how the Universe began
 Dene ee TR SE
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: : A Chilean miner is helped to the
2009, as the ongoing financial surface after being trapped
crisis took its Spread of volcanic ash in Europe KEY underground for 10 weeks following
around the world. The constantly shifting high-altit f 19th April 0000 GMT the collapse of the San Jose mine.
volcanic ash from Eyjafjallajoku 19th April 0600 GMT '
travel chao uro On 5 August, 33 Chilean miners
sworn inas se The im were trapped underground
unity governmen AN EARTHQUAKE ee the At the UN climate summit dissid é Liu ceaoue! won this following a cave-in. They spent
Robert Mugab Haitian capital Port au Prince on eae anew years Nebel Peace Prize. The 69 days in the mine and the world
This power-st t d, thew
to givebess
money ceremony was boycotted by C hina, : became transfixed by their ordeal
designed to p i and successful rescue, which was
ongoing po completed on 14 October.
in Zimbabwe.
The Copenhagen climate Wate Ape volcano, dormant
summit was held in December. for two hundred years, erupted
Five nations, including China and | near the Eyjafjallajokull
J
glac Burmese opposition leader
the US, agreed to atteempt to limit | on 14 April It sent clouds of ash Aung San Suu Kyi spent most of
global temperature rises. Some soaring as high as 11,000m the pervious 20 years under
critics were disappointed, as they | (36,000ft), disrupting fic in house arrest, due to her efforts
thought that the agreement did Europe, and delaying millions of BCESS/ ed, to bring democracy to Burma.
not go far enough. -
air passengers across the worid the Her tireless determination to
Swiss tennis player Roger The US experienced an stand for non-violent resistance
Federer won them environmental disaster in Apr the Internationala Sonek an Ed in the face of a brutal military
final at Wimbledon in sees it when the BP-owned Deepwater [ regime inspired the world. She
was his 15th Gran . W 8 = — a Horizon oilwa i lode k was released from house
and made him the most Aroundfourmillion b i austerity measu arrest in 2010 and called for
successful me “national conciliation.”
in Grand Slam history.
 +
ww = ="
Prince William, second in line to the B ritish throne, kisses his bride, Catherine Middleton, on the balcony
of Buckingham Palace following their wedding at Westminster Abbey on 29 April.

EXTRAORDINARY EVENTS ACROSS : Colonel Muammar Gaddafi : intellectuals and activists went
THE MIDDLE EAST led to what : (b.1942) developed into an armed : into hiding. Syrians demanded
became known as the “Arab conflict pitting rebels against greater political freedom, an
Spring’. It began when a man in government forces. A NATO-led end to corruption, and the lifting
Tunisia burned himself to death coalition with a UN mandate of an emergency law in place for
in December 2010 in protest at his : to protect civilians also became nearly 50 years.
treatment by police. This led to : involved. The country’s coastal There was cautious optimism in
pro-democracy rebellions, which : cities became roughly split : two African nations this year as
erupted across the Middle East. : between pro-Gaddafi forces : they struggled to end years of
After days of protests, Tunisian bloody conflict. In January, the
president Zine el Abidine Ben Ali : Sudanese voted ina referendum
promised more jobs while vowing : to split the country between north
to punish rioters. On 9 January, and south and form a new state.
protestors clashed with police and : However, within months of the poll
there were calls for the president : a wave of violence spread across
to resign. A few days later he fled : southern Sudan as its army
to Saudi Arabia. : clashed with rebel militia. These
Riots began in Algeria over food : : rebel groups accused the
prices and unemployment. A man government of plotting to stay in :
burned himself to death in an power indefinitely, not representing
apparent echo of events in Tunisia : all tribal groups, and neglecting :
that sent new shockwaves across : development in rural areas. This
North Africa. Anti-government : led to fears that Southern Sudan
activists announced a “day of : would fail as a country before it
anger’ in Egypt, and there were : had even got started.
calls for President Mubarak : The Ivory Coast held elections in | Broken city
(b.1928] to resign. In response, : 2010. A high turnout fostered the : A family walks past cars upturned by : businesses washed away down
Mubarak shut down mobile phone : belief that the country's post-civil : the tsunami in Japan. A massive 8.9 : the Brisbane River. The floods
and internet networks and then : war division might come to an end. : magnitude earthquake hit Sendai,
: spread to other parts of
fo ey ? WS : the capital of the Miyagi Prefecture.
appointed his first ever vice : The Constitutional Council named : Queensland - more than 200,000
: Revolution in Egypt
president in an attempt to calm
: An Egyptian man and boy celebrate : incumbent president Laurence : people in 20 towns and cities
things down. Eventually, after 18 : the resignation of Egyptian President : Gbagbo the winner, but the : became president, but inherited : were affected.
solid days of mass protest, : Hosni Mubarak in Tahir Square, : electoral commission named : a country politically and militarily Torrential rain caused deadly
Mubarak surrendered power to : Cairo after weeks ofprotests. : Alassane Ouattara, who was : divided, half destroyed by civil » mudslides and flooding in Brazil
the army on 11 February and flew : immediately recognized by the UN, war, and with an economy starved : In one of its deadliest natural
out of Cairo. controlling the capital, Tripoli, and : US, and the EU. Gbagbo fought to : of investment. : disasters on record. Almost 500
The uprising in Egypt led to an : the west, and rebels controlling : stay in power and there was fierce A series of natural disasters people were killed across three
upsurge of violent protests : Benghazi in the east. : fighting between the two sides. ; struck around the globe during : cities north of Rio de Janeiro.
against repressive regimes in : The wave of popular unrest also : The UN sent in troops, and on : the first few months of the year, On 22 February, a huge
Yemen, Jordan, Morocco, Oman, hit Syria, where the government : 5 April launched air attacks on » causing unprecedented damage : earthquake ripped apart the
and Iran. On 16 February, protests began a violent crackdown on : Gbagbo’s positions. Under the : and destruction. Brisbane, © centre of Christchurch, one of
erupted in Libya's second largest civilian dissenters. President : auspices of the UN, French : Australia, resembled a muddy : New Zealand's biggest cities.
city, Benghazi, following the Assad (b.1965) promised reform helicopters attacked Gbagbo's : lake in January following ; The quake, measuring 6.3 on the
arrest of a human rights : on 16 April, but the death toll rose : palace on ? April and he was : catastrophic flooding, with : Richter scale, hit at the height
campaigner. The uprising against and scores of prominent : arrested two days later. Quattara : debris from houses and : of the working day and killed an
 BILLION
THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE
WHO WATCHED THE
BRITISH ROYAL WEDDING

: leading to worldwide concerns : The future of the single currency : that would cut $38.5 billion in A = i BD

: about a nuclear disaster. By May, : looked uncertain. But it was : government spending over the \ PenLa Smee

: the plant showed little sign of not all gloom for the euro, as rest of the fiscal year. Obama's ht
: calming down, and officials : Germany and France saw their : attempts to spotlight positive
: announced a complete cold : economies grow. initiatives were swamped by the
' shutdown by the end of the year. Terrorism struck again in the : crush of news from Japan,
The world was suffering from a : heart of Russia, as two suicide : Egypt, and Libya.
» financial hangover in 2011, as : bombers blew themselves up Criticism of Obama’s leadership
: austerity measures began to bite. : at Domodedovo Airport in > was overshadowed by the news
: A bailout package given to Ireland : Moscow, on 24 January, that Osama Bin Laden (1957-
: and Greece in 2010 had been devastating the international : 2011), the leader of al-Qaeda and
: intended to stop their Euro debt : arrivals hall and killing dozens : the most hunted man in the world,
: had been killed on 1 May ina fire
- Death of Bin Laden
crisis from spreading to the rest : of people. They were believed : Osama Bin Laden, hunted for three
of Europe, but whispers of a : to be Islamist militants from : fight with US forces in Pakistan. decades, made headline news
bailout in Portugal were enough : the North Caucasus. : The news sparked an outpouring : around the world after his death at
: to put stocks on shaky ground, and : Italy grappled with problems of : of emotion across America, but led the hands of US special forces.
raise fears that Spain was also in : a different sort as its leader, Silvio : to immediate fears of retaliation.
: trouble. A bailout for Portugal was : Berlusconi (b.1936], who had : Retaliation was, indeed, swift. Only days after the dramatic
: awarded on 17 May. Eurozone : shown a knack for surviving : The Pakistani Taliban carried out : events of Osama Bin Laden's
? ministers met in the same month : charges of corruption, faced new : a double suicide bombing on : death, the world’s last known
~ | to staunch the market's anxieties charges in February of having sex : 13 May that killed 80 recruits at combat veteran of World War I,
: about Greece, Portugal, and :; with an underage girl. The : amilitary training centre in the Claude Choules, died peacefully
: Ireland, amid concerns that these : scandal, combined with the poor : northwest of the country. in Australia aged 110. He had
: countries would be unable to meet state of the country’s finances, : served in both World Wars.
: the repayments on their loans. lost Berlusconi his key Conflict shaped his life, and he
_ Ashaken world
: supporters. - became a staunch pacifist. His
! The earthquake in Japan was the fifth
: estimated 181 people. It was the The bitter debate over the Tea : largest since records began - this ' death marked the moment the
: worst disaster in New Zealand : Party movement (see 2009) in graph shows the magnitude of the ten Great War passed from living
: in 80 years. : the US and its inflammatory right biggest earthquakes in history. memory into the history books.
Japan experienced its most wing rhetoric was reignited when
: powerful earthquake since Democratic Congresswoman
Gabrielle Giffords was shot in
2011 ana
: records began on 11 March.
: Measuring 9.0 on the Richter : the head during a public meeting | 2010 EE
RARE
: in Tuscon, Arizona. Six people : 2004
: scale, the earthquake struck the
: northeast coast, causing a : were killed in the attack on 1964 cls
“ilashae! Ee
: massive Tsunami.
A wall of water : 8 January, but Giffords survived. 1960 ||Valdivia
_ Facing inland swept away cars, _ President Obama continued to 1957 |Aileen
© ships, and buildings.
The official - have a tough
time exerting his : 1906|
: death toll was 14,000, but many : authority, and budget cuts, ona
. : reluctant Congress. Bickering
: 1833 |
: thousands were missing and the
: cost to human life is not yet fully : between Republicans and 1730 Malpareise
Elizabeth Taylor : Democrats was intense, and 1700 Sakata eee)
: known. A state of emergency : One of the Hollywood greats,
: was declared at a nuclear power : British born American actress
: Republicans pushed for even
plant in Fukushima, where - Elizabeth Taylor died on 23 March greater cuts. The US Congress 0 8 8.5 uy} 9.5 10

: pressure exceeded normal levels, = at the age of 79. : finally passed a budget bill in April MAGNITUDE [RICHTER SCALE)

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GLOSSARY
Terms defined elsewhere in the glossary Axis Catholic commune
are In italics. The alliance between Germany and Italy A term that originally meant inclusive A community of people who aim at
(and later Japan) before and during or all-embracing, so that the Catholic sharing everything in common.
abolitionism World War II; also these countries Church originally meant the whole of
Advocacy of the abolition of slavery. considered collectively (Axis forces the Christian Church. After various communism
or Axis domination). splits over the centuries, the Catholic (1) Any society based on the principles
absolutism Church is now the organization of mutual help, in which property Is not
A theory of the state where a country’s bilateral of churches that owes its allegiance owned by individuals, but is held in
ruler or government is regarded as Involving two governments [or other to the pope in Rome, thus it is also common. (2} More specifically, political
possessing an absolute authority: that is, organizations}, especially with reference called the Roman Catholic Church. movements or governments inspired by
an authority that is not dependent on the to treaties and agreements. Compare or claiming to act in the name of the
consent of the people being governed. multilateral. charter political and philosophical doctrines
A written grant of rights or similar of Karl Marx {see Marxist).
accession bloc legal document.
The point at which a monarch begins A group of countries that act together Congress
their reign. in matters of international relations. city-state In the US Constitution, the body forming
A self-governing, independent city. the legislative arm of the federal
agrarian bourgeois government (see federal system). It
Relating to land and its cultivation. The Originally a member of the French middle classical/Classical comprises two elected assemblies, the
term agrarianism relates to political classes, now often used disparagingly for Relating to the civilizations of ancient House of Representatives (or Lower
movements aimed at promoting the a supporter of the capitalist system [see Greece and Rome and their House} and the Senate (or Upper House].
interests of agriculture and rural life. capitalism), or simply for a person with achievements (the Classical Period)
conventional views. In Marxist theory, the or to later artistic and cultural conservative/Conservative
allies/Allied bourgeoisie are the class of capitalists. movements that emulated the values Various social and political meanings,
People or countries working together. of this period. The term classical can including: caution in accepting change;
In World War | and World War Il, the buffer state also be applied to the high point of any respect for traditional values and
Allies or Allied forces were the countries A smaller country lying between two civilization or culture, and can be authority; support for free-market
fighting against Germany. more powerful rival countries. The used with other shades of meaning, capitalism and opposition to government
presence of a buffer state is considered such as ‘possessing timeless value”. intervention; membership of a particular
anarchy useful in decreasing tension between political party, such as the Conservative
In its original meaning, absence of the rival countries. client state Party in the United Kingdom.
government; also used for a condition of A country that is dependent on another
public disorder, Politically, anarchism is Byzantine Empire larger country for trade, protection, etc. consul
a movement or ideology that believes in The mainly Greek-speaking Christian One of the two highest officials in the
the abolition of government as an ideal Empire that was a continuation of the coalition Roman republic, who each held power
for society. eastern Roman Empire and lasted for A formal arrangement in which two for only one year.
around 1,000 years, until its conquest or more different groups agree to act
anticlericalism by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. together, such as when different Counter-Reformation
Opposition to the influence of churches political parties come together to The period of revival in the Catholic
and other religious organizations in Caliphate form a government. Church following the Protestant
society. In some (mainly Catholic) In Islamic (see /slam) culture this is a Reformation, involving both internal
countries such as France, Spain, and Italy political/religious institution in which Cold War reforms and active opposition to
it has been an important political force. a chosen individual, the caliph, is The period of hostility between the Protestantism.
regarded as a successor to the Prophet West and the communist countries
antisemitism Muhammad, and thus able to confer dominated by the former USSR. The coup
Antagonism and hostility towards Jewish political legitimacy on individual rulers Cold War lasted from shortly after Short for coup d’etat, the sudden illegal
people. across the Islamic world. Once powerful World War II until the collapse of seizing of power by a small group.
rulers themselves, caliphs later became communism in Eastern Europe in 1989.
apartheid mainly figureheads, although the Ottoman Crusades
The policy of racial segregation formerly rulers of Turkey continued to claim the collective Military expeditions organized by the
followed in the Republic of South Africa, title until the 20th century. Organized in common; taken together papacy in the Medieval period, initially
or policies elsewhere that resemble this. as a whole. with the aim of gaining control of the
Calvinism “Holy Land” (Palestine) from Islamic
armistice A strict form of Protestantism named colonialism powers [see /slam).
A truce or cessation of hostilities. after the 16th-century religious reformer The practice and policy of acquiring
John Calvin. Calvinist churches are foreign colonies, often with the Danegeld
authoritarian usually Presbyterian in organization. implication that this involves cultural A tax raised in Anglo-Saxon England to
Term applied to leaders or governments domination and exploitation. pay off and defend against Danish invaders.
who exercise power with little or no capitalism It later became a general land tax.
regard for democracy or other constraints. A way of organizing society that favours commonwealth/Commonwealth
the activity of capitalists: private The term commonwealth originally decimal system (army)
autocracy individuals or organizations who meant “the common good”. With an The principle of organization of Genghis
A form of political rule where all power is accumulate wealth (capital), especially in initial capital, Commonwealth refers Khan's Mongol army, with a hierarchy
concentrated in one person (the autocrat). the form of the buildings and equipment eitherto the government of Britain of military units that contained between
Unlike the similar term dictator, the word that are necessary to produce goods and in the years following the execution 10 and 10,000 men.
autocrat is often applied to a powerful services. These businesses generate of Charles |, or to the (British)
king or emperor. employment, while also providing profits Commonwealth of Nations, the demagogue
for the capitalists. association set up to maintain links A politician whose power base relies on
between countries of the former stirring up the emotions of the people of
British Empire. The word also occurs a country through charismatic and
in the full official names of several emotional speeches, often in opposition
countries and US states. to established authority.
democracy dominion/Dominions feudalism heresy
A political system in which the people of a (1) The right to govern or control. (2) Any The elaborate social system that grew up Usually a minority belief or tendency
country control their government. Direct territory owing allegiance to a particular in Medieval Europe, where each nation within a given religion that is regarded
democracy, which operated in ancient ruler or government. (3) A term formerly was conceived of asa “pyramid”, witha as unacceptable or even evil by other
Athens, allowed citizens to decide policy used, especially the plural (Dominions), monarch at the top. Each level of society adherents to the religion. A heretic is a
by direct votes. Most democracy is for the larger self-governing territories was entitled to claim rights from, but also person regarded as heretical.
representative democracy, with the within the British Empire, especially obliged to undertake duties to, those
people electing politicians to represent Canada and Australia. “above” and “below” in the hierarchy. Holy Roman Empire
them. Democracy has often been popular An empire set up in Western Europe in
with groups that are excluded from voting, dynasty fiefs Medieval times, whose territory was
such as women and non-property owners. A royal family that rules over a country Lands held on condition of service offered centred on modern-day Germany. Both
for several generations. to a superior lord under the feudal system connected to and forming a rival to the
denomination (see feudalism). papacy, It increasingly took the form of
A body of religious believers sharing Eastern Bloc a loose collection of states. The emperor
a common faith and organization and The communist (see communism) free trade of the Holy Roman Empire held little
having a recognized name; most countries of eastern Europe during Trading of goods and services between power by the time it was formally
commonly applied to sections within the Cold War period. countries without restrictions, such as abolished by Napoleon in 1806.
the Christian Church - for example, quota limits or taxes on imported goods.
Baptists and Methodists. ecclesiastical See also protectionism. hominin
Relating to the Church or to the clergy. A member of the biological group that
dependency fundamentalism includes humans and their extinct
A subordinate territory that does not form ecumenical A strict belief in all the traditional ancestors and relatives, back to the
an integral part of the country which has Relating to: (1) the whole of the Christian teachings of a given religion. point at which they split from the line
overall control of it. Church; (2) movements aimed at reuniting leadingto chimpanzees.
different branches of the Church. genocide
despotism The systematic extermination of a racial Huguenots
An autocracy, especially one that Is ethnicity or ethnic group [see ethnicity). Historical term for French Protestants
headed by a king or emperor. An Characteristics and features associated (see Protestantism), whose history of
enlightened despot is one who is seen with belonging to a particular ethnic globalization persecution led many to emigrate and
as ruling for the benefit of the people group, which may be defined purely by The process by which improved settle in other countries.
rather than for him/herself. Also refers culture or with reference to biological communications and international links
to the exercise of power itself by the ruler. or racial characteristics. have resulted in ideas, cultures, labour humanist
markets, and ways of life becoming (1) A Latin or Greek scholar, especially
detente evangelical increasingly widespread and/or of the Renaissance period. The work of
The lessening of tension between two Relating to: (1) the Christian Gospels; interconnected globally. Renaissance humanists involved the
countries; used especially for the time (2) Protestant (see Protestantism) rediscovery of classical texts and their
when tension was decreasing between doctrines that emphasize personal gnosticism human-centred values, as opposed to
the US and the former USSR. salvation by faith; (3) religious movements Any of various religious ideologies and the emphasis on God and theology of
that actively go out to preach to and movements that emphasize the acquiring of the Medieval period. (2) A person who
devaluation convert others (to evangelize). secret or mystical knowledge as a way to advocates an ethical approach to human
The lowering in value of one country's salvation. Gnosticism was widespread in life that does not involve belief in a god
currency compared with other currencies. excommunication early Christianity, but came to be regarded or gods.
The action taken by a religious as heretical (see heresy) by the Church.
diaspora organization of cutting off an individual imperialism
The members of a particular ethnic group from communication or membership of Gothic Originally the system of government or
(see ethnicity) who are living away from the organization, and/or from taking part (1) Relating to the Goths, a Germanic rule in an empire. Now, more particularly,
their land of origin. It was originally used in its rites. tribe that invaded the Roman Empire in the attitudes of mind that supported the
with reference to the Jews. the 3rd and 4th centuries ce; (2) Astyle acquisition of distant territories by
fascism of European architecture that flourished 19th-century Western powers.
dictator Originally, the ideology of the political from the 13th to 16th centuries, and was
Originally an official in ancient Rome movement led by Benito Mussolini, who characterized by distinctive pointed Iron Curtain
who was given sweeping powers for a was in power in Italy between 1922 windows and other features. Most of Term for the barrier between the USSR-
short period during a time of national and 1943. Fascist doctrines were the great Medieval cathedrals were dominated communist countries (see
emergency. Now used for any person authoritarian, anti-democratic (see built in this style. communism) of Eastern Europe and the
who rules a country alone and with no democracy), and anti-communist (see non-communist West during the Cold War.
effective restrictions on their individual communism); they emphasized subjection Greek Church
power. The word is not normally applied of the individual to the state and tended The branch of the Christian Church Islam
to hereditary kings or emperors, unlike to glorify war and nationalism. The term associated with the (Greek-speaking) A monotheistic (single-god) religion
the similar terms autocrat and despot fascist is now used loosely for any Byzantine Empire, in which church established in the 7th century ce in Arabia
(see autocracy and despotism). ideology or attitude seen as authoritarian services were conducted in Greek. by the Prophet Muhammad. Islam means
or intolerant. See also Orthodox Church. “submission” (to God). The two main
dissolution branches of Islam, Sunni and Shi'ite,
In general, this means the process of fatwa guerrilla warfare differ in the authority and legitimacy
dissolving or separating into constituent In Islam, a pronouncement, especially by Warfare where the fighters operate in they ascribe to different members of
parts. The Dissolution of Parliament is a cleric, that gives an opinion and/or small irregular units, often without the Prophet's family after his death.
the official end of a parliament before seeks to direct an action. uniforms or an official army structure.
a general election is held to elect new Islamism
representatives. The Dissolution of the federal system guild A tendency within /slam that aims to
Monasteries was the disbanding of Any political system where there is an A Medieval mutual-aid association. establish Islamic law and values in
monasteries and other religious overall central government (federal Craftsmen and merchants in towns societies worldwide.
institutions in 16th-century England government), but with many areas of were often organized into guilds, and
during the reign of Henry VIII. decision-making being carried out by individuals were often only allowed to isolationism
regional governments — for example, practise their trade if they belonged A policy of isolating a country from
governments of provinces or states; to the guild of that particular trade. international disputes, especially by
the division of powers between the not taking part in alliances. The term is
federal and regional governments is hegemony particularly associated with certain periods
normally guaranteed by a constitution. A situation in which a powerful country of Chinese, Japanese, and US history.
exerts a significant influence over its
less powerful neighbours.
Jacobin manifesto neoclassicism polity
A member of the extreme revolutionary Awritten declaration of policy and aims, Any cultural movement in which styles or A form of government and political
group during the French Revolution. especially one issued by a political party ideals of a classical period are revived. organization.
or movement. More specifically, an 18th-century
Jacobite movement in European art and literature, populist
In British history, a supporter of the Marxist which was inspired by renewed interest in Generally a critical term for a politician
claims of the Stuart monarchs to regain Term applied to a variety of doctrines that the values of ancient Greek and Roman art. whose power base comes from
the throne, after James II (Jacobus in trace their origin to the German-born successfully appealing to the general
Latin) was forced to flee and abdicate the philosopher and social thinker Karl neocolonialism public, without necessarily being
British throne in 1689. Marx. Marx himself believed that he had The situation in which a powerful, respected by other politicians. It is
discovered laws of history which proved developed country has influence over often implied that a populist simply
Jesuit that eventually capitalism would collapse a less developed country (especially a tells people what they want to hear.
A member of the Society of Jesus, an and be replaced by communism. former colony] in ways that are seen as
organization founded in 1534 within the similar to aspects of actual colonialism. Praetorian prefect
Catholic Church, which played a leading Medieval period A high administrative office in the Roman
role in the Counter-Reformation. \t The period from approximately 600 to 1450 oligarchy Republic and Empire, deriving originally
continues to be active in education and ce in Europe, from the end of the western A political system where a few powerful, from the headship of the state
in the spreading of Catholic doctrine. Roman Empire to the Renaissance. and often rich, individuals combine to bodyguards - the Praetorian Guard.
rule a country. The former Republic
jihad mercenary of Venice is a historic example. Many pre-Colombian
A struggle or war undertaken on behalf A soldier who fights for other nations former communist countries (see Relating to the cultures of the Americas
of the Islamic faith (see /slam]. for money. communism) were also effectively before their contact with European
oligarchies, with communist party explorers and conquerors.
judiciary missionary officials monopolizing power.
A collective term for the judges holding A representative of a particular religion Presbyterians
office in a particular country. who travels to another country, region, or order (religious) Members of various Protestant Churches
culture with the aim of converting people In the Christian Church, a body of people that do not have a hierarchy of bishops,
khedive to his or her religion. adhering to a particular rule or way of life but are run by presbyters [elders] elected
A title used mainly by the rulers of Egypt that is often set down by an individual by church congregations.
from 1867 to 1914, who were nominally Monophysitism founder - orders of monks, for example.
subject to the authority of the Ottoman The belief that Jesus Christ has only one The phrase ‘in orders’ means occupying a proletariat
(Turkish) Empire, but in practice were nature (with his divine nature absorbing clerical position, such as priest or bishop. A collective term for working-class wage
largely independent. his human nature), rather than having two earners who do not possess their own
separate natures. A minority view in the Orthodox Church capital (see capitalism); often contrasted
knight Christian Church, it is upheld mainly by A major group of Christian Churches that with bourgeoisie (see bourgeois) in Marxist
A feudal rank (see feudalism) that the Coptic Church and other churches descend from a split with the Western theory.
combined a high status in society with with their roots in the ancient Near East. (Catholic) Church that occurred in 1054 ce.
obligations to undertake military service. Prominent in Eastern and southeastern protectionism
multilateral Europe, it includes several different The policy of defending the industries
league Involving three or more governments traditions and national Churches. of a country by creating barriers to
An association between individuals or (or other organizations}, especially with foreign competition, for example
states for mutual protection, or for reference to treaties and agreements. Outremer restricting imports.
furthering common interests. Compare bilateral. The Medieval French states set up in the
Near East after the Crusades. protectorate
legion nation A colony in which the emphasis is on the
A fighting unit of the Roman army (1) An independent country. (2) A people overlord colonizing power being responsible for
consisting of 3,000-6,000 men. defined by shared historical, cultural, and A lord who is superior to other lords defence and foreign affairs for the benefit
linguistic ties, whether constituting a or rulers, especially within the feudal of the people of the territory.
legislature single independent country or not. system (see feudalism).
The institution(s) of government that Protestantism
are responsible for passing laws. nationalism pacifism Any of the forms of Christianity resulting
A political attitude of strong support for Opposition to all war. from the Reformation of the 16th century
Levant the interests and future of one’s nation. and afterwards, in which allegiance is
The region of the eastern Mediterranean papal bull no longer offered to the pope in Rome.
and the territories bordering it. nationalization An order or edict issued by a pope on
The taking of private property into public a matter of importance. puppet state
liberalism ownership by the state, especially ona A country that, though nominally
A political movement or philosophy that large scale, such as an entire industry. peasant independent, is actually under the
emphasizes individual freedom, as well- Aworker on the land, especially an control of another country.
as supporting forms of government that NATO agricultural labourer or small farmer.
are answerable to the people [contrast North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an purge
absolutism). The term economic international military alliance of Western pharaoh A term, usually associated with totalitarian
liberalism means support for free- powers established in 1949. Title of the ruler of ancient Egypt, who was systems (see totalitarianism), for the
market capitalism. In the US, liberal often traditionally seen as both a king and a god. expulsion of people from an organization
implies a left-wing stance that supports Nazism who are regarded as undesirable by the
increased governmental intervention and The doctrines of the National Socialist pilgrimage organization's leadership.
spending on social welfare. (Nazi) party, in power in Germany under A journey undertaken for religious reasons
Adolf Hitler 1933-45. Nazism was similar to a shrine or other sacred site. Puritanism
mandate to fascism, but in addition was racist, Originally a movement within the Church
A legal command or commission, believing in the supremacy of a supposed plebiscite of England in the 16th and 17th centuries
especially a commission in which a “Aryan” race of which the German A referendum, especially on a major that pressed for further changes to
country was authorized by the former people were allegedly the “purest” constitutional issue. Church organization and doctrine, going
League of Nations to govern a particular representatives. See also totalitarianism. beyond the split from the Catholic Church
territory in the interests of its inhabitants. pogrom that had occurred under Henry VIII. The
See also trusteeship. An organized massacre, especially one term was later applied to religious groups
carried out against the Jews in Eastern with similar views outside the Church of
Europe in the late 19th and early 20th England, and then eventually to any way
centuries. of thinking that was seen as disapproving
of pleasure and indulgence.
putsch satrap soviet trade union
A violent attempt to overthrowa A provincial governor in the ancient One of the many elected councils that An association of workers, formed to
government. Persian Empire; also, a subordinate operated at all levels of society in the advance their economic interests and to
ruler generally. former USSR. Soviet Union is another provide mutual support.
recession name for the USSR.
A reduction in the economic activity of scholasticism tribune
a country, though less serious thana The approach to reasoning and Soviet Bloc A title for various officials in ancient
depression. A recession is often defined knowledge that is characteristic of Another name for the Eastern Bloc. Rome. A tribune of the people was one of
as having occurred when economic centres of higher education during the two (later more] officials appointed to
output has declined for two successive Christian Medieval period. speculation protect the rights of the common people
three-month periods. An economic term for the buying and against the nobility. A military tribune
sect selling of shares, or other tradeable was an officer attached to a legion.
Reformation A religious group or organization that assets, for the purpose of making a profit
The Christian reform movement of the holds distinctive or non-standard beliefs. if the price rises or falls in the way that triumph
16th century, in which many churches The term is often used to imply that the the speculator predicts. An official victory procession in ancient
and individuals broke from the Western views held are doubtful, or even heretical. Rome.
(Catholic) Church headed by the pope state
in Rome. sectarian (1} An independent country. (2) A self- trusteeship
Displaying hostile attitudes to people governing region within a country. Situation in which a territory Is
Renaissance from a different social grouping, (3) The governmental apparatus of administered by a particular country
A cultural phase of European history, especially those adhering to a different a country. on behalf of the United Nations, for
centred on Italy in the 15th and early 16th denomination of the same religion. the benefit of the territory's inhabitants.
centuries, that involved the rediscovery stock exchange See also mandate.
of the cultural achievements of ancient secular An organization that allows trading In
Greece and Rome. This in turn became Non-religious. shares of companies, government bonds, tsar
the inspiration for new ideas in literature and other financial assets. The title of the former emperors of
and the creation of new artworks. segregation Russia. A female tsar, or atsar’s wife,
Separation, in particular separation of suffrage is a tsarina.
reparations one race from another within a racist or The right to vote, especially in a public
A term that came into use after World apartheid social system. election. A suffragist is an advocate of usurp
War | for payments made by the defeated the right to vote; especially, in many To seize power from another in a manner
countries to the victors, regarded as being self-determination cases, the rights of women. regarded as wrongful.
in recompense for their aggression. An Situation in which a people or nation are
older term for the same thing is indemnity. able to choose their own government, or sultan Utopia
to govern themselves. A title, equivalent to king or emperor An imaginary, ideal world. The name,
republic in some Islamic contexts and cultures meaning nowhere’, comes from the title
Any country not headed by a hereditary Senate (see Islam). of a book by Sir Thomas More, published
king, prince, or emperor. Modern republics (1] The assembly that acted as the main in 1516. The word Utopian has come to
are usually headed by presidents, and ruling body in ancient Rome (eventually suzerainty be applied to any impracticably idealistic
range from democratic regimes to losing most of its powers to the Feudal overlordship (see overlord). Also, scheme.
dictatorships. emperors). (2) The upper legislative the supremacy of one state over a less
house of the US Congress, or of other powerfulone. vassal In the feudal system [see
republicanism legislatures that are similarly organized. feudalism), a person holding land from
(1) Support for a republic as the preferred synod a superior, in return for offering them
form of government. (2) Beliefs and serf A church council or assembly. allegiance; also used more generally
values associated with the Republican A peasant living in a condition of semi- for a servant or subordinate.
Party in the US. (3] In Irish contexts, slavery, with no right to leave the land of technocrat
support for the complete independence the landowner for whom he or she works. (1) A member of a technical elite. (2) viceroy
of Ireland from the UK. Someone who regards political problems A person who governs as the deputy of a
shogun as being best approached by seeking monarch in a colony, region, or province.
restoration/Restoration A hereditary commander-in-chief in technical solutions, rather than via
The restoring of a previous state of Japan. For various periods in Japanese ideologies or value judgements. Viet Cong
affairs. In British history, the Restoration history, shoguns, rather than the The political and military organization
refers to the return of the British emperor, held the real power. tetrarchy that carried out guerrilla warfare and
monarchy in 1660, after the Civil War A governing arrangement in parts of other activities during the Vietnam War.
and Commonwealth, and the years social democracy the Roman Empire whereby a region Although it claimed to be an independent
following this. Formerly another term for socialism or was divided into four subdivisions, each rebel movement within the then non-
communism. In modern usage it refers with its own ruler (tetrarch). Also communist South Vietnam, in fact it
Roman Church to a moderate form of socialism that the name for the district ruled by a was largely controlled by communist
The Western branch of the Christian is compatible with democracy and particular tetrarch. North Vietnam (see communist).
Church, which developed under the liberalism.
leadership of the pope in Rome, and theocracy Zionist
in which church services are, or were, socialism Rule by a priest or a priesthood. A supporter of the creation of an
conducted in Latin. See also Catholic, Term used for a variety of left-wing independent state for the Jewish people.
Greek Church. ideologies and movements that all involve tithe Also, following the creation of Israel in
some government intervention in society A tax imposed for the upkeep of the 1948, a strong supporter of Israel’s
Romantic Movement and the economy, with the aim of Church, especially in the medieval period, continued existence as a Jewish state.
A many-sided cultural and artistic redistributing wealth for the common usually consisting of one-tenth of the
movement in Europe that reached its good. Socialist movements have ranged agricultural produce of a given piece
peak in the early 19th century. It included from the moderate and democratic to of land.
an increased appreciation of nature and revolutionary communist movements
an emphasis on feelings and emotions (see democracy and communism). totalitarianism
in contrast to reason. A form of authoritarian rule in which the
sovereignty government aims to control the details
royal minority Complete legitimate authority over a of individual people's lives and thoughts,
The period when the monarch of a given territory. treating individual freedom as
country is still a child (a minor). unimportant compared with the state.
 INDE
Page numbers in bold indicate Africa continued -Fatah 349 Anglo-Saxons continued Arcadia Conference (1941] 319
main treatments of a topic; Organization of African Unity 342 lfonso IV, King of Portugal 124 Lindisfarne Gospels 90 Ardashir |, King of Persia 67
numbers in italic refer to Pan-African Federation 330 fonso VI, King of Castile 105 metalworking 7? Ardennes 316, 327
illustrations. Portuguese explorers 129, 131, tfonso VIII, King of Castile 115 raids on Roman Empire 77 Ardepithecus 12
133, 139, 141, 142, 144 fonso X “the Wise”, King of Castile
Prrrye settle in Britain 79 Aretas IV, King of the Nabataeans 57

A
slave trade 145 118 Sutton Hoo burial 87, 87 Argentina
see also individual countries Alfonso XI, King of Castile 124 Angola Falklands War 356, 356-7
African National Congress (ANC) Alfonso XIII, King of Spain 292, 300 civil war 372 financial problems 370
Abbas |, Shah 163, 163 337, 340, 344, 364, 366, 367 Alfred the Great, King of Wessex 96, independence 352 immigration 254
Abbas, Mahmoud 374 African Union 372 96,97 Marxist takeover 352 military coup 299
Abbasid caliphate Agamemnon, King of Mycenae 26, 26 Algeria 341, 347, 342, 365, 379 Portugal and 158, 182 Peron’s presidency 330, 337
declining power 93, 99, 105, 106 Agha Mohammad Khan 228 Algiers 239, 244 war with South Africa 361 Argonne forest 285
foundation of 91 Aghlabid dynasty 93, 98 al-Husayn ibn Ali 88, 89 animals, domestication 16-17 Arianism 72, 73
Mamluks support 118 Agilulf 82 Ali Bey al-Kabir 217 Anjou 138 Ariovistus 54
Mongols massacre 118 Agincourt, Battle of (1415) 129, Ali ibn Abi Talib, Caliph 88 Ankara 106 Aristagoras 38
wars with Chinese 92 129, 130 Aljubarrota, Battle of (1385) 126 Anne, Queen of England 195 Aristotle 44, 44, 107, 107
Abd al-Malik, Caliph 89 Agnadello, Battle of (1509) 147 Al-Kharwizmi 94 Anne of Austria 176 Arkwright, Richard 216, 276, 222
Abd al-Mu'min, Caliph 109, 110 collectivization of 298, 303 Allen, Paul 352 Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury Armagnacs 128
Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza iri 244, 244 improvements in 188, Allende, Salvador 349, 351, 357 107 Armenia 60, 64, 263, 277
Abd al-Rahman |, Emir of al-Andalus Little Ice Age 189 al-Mahdi (Hidden Imam) 97, 107 Antarctica 217, 372 arrowheads 130
91 Neolithic 16-17 al-Mahdi (Sa’id ibn-Husayn) 98 Anthemius, Emperor 78 cannons 123
Abd ar-Rahman (Sanchol) 103 seed drills 191, 797 Almaric, King of Jerusalem 110 Anthony, Susan B. 255, 255 crossbows 96, 96
Abd al-Rahman Ill, Caliph 98, 99 Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius 57 al-Ma’mun, Caliph 94 Anti-Corn Law League 244 “Greek fire’ 88, 90
Abdul Hamid |, Sultan 217 Agrippa |, King of Judaea 61 Al-Mansur 101, 107 anti-Semitism gunpowder 123
Abdul Hamid II, Sultan 263 Agrippina 59, 60 Almohads Dreyfus Affair 267 see also nuclear weapons
Abdul Rahman 243 Ahmad al-Mansur, Sultan of campaigns against Almoravids 107, Kristallnacht 311, 377 Armstrong, Neil 349
Abreu, Antonio de 146-7, 147 Morocco 159, 162 109, 110 Nuremberg Laws 305 Arnhem 327
Abrittus, Battle of 69 Ahmad Khan Abdali 205 expulsion from Spain 115, 118, 124 in Soviet Union 336 Arnold of Brescia 110
Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah, Caliph 91 Ahmad Shah Durrani 211, 212 Almoravids 104, 105, 107, 110 Antietam, Battle of (1862) 251 Arras, Union of 159
Abu Bakr, Caliph 86 Ahmose I, King of Egypt 26 Alp Arslan 104 Antigonos Monophthalmos 45 Arsaces 47, 48
Abu Ghraib prison, Baghdad 374 Aidi, Emperor of China 57 Alsace 254 Antioch 81 Arsites 44
Abu Simbel 28, 28 AIDS 356, 360 Altiplano 76 Antioch, siege of {1098} 105, 105 Art Deco 294
Abyssinia see Ethiopia air travel see flight Amalasuintha 80 Antiochus |, King of Syria 47 Artabanes 81
Achaean League 50, 51 Ajanta caves 82 Amazon River 173, 201 Antiochus II, King of Syria 46, 47 Artabanus V, King of Persia 67
Acheulean handaxes 12, 13 Akbar the Great, Emperor 154, Ambrose, St 75 Antiochus III, King of Syria 49, 50 Artah, Battle of (1164) 110
Acre 106, 113, 119, 121 (XS, Neh, ev, Ws? Ambrosian Republic 133 Antiochus IV, King of Syria 51 Artaxerxes Il, King of Persia 41, 42
Actium, Battle of (31 BCE) 56, 56 Akhenaten, Pharaoh 27 Amenemhet I, King of Egypt 24 Antipater 45 Artaxerxes Ill, King of Persia 42
Ad Decimum, Battle of (533) 80 Akkadian Empire 22, 23, 23 American Civil War (1861-65) Antonine Constitution (212) 67 Artaxerxes V, King of Persia 44
Adelard of Bath 108 Aksum 73 250-52, 250 Antoninus Pius, Emperor 64 Arthur, King 108, 108
Aden 245 al-Qaeda 369, 370-1, 373, 374, American Indians Antony, Mark 55, 56, 57 Artigas, José Gervasio 238, 238
Adena culture 30, 34, 70 375, 379 and American War of Antwerp, siege of (1584-85) 160, 160 Artois 138, 140
Adenauer, Dr Konrad 334 amein, Battle of (1942) 323 Independence 218 ANZACs 277, 277 arts and crafts
Adolf-Frederick of Holstein- amo, Battle of the (1836) 240, 240 Battle of Little Bighorn 256 Apache people 256 Asante Empire 184-5, 185, 255, 266
Gotthorp 203 ans 76 conflict with US troops 262, 262 Apollo missions 346, 347, 348, 349, Ascalon 107
Adrian IV, Pope 110 laric |, King of the Visigoths 75, 76,
rPrryp conflicts with early settlers 167, 349 Asculum, Battle of (2798CE]) 46
Adwa, Battle of (1896) 264 76 169, 169 Appalachian Mountains 183 Ashikaga shoguns 133, 138-9
Aegades Islands, Battle of (241 BCE) aric Il, King of the Visigoths 78 Indian Removal Act (1830) 239 Apple Inc. 352, 371, 375 Ashoka, Emperor 46
47 aska 198, 200, 234, 234, 252, 350 Trail of Tears 238 Aquinas, Thomas 119, 779 Ashur 25
Aegean 24, 27 aungpaya 208 American War of Independence Aquino, Corazon 359 Ashur-uballit | 28
Aegospotami, Battle of (405BCE] 41 lbania 312, 363, 368 (1775-81) 218-21, 278, 220, 221 Arabia 57, 62, 211 Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria 34, 34
Aelle, King of Sussex 79 lberti, Leon Battista 136 Amida 73 Arabs Aspero 21, 23
Aethelberht, King of Kent 83 (bigensian Crusade 114-15, 116 Amiens 285 Abbasid caliphate 91, 92, 93, 99, 106 al-Assad, Bashar 378
Aethelred II, King of England 101 binus, Clodius 66 Amin, !di 350, 352, 354 Aghlabid dynasty 93, 98 Assam 237
Aétius, Flavius 76, 77 bizzi family 131 Amnesty International 353 Arab revolt 280 Assassins 105, 113, 118
Aetolia 49 boin 82 Amoco Cadiz 353 Arab Spring 379 Assyria
Afghanistan bright, Madeleine 368 Amritsar, Golden Temple of 358 Arab-Israeli wars 332, 334, 338, invasion of Egypt 34
Afghan-Maratha War 211, 212 buquerque, Afonso de 146 Amritsar massacre (1919) 287 351 Middle Assyrian Empire 28
civil war begins 368 lcacer Quibir, Battle of (1578) 159,
Prerrrrrrrrpryp Anabaptism 149 caliphate 86-7, 89, 94 Neo-Assyrian Empire 30-31
communist coup 354 159 Anacletus Il, Pope 108 conquest of Spain 90, 99 rise of 25
earthquake 369 \cibiades 40 Anaconda, Operation 372 Fatimid dynasty 98 Romans conquer 63
Ghurids 111 cock, John 287, 287 Anasazi 102, 102, 110 incursions against Franks 91 wars with Babylon 35
Hotaki dynasty 202 drin, Edwin “Buzz” 349 Anastasius |, Emperor 79, 80, 80 opposition to Jewish homeland Astley, Philip 215
hunt for Osama Bin Laden 370 emanni 68, 69 Anatolia 88, 88 plan 311, 317 astronomy 152-3, 166
independence 194 esia 54,55 Anawrata 103 peace process 364 Asturias 90
modern state founded 205 lessandria 111 Ancus Marcius, King of Rome 35 Saudi dynasty 232, 243 Atacama Desert 257
Mujahideen 354, 362 lexander Il, Tsar 250, 250, 258 Andes 21, 23, 235 scientific knowledge 108 Atahualpa, Emperor 132, 150
Nader Shah occupies 201, 202 exander Ill, Pope 110, 111, 112, 172 Andragoras 47 in Sicily 95, 107 Atahualpa, Juan Santos 203
presidential election 374, 374 exander Ill, Tsar 262, 263 Andronicus IV, Emperor 126 split between Sunni and Shi'ite Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal) 269, 288,
Soviet invasion 354, 354, 362 lexander IV, King of Macedonia 45 Andropoy, Yuri 357 Muslims 88 290, 291, 292
uprising against Safavids 193 lexander VI, Pope 144 Angevin Empire 111 spread of Islam 86-7 Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria 72
US operations against 369, 372 exander the Great 44-5, 44, 45 Angkor 131 Umayyad dynasty 88, 91, 98, 99, 101 Athelstan, King 99
wars with Britain 241, 257, 257 lexander Jannaeus, King of the
bBrrrrrprrrprrypryp Angkor Thom 115, 175 Wahhabi sect 232, 235 Athens
Afonso V, King of Portugal 139 Hasmonaeans 52 Angkor Wat 109, 109 wars with Byzantine Empire 88, 90 defeats Persians 39
Africa > exander Nevski, Prince of Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 336 see also Palestinians and individual Draconian laws 35, 36
early humans 12, 12 Novgorod 117, 118, 178 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 97, 99 countries rise of 34
European colonization 158, 259, lexander Severus, Emperor 67, 68 Anglo-Saxons 95 Arafat, Yasser 349, 366, 374 Second Athenian Confederacy 42
260, 261, 262, 263, 267 lexandra, Empress of Russia 263 campaigns against Vikings 99 Aragon 139 under Solon 36
Fulbe Revolution 199 exandria 67, 87, 259, 259
rPryp conversion to Christianity 83, 87 Arcadia 193 wars with Sparta 40-1
Atil 90 Bach, Jacques Christian 213 Bell, Alexander Graham 256 Bolt, Usain 376, 376 Britain continued
Atlantic, Battle of the [1941-43] Bacon, Francis 168, 169 Bell Beaker culture 23 Bombay {Mumbai} 181, 366, 375, 376 Anglo-Saxons 77, 79, 87, 95, 97, 99
318-9, 324, 325 Bactria 47, 50 Belsen 328 Bonaparte, Prince Louis-Napoleon Anglo-Spanish War 198
Atlantic Charter (1941] 319 Badoglio, Marshal Pietro 325 Ben-Gurion, David 332 245 Anglo-Zulu War 257
Atlantic Ocean Baghdad Bengal 228, 268, 270, 325 Bonfire of the Vanities 144 Antonine Wall 64
early explorers 143, 144-5 Buwayhid dynasty 99, 104 Benghazi 378 Boniface, St 76 appeasement 310-11
flights across 295, 298 founding of 92 Benjamin of Tudela 111 Boniface VIII, Pope 122 Arab revolt 280
Attila the Hun 78, 78 House of Wisdom 94 Benz, Karl 260, 260 Bonnie and Clyde 304, 304 Balfour Declaration 283
Augsburg, League of 186 Ottomans capture 173 Berbers 289 Bonus Army 301 Bank of England 189
Augustin |, Emperor of Mexico 236 Bahadur Shah || 248 Berestechko, Battle of (1651) 177, 177 Book of Kells 92 Black Death 126
Augustine, St 83 Bahamas 143 Beria, Lavrenty 336 Boone, Daniel 215 Boer Wars 258, 265, 265, 266
Augustus, Emperor 56-3, 57, 58, 63 Bahonar, Javad 356 Bering, Vitus 198, 200 Booth, John Wilkes 252 British Empire Exhibition 293, 293
Aung San Suu Kyi 377 Baird, John Logie 294, 294 Bering Strait 198, 199 Bordeaux 136 British Raj 249, 249, 270-1
Aurangzeb |, Emperor 178-79, 178, Bajirao | 196, 201 Berlin 328, 328-9, 333 Boris Godunov, Tsar 164-5 British Union of Fascists 304, 304,
182, 182, 183, 192-3, 192, 193 Baker, Josephine 294, 294 Berlin airlift (1948) 333, 333, 334 Bornu Empire 199 307
Aurelian, Emperor 69, 70 Bakewell, Robert 204, 204 Berlin, Battle of 314 Borobudur, Temple of 94 Carnatic Wars 209
Auschwitz 328 Balaclava, Battle of (1854) 247 Berlin Conference on Africa (1884- Borodino, Battle of (1812) 233 Celts 53, 53
Austerlitz, Battle of (1805) 231 Balbinus 68 85) 259, 260 Bose, Subhas Chandra 323 change of calendar 208
Australia Baldwin |, King of Jerusalem 106, 106 Berlin Wall 341, 347, 342, 342, 363, Bosnia-Herzegovina 137, 269 Charles | 171, 173
apology for treatment of Baldwin II, King of Jerusalem 107 363, 364 Bosnian War (1992-95) 365, 365, 367, child labour 242
Aborigines 376 Baldwin Ill, King of Jerusalem 109 Berlusconi, Silvio 379 370 Christianity in 83
“bodyline” bowling crisis 303 Baldwin IV, King of Jerusalem 112 Bernard of Clairvaux 109, 122 Boston Massacre (1770) 276 Church of England 151, 154
discovery of 165, 197, 215 Baldwin V, King of Jerusalem 112, 113 Bernstein, Carl 351 The Boston News-Letter 192, 192 Civil War 174, 175, 175, 176, 177
federation 266, 266 Baldwin, Stanley 306, 307 Beslan 374, 374 Boston Tea Party (1773) 217, 217 coal mining 242, 265, 265
First Fleet 223, 223 Balfour Declaration (1917) 283 Bessus [Artaxerxes V] 44 Bosworth, Battle of [1485] 142, 142 colonies 261, 262
floods 378 Bali 372 Bethar 63 Botany Bay 223 and the Commonwealth 301
gold rush 246 Balkans Bevan, Aneurin 332 Boudiaf, Mohammed 365 Constans visits 72
independence of legal system 359 First Balkan War 271, 277 Bhopal gas tragedy (1984) 358, 358 Boudicca 60, 60 Corn Laws 244
settlement of 240 Nicopolis Crusade 127, 127 Bhutto, Benazir 361, 375, 375 Boukman, Dutty 225 Crimean War 247, 247
World War II 322 in Ottoman Empire 125, 132, 137 Bhutto, Zulfiqar Ali 350, 352 Boulton, Matthew 190 Crusades 113
Australopithecus afarensis 12, 12, 13 Slavs 83 Bi Sheng 103, 103 Bourbon 201 Cyprus Convention 257
Australopithecus africanus 12, 13 World War II 324 Biafra 349, 349 Bouvines, Battle of (1214) 115 Danelaw 97
Austria and Habsburg Empire see also individual countries Bible, King James’ 166-7, 166 Boxer Rebellion (1900) 266, 266 dissolution of the monasteries 151,
Austro-Hungarian Empire 269 Ball, Hugo 281, 287 bicycles 235 Boyaca, Battle of (1819) 235 151
banking crisis 300 Balliol, John, King of Scotland 121 Bidatsu, Emperor of Japan 82 Boyer, Jean-Pierre 236 Dual Control of Egypt 259
Bosnian Crisis 269 Baltic 156, 178, 367 “Big Bang” 361 Boyne, Battle of the (1689) 187, and the Dutch Revolt 161, 163, 163
end of Habsburg Empire 281, 287 Ban Chao, General 62 Biko, Steve 352, 353 188, 188 Egypt renounces Suez Treaty 336
Germany annexes 310-11 Banda Islands 169 Bilbao 368-9 BP 377 execution of Charles | 176, 176, 177
Long War 162 Banda Oriental 238 Billy the Kid 258 Brahe, Tycho 153 explorers 160
Nazis try to seize power 304 Bangladesh 349, 350 Bimbisara, King of Magadha 38 brain, hominins 713 Factory Act 240
revolutions of 1848 245 Bank of England 189 Bin Laden, Osama 369, 370, 374, 379, Branch Davidian 366 Falklands War 356, 356-7
Russo-Austrian-Turkish War 201, Bantu peoples 103, 103 379 Brandenburg-Prussia 176, 203 Fashoda Incident 265
202 Bar Kochba, Shimon 63 Bindusara 45, 46 see also Prussia financial crisis 376
Second Silesian War 204 barbarians 68, 71, 78 Bismarck, Otto von 251, 253, 254, 255 Brandt, Willy 349 first Labour government 293, 300
Seven Years War 210, 213 Barbarossa, Operation [1941] 318, 378 Bithynia-Pontus 63 Brazil General Strike 294
Soviet occupation of 337 Barbary pirates 154, 211, 217, 222 Black Death 124, 126 coffee plantations 198, 198 Glorious Revolution 187, 787, 214
Thirty Years War 170-74, 176 Barcelona 270 “Black Monday” stock market crash democracy restored 358 Great Exhibition 246, 246
Three Emperors’ League 255 Barings Bank 367 (1987) 360, 360 floods 378 Great Fire of London 181, 787, 194
War of the Austrian Succession barometers 174, 174 Black Panthers 345, 345 gold discovered 189 Gunpowder Plot 165, 765
202-3, 204, 205, 210 Baroque architecture 170 Black September 350 independence 236 Habeas Corpus Act 184
War of the Quadruple Alliance 196, Baroque music 190, 196 Blackbeard (Edward Teach) 195, 195 military coup 299 Hadrian’s Wall 63, 63, 64
196 Barton, Clara 258, 258 Blekinge 193 Portuguese colonization 145, 150, House of Hanover 195
wars with Ottoman Empire 180, 190 Basel, Council of (1413) 131 Blenheim, Battle of (1704) 192, 192 154, 189 Hudson's Bay Company 182
World War | 274, 280 Basel, Council of (1431) 132, 133 Blenkinsop, John 237 republic declared 261 Hundred Years War 123-5, 129,
Avars 82, 83 Basil l, Emperor 96 Blum, Léon 306 slaves 261, 267 130-32, 136
Avignon 122, 122, 124, 126 Basil Il, Emperor 100, 101, 102, 102 Bocchus of Mauretania 52 wins World Cup 367 immigration 346
Awami League 349 Basques 196, 351, 375 Bodawpaya, King of Burma 222 Xingo National Park 341 India Acts 221, 227
Axayacatl 140 Bataan Death March [1942] 322 Boeotia 42 Breda, surrender of (1625) 170, 170 and Indian independence 308, 331
Ayacucho, Battle of (1824) 237 Batavia 168 Boer Wars Breitenfeld, First Battle of (1631) Indian Mutiny 248
Ayn Jalut, Battle of (1260) 118, 123 Batista, Fulgencio 340 First (1880-81) 258 WAN, WA) and Indian nationalism 290
Ayyubid dynasty 111, 117 Batu Khan 116, 117 Second (1899-1902) 265, 265, 266 Breitenfeld, Second Battle of (1642) Industrial Revolution 193, 216
Azerbaijan 159, 181, 364 Bauhaus 293, 293 Boers 219, 219, 243, 258 174, 174 IRA terrorism 351, 357, 358,
Azes |, King of the Sakas 52 Bavaria 219 Boethius 107 Brezhnev, Leonid 357, 360 366, 368
Azores 131 “Bay of Pigs” (1961) 341 Bohemia Brian Boru, High King of Ireland 102 Iran nationalizes oil industry 336
Azov 189, 189, 201 Bayan, Khan 82 Hussite uprising 129, 131 Briand, Aristide 294 and Ireland 230
Aztecs 97, 118 Baybars, al-Zahir 118 Luxembourg dynasty 125 Brigantia 61 and Irish Easter Rising 280
expansion of empire 140 Bayeux Tapestry 104 Matthias Corvinus controls 137 Brighton, IRA terrorism 358 and Irish Home Rule 289
human sacrifices 128, 143 Bayezid the Thunderbolt, Sultan 127 Thirty Years War 168 Britain Jacobite rebellions 195, 204
pictographs 118 BBC 307 Boii tribe 48 Abdication crisis 307 Jarrow Crusade 307
religion 140 Beatles, The 342, 344, 344, 349 Boleyn, Anne 151, 157, 155 abolition of slave trade 232 Jewish homeland plan 311
Spain conquers 148 Beauvoir, Simone de 343 Bolivar, Simon 233, 233, 234, 235, Act of Union 193 joins EEC 351
Tenochtitlan 128, 128, 140, 143, 143, Becket, St Thomas 111, 777, 127 23623), 239, Afghan Wars 241, 257, 257 King James’ Bible 166-7, 166
148, 148 Beckett, Samuel 337 Bolivia Afghanistan campaign 370 Labour Party wins election 329
Beethoven, Ludwig van 230 creation of 237 agricultural improvements 204 Lend-Lease 319

B
Begin, Menachem 352, 353 democracy restored 358 alcohol crisis 208 literature 127, 184, 184, 244
Beirut 357, 358, 359, 360, 365 Tiwanaku 91, 97, 100 al-Qaeda bombs in London 374-5 Little Ice Age 186, 186
Belgae tribe 54 war with Chile and Peru 257 American War of Independence loses Calais 155, 155
3abur, Emperor 136, 149, 149, 150, Belgium 140 Bologna 355 218-21, 218, 220, 221 Luddites 233, 233
3abylon and the Congo 260, 260, 269, 340 Bologna University 107, 110, 110 Amritsar massacre 287 Magna Carta 115
decline of 26 creation of 238, 239 Bolsheviks the Anarchy 108 Mary | re-establishes Catholic
Hammurabi code 25, 25 World War | 275, 275 1917 Revolution 282, 282 Anglo-Burmese wars 237, 246, Church 154
neo-Babylonian dynasty 36 World War I! 390 Great Terror 308-9 246, 260, 260 Mau Mau rebellion 336, 336
rise of 25 Belgrade 137, 137 invasion of Poland 289 Anglo-Dutch Wars 177, 180, 787, 220 miners’ strike 350, 358, 358
wars with Assyrian 35 Belisarius 80, 81 Kronstadt rebellion 289 Anglo-Maratha Wars 218, 231 Munich agreement 311
 Cabrillo, Juan Rodriguez 152 Carthage continued Channel Tunnel 364, 367, 367
Britain continued British Museum, London 209
Cadiz 161, 163, 163 rise of 31 Chaplin, Charlie 277
Mysore Wars 220, 229 British South African Company 261
Caen 124 wars with Syracuse 42 Charlemagne (Charles the Great),
Napoleonic Wars 229, 229, 231, Brixton riots (1981) 356
Caesar, Gaius 57, 58 Cartier, Jacques 152, 152 Emperor 91, 92-93, 94, 104
234, 234 Bronté, Emily 244
Caesar, Julius 54-55, 54, 55, 56 Cartimandua, Queen 59 Charles, Count of Valois 122
National Debt 189 Bronze Age 20-7, 21, 25-28
Caesar, Lucius 57, 58 Cartwright, Edmund 222 Charles |, Emperor of Austria 281
National Government 300 Brookes, William Penny 264
Brown, Arthur Whitten 287, 287 Cahokia 110, 770 Casa Grande 90 Charles |, King of England 171, 173,
National Health Service 332
Brown, John 249, 249 Calais 124, 136, 155, 155 Casablanca conference (1943) 174, 175, 175, 176, 176, 177
Nine Years War 189
Brown, Louise 353, 353 calculators 183, 183 324, 324 Charles |, King of Portugal 269, 26?
normalization of relations with
Brunel, lsambard Kingdom 241, 247 Calcutta 270 Cassander 45 Charles II, King of England 177, 179,
Soviet Union 360
Brusilov Offensive 278 Calcutta, Black Hole of (1756) 210 Cassius 55, 56 181, 186, 187
Norman Conquest 104, 104
Brutus, Marcus 55, 56 calendar Cassius, Avidius 64, 83 Charles II, King of Spain 190
North American colonies 165, 165,
BSE [bovine spongiform change to Gregorian 208 Cassivelaunus 55 Charles Ill, King of the Franks 99
167, 169, 205
encephalopathy) 368 French Revolution 227 Castile 125, 126, 129, 139 Charles III, King of Spain 211, 277,
Northern Ireland peace process
Buddha 37, 50, 67, 93, 208, 234 Julian Calendar reformed 160 Castillon, Battle of (1453) 136, 136 21,223
366-67, 369
Buddhism 37, 110 California 245, 373 Castro, Fidel 340, 341, 376 Charles IV, Emperor 125, 125, 126
Northern Ireland problem 345,
349, 350, 350 Buddhist Councils 46, 63 Caligula, Emperor 59 Catalhoyuk 17 Charles IV, King of Spain 223, 230,
Northern Rising 157, 157 in China 87, 93 Callao, Battle of (1866) 252, 252 Catalonia 196, 306 232
Operation Desert Fox 369 Diamond Sutra 96, 96, Calvin, John 154 Cathars 115, 116, 116 Charles V, Emperor 148, 148, 149,
Opium Wars 241, 241, 242, 248 in India 63 Calvinism 154, 173 cathedrals 106 149, 150, 151, 157, 152, 193) toa,
and Palestine 308, 331 Mahayana Buddhism 114 Cambodia Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge 166
Palestine Mandate 290 Temple of Borobudur 94 civil war 362 378 Charles V, King of France 125, 126,
Peasants’ Revolt 126, 126 Buganda 220 French colonization 268 Catherine of Aragon 151 40
Peninsular War 232 Buhari, General Mohammed 358 independence 337 Catherine of Braganza 181 Charles VI, Emperor 202
Peterloo Massacre 235, 235 Bukka 123 Khmer Rouge 352, 353, 353, Catherine de Medici 158-9, 159 Charles VI, King of France 126, 130
Pilgrimage of Grace 151 Bulan Khan 94 354, 369 Catherine |, Empress of Russia 198 Charles VII, King of France 131, 132,
plague 180-1, 180 Bulgaria US bombs 349 Catherine II “the Great”, Empress of 132
population growth 246, 246 end of Communism 362 Vietnam invades 353, 354 Russia 213, 273, 215, 217, 223 Charles VIII, King of France 142
postal system 242, 242 First Balkan War 271 Cambrai 283, 283 Catherine of Siena, St 126 Charles X, King of France 238
prelude to American Revolution independence 261, 269 Cambrai, League of 147 Catholic Church Charles X, King of Sweden 178
214, 216, 217 joins European Union 375 Cambridge University 174, 115 Albigensian Crusade 114-15, 116 Charles XII, King of Sweden 190
Princes in the Tower 142 Bulgars 95 Cambyses, King of Persia 36, 37 anti-popes 112, 126, 129 Charles the Bald, King of the Franks
race riots 356 First Bulgarian Empire 88 Campaldino, Battle of (1289) 121 Avignon popes 122, 122, 124 94-95
railways 237, 237, 238 conflict with Byzantine Empire 80, Campbell, Donald 345, 345 Catholic Relief Act 238 Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy
rearmament 306, 316 88, 94, 97, 102 Canaanites 29, 30 and Communism 334 38, 140, 140, 142
Reform Act 239, 239 Bulge, Battle of the (1944) 327 Canada conciliar movement 132, 133 Charles the Fat, King of the Franks
Restoration 179 Bull Run, Second Battle of (1862) 251 British colonies 205 Council of Trent 153 97
returns currency to Gold Standard Bunker Hill, Battle of (1775) 218 French settlements 152, Dutch Revolt 157 Charles Martel, King of the Franks
294 Bunyan, John 184, 184 152, 164, 193 French Wars of Religion 156, 91
revolt against Edward II 123 Burgess, Guy 336 Hudson's Bay Company 182 156, 158-9, 158, 161, 162, 163, Charles Theodore, Elector of
revolt against Romans 75 Burgundy 126, 128, 138, 140, 140 Mounties 255, 255 171, 186 Bavaria 219, 219
Rhodesian crisis 344 Burma Quebec Act 217 and the Glorious Revolution 214 Charlotte, Queen 272
Roman conquest 54-55, 59-9, 67, Alaungpaya dynasty 237, 237 Cannae, Battle of (216BcE) 48-9 Great Schism 126, 129 Chartists 245
63, 64, 66, 76 Anglo-Burmese Wars 237, 246, Cantacuzenus, John 124 Henry Vill and 151 Chaucer, Geoffrey 127, 127
royal wedding 378, 378 246, 260, 260 Canton 226 Inquisitions 115, 116, 141, 151, Chavannes, Jean-Baptiste 225
Scientific Revolution 179, 180 Aung San Suu Kyi 377 Canute (Cnut}, King of Denmark and 151, 208 Chavin culture 30, 30
Second Baron’s War 119 conflict with Siam 222 England 102-03 Jesuits 151 Chechnya 367, 368, 372, 372, 374
settlement of Australia 223, 240 Konbaung dynasty 208, 208 Cao, Diogo 141, 147 Lateran Treaty 297 Chengdi, Emperor of China 57
Seven Years War 209-13, 270, 212, Pagan kingdom 95, 95, 103 Cao Cao 66 Mary | re-establishes in Britain 154 Chenghua, Emperor of China 138
213 Pegu 203 Cape of Good Hope 142, 228 Northern Rising 157, 157 Chernobyl 359, 359
Sikh Wars 245 Burma Railway 325, 325 Cape Horn 168 persecution in Britain 151, 154 Cherokees 238
slave trade 168, 216 Bush, George H.W. 361, 363, 365 Cape Mesurado 236 and Protestant settlements in Cheyenne 256
Soviet spies in 336 Bush, George W. 370, 372, 374, 370 Cape Passaro, Battle of (1718) 196, 196 Ireland 167 Chiang Kai-shek 309
Spanish Armada 161, 167 Busta Gallorum, Battle of (552) 81 Cape Verde Islands 133, 133 trial of Galileo 172 Chicago World’s Fair (1933) 303, 303
Stamp Act 214, 274, 216 Bustamante, Alexander 342 Capone, Al 296 Cato the Elder 51 Chichen Itza 97, 97, 101
steam power 192, 218, 218 Bute, John Stuart, 3rd Earl of 212 Caporetto, Battle of (1917) 278, 283 cave paintings 74-75, 15 Childeric, King of the Franks 79
stock market crash 360 Buwayhid dynasty 99, 104 Caracalla, Emperor 66, 67, 67 Caxton, William 140, 140 Chile
Sudanese War 259 Byng, Admiral Sir George 196, 196 Caracas 234 Ceausescu, Nicolae 345 Allende killed 351
Sugar Act 213 Byron, Lord 237, 237 Caractacus 59 Celsius, Anders 203, 203 independence 235
technological success 310 Byzantine Empire Caral21 Celts 40, 41, 48, 53, 53 miners rescued 377, 377
textile industry 200, 214, 214, 216, and Lombard invasions 82 Carausius, Emperor 70 Central America under Allende 349
222, 222, 233, 240 Christianity in 80 Caribbean independence 233, 237 war with Bolivia and Peru 257
trade with China 199, 240 conflict with Bulgars 80, 88, 94, 97, Seven Years War 212 see also individual countries Chimor 139
trading posts in India 181 102 slaves 212 Central England Temperature (CET) Chimu 106, 114
transfers Hong Kong to China 358, Constantinople founded 72 Spanish conquistadors 147 179 Chin Peng 332
368 decline of 120, 133 sugar plantations 201, 207, 212 Cerdagne 138 China
Triple Alliance 195 “Greek fire” 88, 90, 90 Carinus, Emperor 70 Cerdic, King of Wessex 79 1911 Revolution 270, 270
under Cromwell 177 iconoclasm 90 Carloman, King of the Franks 91, 92 Cerro Sechin 29, 29 Beijing Olympics 376
unemployment 289, 301 Nika Revolt80 Carlyle, Thomas 202 Ceylon see Sri Lanka Benjamin of Tudela in 111
Viking raids 93, 96, 100 Paleologus Empire 119 Carnatic War, Second (1749-54) 209, Chacabuco, Battle of (1817) 235, Boxer Rebellion 266, 266
votes for women 271, 271 re-captures Constantinople 119 209 235 Britain transfers Hong Kong to
War of 1812 233 trade 126 Carnuntum, Conference of (308) 71 Chaco Canyon 102, 110 358, 368
War of Jenkins’ Ear 202 under Justinian 80-1, 87 Carnutes 55 Chagatai tribe 125 Buddhism 87, 93
War of the Quadruple Alliance 196, wars with Arabs 88, 90 Carolingian Empire 92-95, 97, 99, 100 Chagri Beg 103 bureaucracy 53, 62
196 wars with Kievan Rus 99, 100 Carolus, Johan 165 Chalons, Battle of (450) 78 “burning of the books” 48
War of the Spanish Succession 192, wars with Persia 80, 81, 82, 83, 86 Carpi people 68 Chamberlain, Neville 308, 370, captures Formosa (Taiwan) 180,
(C2 wars with Seljuks 703, 104 Carrero Blanco, Luis 351 311, 316 186
Wars of the Roses 133, 137, 142 Carrhae, Battle of (538CE) 56, 57 Chamoun, Camille 339 Christianity in 188, 195, 204-5,

C
workhouses 240 cars 260, 260, 271 Champa 109, 139 246
World War | 274-76, 275, 277, 280- Carter, Jimmy 353, 354, 355 Champlain, Lake 218 collapse of Han Empire 67, 68
1, 283, 284-5 Carthage 57 Champlain, Samuel de 164 communism 289
World War II 312-326, 312, 313, 316 Cable Street, Battle of (1936) 307 Byzantines lose 89 Chandragupta | 72 Confucianism 37
Britain, Battle of 314, 317 Cabot, John 144 in Vandal kingdom 76 Chandragupta Maurya 45 demonstrations for reform 359
British Expeditionary Force 275 Cabral, Pedro 142 Punic Wars 47, 47, 48-9, 48, 51 Chang'an 58 Donglin scholars 167
China continued banned in Japan 161, 163 Committee of Public Safety 226-7 Crassus, Marcus Licinius 53, 54, Dai Vet 109
eunuch faction 64, 65, 66 Book of Kells 92 Commodus, Emperor 65, 66, 66 55 Daimler, Gottlieb 260
expansion of 189 in Byzantine Empire 80 Commonwealth 301 Craterus 45 Daladier, Edouard 311, 316
famine 256, 256 in China 188, 195, 204-5, 246 Commonwealth of Independent Crecy, Battle of (1346) 124, 124, 125 Dalai Lama 175, 195, 196
first humans 14 Chi-Rho symbol 71, 77 States 364 credit cards 335 Damascus 106
Five Dynasties 98, 98, 100 Christianization of Europe 127 Communism 245 Crete Damascus, siege of (1148) 108, 109
Five Pecks of Rice sect 66 conversion of Scandinavia 100 Catholic Church and 334 Minoan civilization 20, 23, 24, Damghan, Battle of (1729) 197
Great Wall 142-3, 143 in Ethiopia 73 in China 289 24,27 Danegeld 101, 103
Han Empire 49, 50, 50, 52-3, 54, 57, Franks convert to 79, 80 collapse of Soviet Union 364 Thirty Days War 265 Danelaw 97
58-9, 58, 59, 67, 68 Ireland converted to 82 coup in Czechoslovakia 332 World War || 318 Danishmend 106
Huang Zhao rebellion 98 Lindisfarne Gospels 90, 90 in Cuba 340 Crick, Francis 337 D’Annunzio, Gabriele 287, 287
invasion of Vietnam 354 Marcionism 64 in Eastern Europe 330 Crimea 124, 201, 217 Dante Alighieri 121, 122
isolationism 227 Monophysite Christianity 80 ends in Eastern Europe 362-3 Crimean War (1854-56) 247, 247 Danube, River 28, 57, 61
Jin dynasty 69-70, 71, 74, 77, 108, Nestorian Christians 87 in Hungary 287 Crippen, Robert 356 Darby, Abraham 193
116 Nicopolis Crusade 127, 127 McCarthyism 337 Cristero movement 296 Dardanelles 126
and Korean independence 264 in Roman Empire 59, 59, 71, 72, 75 in North Korea 332 Croatia 318, 364 Darfur 373
Later Liang dynasty 98 spread of 77 “Popular Fronts” 306 Croesus, King of Lydia 36 Darius | the Great, King of Persia
Liu Song dynasty 77 Chrysler 377 in Russia 287 Cromwell, Oliver 174, 175, 176, 176, 36-7, 36, 37, 38
Longshan culture 20, 23, 23 Chu 43 Communist League 244 iA, WA) Darius III, King of Persia 44, 44
Manchus 228, 270 Chuenpee, Convention of (1841) 242 Communist Manifesto 244, 245 Cromwell, Thomas 151 dark matter 375
Meng Zi 45 Church of England Comonfort, Ignacio 249 Crusader kingdoms (Outremer) Darwin, Australia 322
Miao and Yao people revolt 138 Act of Uniformity 154 computers 330 decline of 109, 119, 121, 122 Darwin, Charles 240, 240, 241, 241,
Ming dynasty 125, 127, 131, 138, 143, Book of Common Prayer 154, 154, Comuneros’ Uprising (1781) 220 establishment of 105 249, 294
160, 162, 168, 173, 174, 175, 228 173 Concord, Battle of (1775) 218 Knights Templar 107 Daulatabad 123
Mongol invasions 116, 118, 128, Henry Vill establishes 151 Concorde 349, 372, 372-3 Saladin’s campaigns against 112, David, King of Israel 30
138, 208, 212 King James’ Bible 166-7, 166 Confucianism 167 113 Davison, Emily 271, 271
Mukden incident 300 Churchill, Winston 316 Confucius 37 Crusades 107, 117 Dawes Plan 293, 297
Nien Rebellion 246 Atlantic Charter 319 Congo 260, 260, 266, 269, 340 First (1096-99] 105, 105, 106 Day of Dupes (1630) 171
nomadic incursions 51 and Bengal famine 325 Congo, River 256, 265 Second (1145-49) 108-9, 109 de Gaulle, Charles 316-17, 339
Northern Wei dynasty 77, 77 Casablanca conference 324, 324 Conrad III, Emperor 108, 109, 110 Third (1189-92) 113 and Algeria 341, 342
opium imports banned 198-9 denounces Munich agreement 311 Constance, Council of (1414) 129, 129 Fourth (1202-1204) 114 death 349
Opium Wars 241, 241, 242, 248 and Greek civil war 331 Constans |, Emperor 72 Fifth (1213-21) 115 liberation of Paris 326, 327
People’s Republic founded 334, Iron Curtain speech 330 Constantine, King of Greece 345 Sixth (1228-29) 116 and protest movement 347
334 loses election 329 Constantine |, Emperor 71, 77, 72, Seventh (1248-54) 117 de Klerk, F.W. 362, 364
poor relations with Soviet Union returns currency to Gold Standard 72 Eighth (1270) 119 de Valera, Eamon 301
340 294 Constantine Il, Emperor 72 Knights Templar 122 Dead Sea Scrolls 330
Portuguese trade with 148, 155 World War II 317, 319 Constantine Ill, Emperor 76 Ctesiphon 62-63, 64, 66 Decebalus, King of the Dacians 61,
printing 103, 103 Yalta Conference 328 Constantine VI, Emperor 93 Cuba 62
Qi dynasty 77 Cicero 57 Constantine VIl, Emperor 100 abolition of slavery 260 Decius, Quintus, Emperor 68-9
Qin dynasty 47, 48, 49 El Cid 105 Constantine XI Palaeologus, and Angolan war 361 Declaration of Independence (1776)
Qing Empire 168, 175, 175, 183, 195, Cimbri 52 Emperor 133 “Bay of Pigs” 341 219, 219
270 cinema 277, 295, 295, 297, 297, 305, Constantinople 94, 97 Castro comes to power 340 Declaration of the Rights of Man
“Red Eyebrows” rebellion 58 310, 370, 313, 313, 324, 368 Arabs besiege 88, 90 Castro retires 376 224-5
relations with Russia 198 Civilis, Julius 61 Blue Mosque 168 Missile Crisis 342, 342 Deerfield, Massachusetts 192
Shang civilization 24-25, 24, 25, 27, Clarendon, Constitutions of (1164) Byzantine Empire re-captures Spanish-American War 265, 265 Delhi
29 111 119 sugar production 263, 263 Afghans sack 211
Single Whip Reform 160 Clark, William 231, 237 Constantine founds 72 Ten Years War 253, 253 capital moved to 270-1
Sino-Japanese War 263, 263 Claudius, Emperor 59, 59, 60 Crusades 106, 114 Cucuta, Congress of (1821) 236 Delhi durbar 270
Sixteen Kingdoms 74, 77 Claudius I! Gothicus, Emperor 69 fall of (1453) 138 Cuiculco 54 Khalji dynasty 121
Song dynasty 45, 98, 100, 700, 108, Cleander 66 Ottoman conquest 130, 132, 136, Culloden, Battle of (1746) 204, 204, Nader Shah occupies 202, 205
110, 116 Clemenceau, Georges 283, 286, 286 136, 137 214 Sultanate of 113, 128, 136
Sui dynasty 83, 83, 86 Clement V, Pope 122 Venetians blockade 178 Cumberland Gap 183 Delian League 39
Taiping Rebellion 246, 246 Clement VI, Pope 124 Constantius II, Emperor 72, 73, 74 Cunaxa, Battle of (4018cE) 41 Demetrius |, King of the Seleucids 51
Tang dynasty 86, 88, 90, 94, 98 Clement VII, anti-pope 126, 126 Constantius Chlorus, Emperor 70, 71 Curie, Marie 271 Demetrius Poliorcetes 46
tea trade 226, 226, 240 Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt 56, 56 Constitutional Convention (1787) 222 Curzola, Battle of (1298) 121 Denisova Cave, Russia 14
Terracotta Army 49 Clermont, Council of (1095) 105 Continental Army 220 Curzon, Lord 268 Denmark
Three Gorges Dam 375, 375 Clinton, Bill 365, 365, 366, 368, 369, Continental Congress (1774) 217, Cuzco 132 conversion to Christianity 100
Three Kingdoms period 68, 70 369 219, 220 Cyprian, St 68 Great Northern War 193
and Tibet 196 Clive, Robert 211, 271 Contras 357, 359 Cyprus 113, 338, 344, 351 joins EEC 351
trade with Britain 240 Clontarf, Battle of (1014) 102 Cook, Captain James 215, 275, 217, Cyrene 35 Oresund Link 370
war with India 342 Clothar Il, King of the Franks 86 219, 223 Cyril, St 96 Prussian-Danish War 251, 257
war with Japan 309 Clovis, King of the Franks 78, 79, Cooke, William Fothergill 240 Cyrillic script 96, 96 reign of Christian VII 214
Warring States period 38, 43, 47 80, 82 Coolidge, Calvin 293 Cyrus the Great 36, 37, 37 Russo-Swedish War 223
White Lotus sect 228 Cluny Abbey 98, 98 Copenhagen climate conference Czech Republic 366 Thirty Years War 170, 170
Xin dynasty 58 Cniva 68-9 (2009) 377 Czechoslovakia wars with Sweden 156, 756, 167, 178
Yellow Turban revolt 66 Cnut (Canute], King of Denmark and Copernicus, Nicolaus 152-3, 152 communist coup 332 World War II 316
Yuan dynasty 125 England 102-03 Coral Sea, Battle of the (1942) 322 end of communism 362 Depression (1930s) 297, 298-99, 299,
Zheng He's voyages 128, 129, 131 coal mining 112, 237, 265, 265 Cordoba 92, 92, 98, 99, 101, 103 federation dissolves 366 301, 307
Zhou dynasty 29, 31, 31, 34 Cochinchina Campaign (1858-62) Corinth 34 Germany occupies Prague 312 Descartes, René 173
Chincha Islands 252 249 Corn Laws (Britain) 244 Munich agreement 311, 312 Desert Fox, Operation (1998) 369
Chinchorro 16, 17 Codex Justinianus 80 Cornwallis, General Charles 220, Prague Spring 347 Despenser family 123
Chinggids 125 coffee 95, 95 220 Soviet occupation 347 Dessalines, Jean-Jacques 230, 230,
Chioggia, War of (1378-81) 126 Cold War Cornwallis, Edward 205 Sudetenland crisis 311 231
Chlothar |, King of the Franks 82 Berlin airlift 333, 333, 334 Coronado, Francisco Vazquez de Velvet Revolution 362, 362 Diamond Sutra 96, 96
Chlothar Il, King of the Franks 82 end of 361, 363 152, 184-5 Diana, Princess of Wales 368

D
Cholas 95, 102, 102-03, 120 espionage 362 Cortés, Hernan 147, 148, 148 Dias, Bartolomeu 141, 142, 144
Chosroes |, King of Persia 81 Coligny, Gaspard de 158-9 Cossacks 155, 157, 177, 182, 182, Dias, Dinis 133
Chosroes ll, King of Persia 83, 86 Collins, Michael 289, 290 217 Diaz, Porfirio 256, 270
Choules, Claude 379 Colombia 205, 267 Costobocci tribe 65 D-day landings (1944) 315, Diderot, Denis 208
Christ 59, 59, 64, 90 Columba, St 82, 82 Cotonou 263 326, 326 Dillinger, John 304
Christchurch earthquake (2011) 378 Columbia (space shuttle) 356, 372 Cotton Club, New York 293 Dacia 61, 62, 64 Dinnoura, Battle of (1185) 112
Christian VII, King of Denmark 214 Columbus, Christopher 143, 147 Coubertin, Pierre de 264 Dada 281, 287 Diocletian, Emperor 70, 71, 77
Comédie-Francaise 184 Covilha, Péro da 142 Dahomey 176, 176, 197, 199, 205, Diodotus 47
Christianity
Anglo-Saxons and 83, 87 Comintern 306 Cranmer, Thomas 154 263, 263 Dionysius |, King of Syracuse 42
 Edessa 105, 109 Ems telegram 254 Fasilides, Emperor of Ethiopia 173 Carnatic Wars 209
Dionysius, Papirius 66
Edison, Thomas 258 Encyclopedia Britannica 215 Fat’h Ali Shah 228 centralization of royal authority
Diriyah 235
disease see medicine Edo see Tokyo Enduring Freedom, Operation 370 Fatimid Caliphate 98, 106, 107, 110 138
Edward, Black Prince 125 Engels, Friedrich 243, 243, 244, 245 Fattouh, Rawhi 374 Cochinchina Campaign 249
Disney, Walt 310, 370, 350
DNA 12, 337 Edward |, King of England 119, 121 England see Britain Fawkes, Guy 165, 165 Code Noir 197
Edward II, King of England 123 Enlightenment 208, 209, 213, 273, Fechter, Peter 342 colonization of Cambodia 268
Dnieper River 97
Dollfuss, Engelbert 304 Edward Ill, King of England 123, 124 214, 215 Federer, Roger 377 colonization of Canada 193
Dolly the Sheep 368, 368 Edward IV, King of England 137, 142 Enron 370 Fehrbellin, Battle of (1675) 183, 183 communism 306
Domesday Book 105, 105 Edward V, King of England 142 Epaminondas 42-3 Felix V, anti-pope 133 Day of Dupes 171
Dominican order 115, 116 Edward VI, King of England 154 Epirus 46 feminism 342, 343 disputes with papacy 122
Dominican Republic 243 Edward VII, King of England 266 Eric the Red 101 Ferdinand I, King of Castile 103, 103 Dreyfus Affair 267
Domitian, Emperor 61, 62, 62 Edward VIII, King of England 307 Eritrea 369 Ferdinand |, Tsar of Bulgaria 261, Dual Control of Egypt 259
Don Quixote 167 Edward the Confessor, King of Esarhaddon, King of Assyria 35 261, 269 Egyptian campaign 229, 229
Donation of Pepin 92 England 104 Estonia 318 Ferdinand II, Emperor 168, 169, 171 Encyclopédie 208
Donitz, Admiral Karl 324 Edwards, Dr Robert 353, 353 Estonia, MS 367 Ferdinand II, King of Aragon 139, Estates-General 167
ETA 351, 375 141, 143, 145 famines 189
Dorgon, Prince 175 Egypt
Dorylaeum, Battle of (1148) 109 agriculture 20 Ethiopia [Abyssinia] Ferdinand III, King of Castile and Fashoda Incident 265
Dost Muhammad Khan 241 Arab Spring 378 capital at Gondar 173, 173 Léon 117, 117 Fifth Republic 339
dot-com bubble 370, 370 Assyrian invasion 34 Eritrean War 369 Ferdinand VII, King of Spain 232, Franco-Dutch War 182
Dou Xian 65 development of civilization 17, 20 famine 357, 357, 359 233, 236 Franco-Hova War 259
Drake, Sir Francis 160, 161 Dual Control of 259 Italian invasions 264, 264, 305, 306 Ferrara, Council of {1438} 132 Franco-Prussian War 254
Drepana, Battle of (249BCE) 47 Fashoda Incident 265 kingdom of Aksum 73 Fibonacci, Leonardo 114 French Academy of Sciences 181
Dresden 328, 328 First Intermediate Period 23 military coup 351 Field of Lies 95 French Revolution 224-7, 224, 226,
Dreyfus, Alfred 267 French campaign in 229, 229 Solomonid dynasty 119, 119 Finland 203, 313, 373, 316 227
Drusus 57 Great Rebellion of the Satraps 42 war with Egypt 255, 256 Firuz 121 Fronde uprising 176, 176
Dukakis, Michael 361 glyphs 24 Etna, Mount 189, 189 Fish and Sundays River 219 “Hundred Days” 234, 278
Dunhuang caves 83 independence 290 Eton College 132, 132 Fitch, John 222, 222 and Haiti 227, 230, 231
Dunkirk 316, 316 invades Sudan 236 Etruscans 31, 34, 35, 41, 47 FitzGerald, Edward 106, 106 Hundred Years’ War 123-5, 129,
Durrani people 202 invasion of Syria 239, 240, 242 Euclid 108 Five Pecks of Rice sect 66 130-32, 136
Dust Bowl 304 Mamluks 117, 118, 121, 236 Eudo, Duke 91 Flanders 140, 123, 283 Indochina Wars 330, 336, 337, 337
Dutch Republic Middle Kingdom 23, 24, 26 Eugene, Prince of Savoy 192, 193 Flavius Severus, Emperor 71 Italian Wars 144, 145, 147, 154, 155
Franco-Dutch War 182 mummies 24 Eugenius, Flavius 75 Fleming, Sir Alexander 296, 296 July Revolution 238, 239
in East Indies 168, 169 Nasser leads coup 336 Eugenius Ill, Pope 109 flight Knights Templar arrested 122
Triple Alliance 195 New Kingdom 26, 29 Euric, King of the Visigoths 78 airliners 303 League of Augsburg and 186
War of the Quadruple Alliance 196, Old Kingdom 21, 22, 23 Europe Concorde 349, 372, 372-3 literature 184
196 in Ottoman Empire 147, 217, 230, 233 Bronze Age 20 development of international air Maginot Line 299
wars with Spain 169 peace process with Israel 352, 353 Christianization of 127 travel 290 Matignon agreements 306
see also Netherlands Ptolemaic dynasty 46 early civilizations 23 flights across Atlantic 287, 287, and Mexico 251, 252
Dutch Revolt (1566-1648) 155, 157- pyramids 21, 27 establishment of NATO 334 301 Napoleonic Code 231, 237
61, 157, 163, 163, 166 Ramesses ll’s reign 28 first humans 14 long-distance flights 298 Napoleonic Wars 231-4, 231-4
Dyrrachium, Battle of (49BCE] 55 religion 26, 27, 27 Iron Age 30 turbojet engines 309 Nine Years War 187, 187, 188, 190
Dzungaria basin 208 renounces Suez Treaty 336 Little Ice Age 186, 186, 189 Wright brothers 267, 267 North African colonies 258, 271
Rome annexes 56 Marshall Plan 331, 332 Florence 122 North American explorers 202

E
Rosetta Stone 229, 229 post-war division 330, 330 banking crisis 124 North American settlements 152,
Sadat assassinated 356 revolutions of 1848 244 Bonfire of the Vanities 144 152, 156, 164, 185, 185
Six-Day War 345, 345 volcanic ash from Iceland 377, 377 Guelph-Ghibelline conflict 120-1, protest movement 346-7, 347
Earhart, Amelia 301, 307, 309 Suez Canal 249, 253, 253 World War || 314-5 122 rearmament 306
East Germany Suez Crisis 338, 338 see also individual countries Medici family 131, 144 Reign of Terror 226, 227
Berlin Wall 341, 347, 342, 342, 363, Third Intermediate Period 29, 31 European Coal and Steel Community Renaissance 123, 123, 130, 142, 145 Resistance 324, 324
363, 364 tomb of Tutenkhamun discovered 336 Flores 14, 15 revolution of 1848 244-5
closes border with West 336 290 European Economic Community Florida 156, 157, 162, 221 Second Republic 245
end of Communism 362-3 Turko-Egyptian Wars 240, 241 (EEC) 338, 338, 351 Foch, Ferdinand 284, 285 September Massacres 226
see also Germany United Arab Republic 339 European Union Ford, Henry 271 Seven Years War 209-13,
East India Company (Dutch) 164, 164, war with Ethiopia 255, 256 constitution 373 Formosa see Taiwan 210, 212
180 wars with Persia 42 Euro 366, 369, 372, 372 Fornovo, Battle of (1495) 144 Seventh Crusade 117
East India Company (English) wars with the Wahhabis 287, 289 Euro debt crisis 379 Fort Caroline, Florida 156 sinks Rainbow Warrior 360, 360
Anglo-Maratha Wars 218, 231 Eiffel, Gustave 261, 267 expansion of 374, 375 Fort Duquesne, Pennsylvania 211 St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
Battle of Plassey 211 Einstein, Albert 268, 268, 287, 335 Ireland rejects Lisbon Treaty 376 Fort Jesus, Mombasa 162, 162 158-9, 158
China tea trade 226 Eire 308 Maastricht Treaty 365 Fort Matanzas, Florida 156 Stavisky affair 304
China unwilling to trade with 227 see also Ireland Single Market 366 Fort Moultri, Charleston 250 Suez Crisis 338, 338
college 228 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 323, 326, 346 Spain and Portugal join 359 Fort Rosalie, Mississippi 199, 199 Tennis Court Oath 224, 224
establishment of 164, 164 “Eisenstein, Sergei 268 Eurostar 367 Fort St David, India 204 Third Republic 254, 304
Fort William 188, 188 El Dorado 168 Evelyn, John 179 Fort Sumter, Charleston 250, 250 Thirty Years War 172, 176, 179
India Act 221 El Paraiso 25 Everest, Mount 336, 337 Fort William, Calcutta 188, 188 Tour de France 267
Mysore Wars 220, 229 Elagabalus, Emperor 67 evolution 12-15, 249 Fossett, Steve 372 Triple Alliance 195, 259
and Seven Years War 212 Elam 17 Eyck, Jan van 131, 137 France Vichy government 317
Sikh Wars 245 Eleanor of Aquitaine 109 Eylau, Battle of (1807) 232 18 Brumaire Coup 229 Vikings in 99
and Singapore 235 Eleanor of Castile 121, 127 Eyre, Edward 252 abolition of slave trade 223 war between Burgundians and
trading posts in India 181 electricity Académie Francaise 173 Armagnacs 128
Treaty of Pondicherry 209
East India Company [French] 180
Franklin's lightning conductor 208
Leyden jar 253, 205 F African colonies 262, 262, 263
Albigensian Crusade 114-15, 116
War of Devolution 181, 787, 182
War of the Austrian Succession
East Indies 163, 163, 168, 169, 174 lightbulbs 258 and Algeria 341, 347, 342 204, 205, 210
East Pakistan see Bangladesh Elizabeth |, Queen of England 161 Fabriano 119 and Algiers 239, 244 War of the First Coalition 226, 228,
East Timor 369 becomes Queen 155 Faisal, King of Saudi Arabia 352 alliance with Ottoman 229
Easter Island 101, 197, 197 closes harbours to Sea Beggars 158 Faisal al-Saud 243 Empire 149 War of the Quadruple Alliance 196,
Easter Rising (1916) 280, 280 death 164 Falkirk, Battle of (1298) 121 alliance with Scotland 121 196
Eastern Europe explorers 160 Falklands War (1982) 356, 356-7 Amoco Cadiz oil slick 353 War of the Spanish Succession 191,
collapse of Soviet Union 364 Northern Rising 157 Faroe Islands 102 architecture 184, 184 192, 193, 194, 194, 195
refugees 333 Spanish Armada 161 Fascism assassination of Henry IV 166 war with Holy Roman Empire 226
Warsaw Pact 337, 337 Elizabeth Il, Queen of England 336, British Union of Fascists 304, 304, becomes nation-state 107 war with the Second Coalition 231
see also individual countries 367 307 Burgundy 140, 140 Wars of Religion 156, 156, 158-9,
eBay 368 Elizabeth Petrovna, Tsarina 203 Italy 291, 297, 293 Canal du Midi 185 158, 161, 162, 163, 171, 186
Ebola virus 367 Empire State Building, New York see also Nazis Capetian dynasty 116 wars with Spain 163, 223
Ecuador 201, 239 300, 300 Fashoda Incident (1898) 265 Cardinal Richelieu and 170 wines 182
France continued Gallipoli 124, 277, 277, 278 Germany continued Great Kanto earthquake (1923) 292-3 Hadron Collider 376, 376
World War | 274-76, 280, 282, 283, Gallipoli, Battle of (1416) 130 Peasants’ War 149 Great Northern Exploration 200 Haidar Ali Khan 220
285 Gallus 72 rearmament 306 Great Northern War (1410) 128-9 Haig, General Douglas 280, 281, 283
World War II 312-3, 316-91, 376, Gama, Vasco da 142, 144-5, 148 Reichstag fire 302, 302 Great Northern War (1700-21) Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia
317, 323, 324 Gambia 344 reunification of East and West 193, 197 304, 305, 306, 342, 351, 357
see also Franks; Gaul Gandhi, Indira 345, 350, 358 Germany 364 Great War (World War I, 1914-18) Haiti
Francia Gandhi, Mohandas (Mahatma) 298 revolutions of 1848 245 274-85, 278-9 earthquake 377
East 97, 100 assassination 332, 332 rise of Nazis 299, 299 Great Western 241, 241 republic declared 231
West 97 civil disobedience campaign 290, Spartacists 286 Great Zimbabwe 106, 706, 133, 133, slave rebellion 225, 225, 227, 230
Francis, Duke of Anjou 160, 760 290, 298, 301 Sudetenland crisis 311 136 takes over Santo Domingo 236
Francis |, Emperor 211 Indian independence 332 telegraph 244 Greece US invades 367
Francis ll, Emperor 232 Quit India Movement 322-3 Thirty Years War 170-74, 176 Alexander the Great and 44-5 Voodoo 225
Francis of Assisi, St 116, 116 reconciliation campaign with Three Emperors’ League 255 city-states 31, 34, 35, 36 war with France 227, 230, 231
Francis Xavier, St 152 Muslims 330 unification 254, 254 civil war 331 Halfpenny Hatch 215
Franciscan order 115, 116 Gandhi, Rajiv 365 war reparations 286, 288, 288, 292, colonies 35 Halicarnassus, Mausoleum of 43
Franco, General Francisco 306, 307, Ganja, Battle of (1826) 238 PER I Dark Age 28 Halifax, Nova Scotia 205
312, 352 Gaozong 108 Weimar Republic 288 financial crisis 377, 379 Halil, Patrona 199
Francois |, King of France 149 Gaozu, Emperor of China 49, 50, 50 World War | 274-77, 274, 276, 280- First Balkan War 271 Halland 193
Frank, Anne 337 Garibaldi, Giuseppe 250 83, 284-6, 284, 286 Indo-Greek kingdoms 50, 52 Halley, Edmond 192
Franklin, Benjamin 208 Garland, Judy 373 World War II 312-329, 316, 318-9, 327 Minoan civilization 20, 23, 24, 24, Halley’s Comet 192, 192
Franks Garrett, Pat 258, 258 Young Plan 297 27 Hallstatt culture 30, 30
and Arab incursions 91 Gates, Bill 352 see also East Germany; Holy Mycenaeans 26-5, 28, 28 Hamaguchi, Osachi 299, 299
campaigns against Visigoths 80 Gaudi, Antoni 270 Roman Empire; Prussia; West Olympic Games 264, 264 Hamas 377
Carolingian Empire 92-95, 97, 99, Gaugamela, Battle of (331BCE) 44 Germany Peloponnesian Wars 39, 40-3 Hamburg 117, 177,325
100 Gaul Geronimo 256 in Roman Empire 50, 51 Hamilcar Barca 47, 48
conversion to Christianity 79, 80 decline of Roman Empire 77 Geta, Emperor 66 Thirty Days War 265, 265 Hammurabi, King of Babylon 25, 25,
Donation of Pepin 92, 326-327, 327 Frankish kingdom 79 Gettysburg, Battle of (1863) 251 war of independence 236, 237, 237, 26
Merovingian dynasty 80, 82 Franks invade 72, 73, 78 Ghana 104, 338 238 Handel, George Frideric 195
wars with Romans 69, 70, 72, 73, 78 “Gallic Empire” 69 see also Gold Coast war with Turkey 290-91, 297 Hann 43
see also Crusader kingdoms revolt against Romans Senones 55 Ghassanid Arabs 83 wars with Persia 38-39, 39 Hannibal 48-3, 48, 49
Franz Ferdinand, Archduke 274 Roman conquest of 52 Ghent 152 World War II 318 Hanover 210
Franz Josef |, Emperor of Austria 281 Gautama Siddharta see Buddha Ghibellines 107, 107, 108, 120-1, 122 “Greek fire” 88, 90 Hanseatic League 117, 177
Frederick |, King of Prussia 191 Gaveston, Piers 123 Ghiberti, Lorenzo 136, 136 Green Line 334 Harald Bluetooth, King of Denmark
Frederick Il, Emperor 115, 116 Gaza Strip 337, 361, 366 Ghilzai people 202 Greenland 101, 102 100
Frederick II the Great, King of Gbagbo, Laurence 378 Ghiyas-ud-Din, Emir 111 Greenpeace 350, 360, 360 Harappa 21, 22
Prussia 202, 210, 216, 222 Gdansk shipyard strike 355 Ghurids 111 Gregorian calendar 208 Hargreaves, James 214, 214
becomes King 202 Gehry, Frank 368 Gia Long, Emperor of Vietnam 230, Gregory |, Pope 83 Harihara | 123
death 222 Gelimer 80 230 Gregory VII, Pope 104 Hariri, Rafik 374
Seven Years War 210, 211, 277 Gelon 39 Gibbon, Edward 219 Gregory IX, Pope 116, 116 Harold Il, King of England 104
War of the Austrian Succession General Motors 377 Gibraltar Gregory XI, Pope 126 Haroun al-Rashid, Caliph 93, 93, 94
202-3 genetics 337, 371 ceded to Britain 192 Gregory XIll, Pope 160 Harper's Ferry 249, 249
Frederick II], Emperor 133, 137 Geneva Convention, Fourth (1949] 334 IRA members shot in 361 Grenada 357 Harry Potter series 375
Frederick V, Elector Palatine 169 Genghis Khan 114, 774, 115, 116, 125 Spain besieges 198 Grey, Charles 239 Harsha 82
Frederick Augustus III, King of Gengshi, Emperor of China 58 sovereignty dispute 359 Griffith, D.W. 277 Harvey, William 171
Poland 200 Genoa 101, 121, 127, 126, 130 Gibraltar, Strait of 124, 124 Grito de Dolores (1810) 233 Hasdrubal48
Frederick Barbarossa, Emperor 107, Geoffrey of Anjou 108 Giffords, Gabrielle 379 Grito de Ipiranga (1822) 236 Hasmonaean kingdom 51, 52, 55, 57
110, 111, 112, 113 Geoffrey of Monmouth 108, 108 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey 160 El Grito de Yara (1868) 253 Hassan-i Sabbah 105, 705
Frederick of Swabia 108 George I, King of England 195 Gilgamesh 25, 25 Griinenthal 349 Hastings, Battle of (1066) 104, 104
Frederick William |, Elector of George ll, King of England 200, 212 Giotto di Bondone 123 Guadalajara, Battle of (1860) 249 Hatshepsut, Queen of Egypt 26
Brandenburg 183, 186 George III, King of England 212, 212, global warming 374, 377 Guadalcanal 322 Hattin, Battle of (1187) 113, 113
Frederick William |, King of Prussia 217 Kyoto Protocol 368, 375 Guadeloupe 211, 212 Hattusas 26, 28
200, 200, 202 George V, King of England 270, 271, Glorious Revolution (1688) 187, 187 Guang Wudi, Emperor of China 58-9 Hattusilis III, King of the Hittites 28
Frederick William II, King of Prussia 293 Glycerius, Emperor 78 Guatemala 73, 241 Havana 212, 213, 265
226 George VI, King of England 307, 308, Goa 146 Guatemala City 237 Havel, Vaclav 362
Frederick William III, King of Prussia 308, 336 Gobind Singh, Guru 183, 192-3, 192 Guelphs 107, 107, 108, 120-1, 122 Hawaii 219, 233, 265, 265
232 Georgia (Caucasus) 159, 238, 376 Godaigo, Emperor of Japan 127 Guernica 308, 308-9 Hawking, Stephen 361
French and Indian War (1754-63) Georgia (US) 200 Godoy, Manuel de 223 Guevara, Ernesto “Che” 345 Heligoland 262
209 Germanicus 58 Golan Heights 351 Guiscard, Robert 104 Helsingborg, Battle of (1710) 193
French Revolution (1789-99) 224-7, Germany Gold Coast 141, 255, 266 Guiscard, Roger 104 Helvetii tribe 54
224, 226, 227 African colonies 259, 262, 267 Golden Horde 116, 118, 127, 129 Guizot, Francois 244-5 Henotikon (482) 80
Friedan, Betty 342 annexes Austria 310-11 Gomes, Fernao 139, 139 Gujarat earthquake (2001) 371 Henry |, King of England 107, 108
Friedland, Battle of (1807) 232 Anti-Comintern Pact 307 Gondar 173, 173 Gulf Stream 147 Henry | the Fowler, King of Germany
Fujiwara clan 87, 96, 112 appeasement of 310-11 Gorbachev, Mikhail 359, 360, 361, Gulf War, First (1991) 365 99, 100
Fulani Empire 231 banking crisis 300 363, 364 Gundobad 78 Henry Il, King of England 111, 113
Fulbe Revolution 199 Bauhaus 293, 293 Gordian |, Emperor 68 gunpowder 123 Henry Il, King of France 155, 155
Fulton, Robert 222 Berlin Olympics 307, 307 Gordian Ill, Emperor 68, 68, 69 Gustavus III, King of Sweden 216, Henry Ill, King of England 115, 119,
Fundamental Laws (Russia, 1905) concentration camps 302, 322, 328 Gordon, Charles George 255, 255 FAS, DPR 122
268 Dawes Plan 293, 297 Gore, Al 370 Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden Henry IV, Emperor 104, 704, 106
Funj Sultanate, Sennar 145 “Degenerate Art” exhibition 308 Gorée Island 168, 168 VA VIZ, V74 4 Henry IV, King of England 129
fur trade 224 democratic government collapses Gothic literature 235 Gutenberg, Johannes 137, 137 Henry IV, King of France 161, 162,
299 Goths 68-9, 70, 74-5 Guthrum, King of Denmark 96, 97 163, 166, 166, 184, 186

G
Hindenburg airship disaster 309, 307 Goya, Francisco 232 Guy of Lusignan, King of Jerusalem Henry V, Emperor 106, 107
Hitler's rise to power 302, 302 Gracchus, Gaius 52 113 Henry V, King of England 129, 130
hyperinflation 292, 292 Gracchus, Tiberius 52 Guzman, Domingo de 115 Henry VI, King of England 130, 732,
al-Gaddafi, Mu’ammar 349, 378 invasion of Poland 312, 372, 313, Graf Spee 313 Gyges, King of Lydia 34 133, 137, 137, 142
Gagarin, Yuri 341, 341 314 Gran Colombia 236, 239 Henry VII, King of England 137, 142
Gaiseric, King of the Vandals 76
Gaixia, Battle of (2028CE) 49
Kristallnacht311, 317
Locarno Pact 294
Granada 117, 124, 124-5, 143
Grand Alliance 186, 187, 188, 189, 190
| Henry VIII, King of England 151, 154
Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony 108-9
Galapagos Islands 240 Munich agreement 311, 312 Grant, Ulysses S. 251 Henry the Navigator, Prince 129, 131,
Galba, Emperor 60 Munich Putsch 292, 293 Gratian, Emperor 74, 75 Habsburg Empire see Austria; Holy 131, 133, 139
Galerius, Emperor 70, 71 Night of the Long Knives 304 Gravelotte, Battle of (1870) 254 Roman Empire Henry the Proud 108
Galileo 166, 172, 172 Nuremberg Laws 305 Gravettian culture 15 Habyarimana, Juvenal 366 Hephthalite Huns 78
Gallic Wars (58- 51BCE) 55 occupies Prague 312 Great Exhibition, London (1851) Hadrian, Emperor 63, 63, 64 Heraclius, Emperor 86
Gallienus, Emperor 69 occupies Rhineland 306, 306 246, 246 Hadrian's Wall 63, 63, 64 Hercules 66
 Homo georgicus 12 Iceni 60 India continued Ireland continued
Hereford 122, 122
Herero people 267 Homo habilis 12, 13 leyasu, Tokugawa 164, 164 Sunga dynasty 50 joins EEC 351
Hermopolis 42 Homo heidelbergensis 13, 13 Ife 104, 104 Taj Mahal 177, 177 partition of 289, 289
Herod I, tetrarch of Galilee 56, 57, 61 Homo neanderthalensis 13, 13, 14-15, Ignatius of Loyola 151, 757 terrorist attacks 366, 372, 375, 376 Protestant settlements 167, 167
Herodotus 38, 39 14, 15 Igor I, Prince of Kiev 98-99, 98 Tughluk dynasty 123 Protestant supremacy 188
Herzegovina 137, 365 Homo rudolfensis 12, 13 {l-Khanate 118, 119 under Kharavela 55 rejects Lisbon Treaty 376
Hess, Rudolf 318 Homo sapiens 13, 14-15 Ile-de-France 201 war with China 342 under de Valera 301
Heydrich, Reinhard 322 Honduras 196, 196, 241 Illipa, Battle of (2068CE) 49 war with Pakistan 331 Vikings defeated by Brian Boru 102
Hezbollah 357 Honecker, Erich 362-3 Imad el-Din Zengi 109 Indian National Army 323 and World War II 313
Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel 233, 233 Hong Kong 242, 242, 358, 368 imperialism 261 Indian National Congress 260, 290 see also Northern Ireland
Hideyoshi, Toyotomi 160, 160, 161, Hong Xiuquan 246 Inca Empire 139 Indian Ocean Irene, Empress 93
162, 163, 173 Hongwu, Emperor of China 125 expansion of 139 tsunami (2004) 374, 374 Irish National Liberation Army
Hieron 39 Honorius, Pope 108 Machu Picchu 132, 132 Indiana 201 (INLA] 354
Hillary, Edmund 336, 337 Hooke, Robert 180, 780 Spanish conquest 150, 750, 158, Indochina Wars 330, 336, 337, 337 Irish Republican Army (IRA)
Himiko, Queen of Japan 69 Hoover, Herbert 289, 296-7, 297, 299, 158 Indonesia assassinates Lord Mountbatten
Hinckley, John 356 301 India attempted coup 344 354
Hindenburg, Paul von 275, 281, 301, Hoover, J. Edgar 304 Afghan-Maratha War 211, 212 first humans 14, 15 bombs hotel in Brighton 358
302 “Hoovervilles” 301 All India Muslim League 268 independence 334 bombs mainland Britain 351, 357,
Hindenburg airship 309, 309 Hopewell culture 54, 54 Amritsar massacre 287 martial law 338 368
Hindenburg line 278 Horace 57 Anglo-Maratha Wars 218, 231 Indus Valley civilization 21, 22, 22, 25 ceasefire 366-67
Hinduism Horthy, Admiral Miklos 287 assassination of Rajiv Gandhi 365 Industrial Revolution disarms 371, 375
Cholas 102, 102-03 Hou Zhu, Emperor of China 83 Awadh dynasty 197 textile industry 216 internment 350
conflict with Muslims in India 330, Houston, General Samuel 240 Bengal famine 325 Innocent Il, Pope 108 members shot in Gibraltar 361
331 Howard, Luke 273 Bhopal gas tragedy 358, 358 Innocent IV, Pope 114, 115 occupies Dublin court building 290
in India 182 Hsiung-nu tribes 51, 59, 62 Black Hole of Calcutta 210 Inquisition Irish Republican Brotherhood 280,
hippies 349 Huaidi, Emperor of China 71 Britain’s territorial ambitions 228, Papal Inquisition 115, 116, 172 280
Hirohito, Emperor of Japan 329 Huan Gong 34 229 Portuguese Inquisition 151, 757 Iron Age 30
Hiroshima 321, 329 Huandi, Emperor of China 65 British Raj 249, 249 Spanish Inquisition 141 tron Curtain 315, 360, 362
Hitler, Adolf 292, 296, 301 Huarez, Benito 252 British trading posts 181 Insubre tribe 48 Isabella, Queen of Castile 139, 141,
annexes Austria 310-11 Hubble Space Telescope 360-1, 375 Buddhism 63 International Brigades 307 143
assassination attempt 326 Hudson, Henry 166, 167 capital moved to Delhi 270-1 International Monetary Fund (IMF) Isabella of France 123
Battle of Stalingrad 323 Hudson’s Bay Company 182 Carnatic Wars 209, 209 370, 377 Isauria 80
Berlin Olympics 307, 307 Huguenots 170 caste system 29 International Space Station [ISS) Isfahan 106
death 328 Edict of Nantes 186 Cholas 95 370, 370 Islam
invasion of Poland 312 siege of La Rochelle 171 civil disobedience 290, 298, 301 Internet 370 in Africa 145
Mein Kampf 293 St Bartholomew's Day Massacre conflict between Muslims and Investiture Controversy 104, 106, Almoravids 104
Munich Putsch 292, 293 158, 158 Hindus 330, 331 107 Blue Mosque, Constantinople 168
murder of mental patients 313 Wars of Religion 156, 156, 158-9, Delhi durbar 270 lona 82, 82, 92 conflict between Muslims and
Night of the Long Knives 304 163, 186 Delhi sultanate 113, 128, 136 Ipsus, Battle of (3018CE) 45 Hindus in India 330, 331
Nuremberg Laws 305 Huidi, Emperor of China 71 East India Company in 188, 788 Iquique, Battle of (1879) 257 Crusader wars 105, 105, 106
occupies Prague 312 Hulagu Khan 118 Gujarat earthquake 371 IRA see Irish Republican Army fatwah against Salman Rushdie
occupies Rhineland 306 Human Genome Project 371 Gupta Empire 72, 72, 75, 75, 82 Iran 362
rise of Nazi Party 299 Human Rights, Universal Gurjara-Prathihara dynasty 94 American hostages 354, 356 flight to Medina 86
rise to power 302, 302 Declaration of [1948] 333 independence 331, 332, 335, 335 Arab Spring 378 in Ghana 104
Sudetenland crisis 311 humanism 124, 200 India Acts 221, 221, 308 Bam earthquake 373 in India 123, 182, 268
World War II 317, 318, 327 Hundred Years War (1338-1453] Indian National Congress 300-1 Embassy siege in London 355 Iranian revolution 354, 354
Hittites 26, 26, 27, 28 123-5, 129, 130-32, 136 Indira Gandhi assassinated 358 fatwah against Salman Rushdie Nizari Ismailis 105
HIV [virus] 356, 360 Hungary Indo-Greek kingdoms 50, 52 362 Safavid Empire 145
Ho Chi Minh 330, 340 communism 287 invades West Pakistan 344, 345 Iran-Iraq War 355, 355, 356-7, 359, science 94
Ho Chi Minh City 352 end of communism 362, 363 and Kashmir 338 361 Seljuk empire 103
Ho Hau-wah, Edmond 369 Joseph II's reforms 223 Khalji dynasty 121 Islamic Revolution 354, 354 Spanish Reconquista 115, 175, 117,
Hoare, Samuel 305 Magyars 97 kingdom of Magadha 36-7, 38 nationalizes oil industry 336 118, 124, 143
Hobbes, Thomas 177 Ottomans driven out of 186 Kushan Empire 52, 59, 60, 62, 63, Pahlavi dynasty 294 split between Sunni and Shiite
Hogarth, William 200, 200, 208, 208 Revolution 338 63, 67 possible nuclear weapons 375 Muslims 88
Hohenfriedeberg, Battle of (1745) revolutions of 1848 245 last native empire 86 protests against Shah 353 spread of 86-7
204, 204 under Matthias Corvinus 137 Maratha Empire 183, 196, 196, 198, terrorism in 356 terrorism 372
Hohokam people 90 Huns 74, 77, 78 201, 203, 211, 212, 218 US “Irangate” scandal 359 the Hidden Imam 97
Holland 158 hunter-gatherers 16 Mauryan Empire 45, 46, 52 see also Persia Wahhabi sect 232, 235
see also Dutch Republic; Huo family 54 Mongol invasions 128 Iraq Isle of Wight Festival 349
Netherlands Hurrians 26 Mughal Empire 149, 749, 162, 171, Abu Ghraib prison 374 Ismaill, Shah 145, 145
Hollywood 277, 297, 310, 313 durricane Katrina (2005) 374, 375 178-79, 182, 183, 190, 192-3, 196 First Gulf War 365 lsonzon River offensives 279
Holocaust 322 “Rus; Jan 129 Mughals 127, 150, 154, 155, 157 invasion of Kuwait 364, 364 Israel
Holstein 251 Hussein, King of Jordan 366 Muslims in 123 Iran-Iraq War 355, 355, 356-7, 359, Arab-Israeli wars 332, 334, 338
Holy Land 113, 119, 121 Hussein, Saddam 364-5, 369, 373, Mysore Wars 220, 229 361 creation of 332
Holy League 144, 147, 150 373, 374 Nanda Empire 43, 45 Israel destroys nuclear plant 356 destroys Iraqi nuclear plant 356
Holy Roman Empire Hussites 129, 131 nationalism 290, 300-1 Kurdish rebels 352 intifada 361
Burgundy and 140 Hyder Ali 212, 212 nationalist movement 260, 268 military coup 339 invades Gaza 377
Carolingian Empire 93-95, 97, 99, Hyderabad 203 nuclear weapons 369 UN weapons inspection 368, 369 invades Lebanon 353, 357, 357,
100 Hyksos 26 and Pakistan civil war 350 US occupies 373, 374 358, 370
end of 232 Pandyas 120 Ireland Kingdom of 30
expansion of 108-9 Parsees 90 1798 rebellion 229, 229, 230 Palestinian terrorism 350
Golden Bull 125, 125 partition of 331, 337 Act of Union 230 peace process 352, 353, 364, 366,
Guelph and Ghibelline dispute 107, Persia attacks 202, 205 becomes republic 334 374
108 lazyges tribe 65 Portuguese colony 146 Catholic Relief Act 238 raids Gaza Strip 337
invades Italy 110, 111 Ibelin, Battle of [1123] 107 Quit India Movement 322-3 civil war 290 Six-Day War 345, 345
religious tolerance 154 Ibn Battuta 123, 123 Saka kingdom 52, 53 conversion to Christianity 82 Suez Crisis 338
sack of Rome 150, 150 Ibn Saud, King of Saudi Arabia 266, Salt March 298 Easter Rising 280, 280 Yom Kippur War 351
Thirty Years War 168, 169 266 Sangama dynasty 123 emigration 243 Issus, Battle of (194) 66
under Charles V 148, 149, 149, 150-2 Ibn Yasin 104 Satavahana dynasty 52 famines 203, 243, 243 Istanbul 373
Homer 26, 31 ice Age 15, 15 Sepoy Rebellion 248 financial crisis 377, 379 see also Constantinople
hominins 12-13 Iceland Seven Years War 210-12, 212 Home Rule 288, 289 Italy
Homo erectus 12, 13, 13, 14 outdoor assembly 99, 99 Shishunaga dynasty 41 independence 221 after end of Roman Empire 79
Homo ergaster 12, 13, 13 Vikings settle in 96-97, 96 Sikh Wars 245 Irish Free State 289, 308 Aldo Moro kidnapped 353
Homo floresiensis 12, 15 volcano erupts 377, 377 Simla Agreement 350 James !I in 187, 188 annexes Albania 312
Italy continued Japan continued Jews continued Kandy 229, 234, 234 Krakatoa 259
Berlusconi crisis 379 Jomon culture 29, 29 Nuremberg Laws 305 Kangxi Emperor of China 183, 183, Krefeld, Battle of (1758) 211
Charlemagne and 92 Kobe earthquake 367 Palestine homeland proposal 311 186, 188, 189 Kristallnacht (1938) 311, 377
city-states 107, 120-1, 131, 133, 137 Kyoho famine 200, 200 Portuguese Inquisition 151, 757 Kanishka 63, 67 Krum, Khan 94
colonies 259 Meiji Restoration 253, 253 Romans outlaw Judaism 63 Kant, Immanuel 209, 220 Ku Klux Klan 289, 338
Donation of Pepin 92 Middle Yayoi period 50, 50 Russian pogroms 258 Karabakh 234 Kublai Khan 118, 119, 120
Etruscans 31, 34, 35, 41, 47 Minamoto shogunate 112, Warsaw ghetto 313 Karadzic, Radovan 376 Kujula Kadphises 59, 60
Fascism 291, 297, 293 113 see also Israel Karbala 232 Kulasekhara |, King of the Pandyas
Frederick Barbarossa invades Mongols try to invade 120, 120 Jimmu Tenno 34 Karbala, Battle of (680) 88, 89 120
110, 112 Mukden incident 300 Jin Wen Gong 34 Karnak 26, 26 Kun, Bela 287
independence from Holy Roman Muromachi period 133 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali 330, 331 Karnal, Battle of (1739) 202, 202 Kunersdorf, Battle of (1759) 211
Empire 111 Noh drama 126, 126 Joan, Queen of Portugal 141 Kartalini-Kakhetia 230 Kurds 352, 365, 367, 368
independence movement 250 Onin War 138 Joan of Arc 130-31, 130 Karzai, Hamid 374 Kursk, Battle of (1943) 324
invasion of Abyssinia 264, 264, Portuguese traders 152, 153, Joao |, King of Portugal 126 Kasavubu, Joseph 340 Kushan Empire 52, 59, 60, 62, 63, 63,
305, 306 156 John, King of England 115 Kashmir 331, 338, 344, 350, 372 67
Italian Wars 144, 145, 147, 150, recession 369, 369 John, King of France 125 Katanga 266, 340 Kushites 31, 37
(vA Wels Russo-Japanese War 267, 267 John |, King of Castile 126 Katsuyori, Takeda 159 Kut-al-Alara 280
Lateran Treaty (1929) 297 Samurai 173, 138 John ll, King of Portugal 141 Kazembe 203 Kuwait 211, 364, 364
Lombard invasions 82 Shintoism 199 John V Palaeologus, Emperor 126, Kemal, Mustafa (Ataturk) 269, 288, Kyoto 139
Ostrogoths capture 81 Sino-Japanese War 263, 263 132 290, 291, 292 Kyoto Protocol (1997) 368, 375
Regency of Carnaro 287, 287 Soga family 82 John VI, King of Portugal 236 Kennedy, Edward 346

Ls
Renaissance 124, 130, 142 Taika reforms 87 John XXIII, anti-pope 129 Kennedy, Jacqueline 340
terrorism in 355 Tempo Reforms 241 John the Baptist 59 Kennedy, John F.
unification 254 Tokugawa shogunate 164, 172, John the Fearless, Duke of assassination 343, 343, 344, 346
Visigoths invade 76 204, 251, 253 Burgundy 128 Cuban Missile Crisis 342 La Condamine, Charles Marie de
World War | 276, 283 trade opened up 246, 246 John of Gaunt 126 elected as president 340, 340 201
World War II 313, 316, 318, 324-5, unification of 160, 162 John of Seville 108 Peace Corps 341 La Corufa, Battle of (1809) 232
326 war with China 309 John Paul Il, Pope 356 Kennedy, Senator Robert 346 La Hogue, Battle of (1692) 188
see also Romans war with Korea 162 John Tzimisces, Emperor 100 Kenya 336, 336, 343 La Rochelle, Battle of (1372) 125
luthungi 69 war with Soviet Union 312 Johnson, Amy 298, 299 Kenyatta, Jomo 330, 343 la Salle, Robert de 185
Ivan Ill “the Great”, Grand Duke of Warring States Period 138-9 Johnson, Denis 235 Kerensky, Alexander 282 La Téne culture 40
Moscow 138, 138 weapons 159 Johnson, Lyndon B. 343, 344, 346 Kew Palm House 243 La Venta 30
Ivan IV “the Terrible”, Tsar 154-5, World War II 319-20, 325-327, 327, Johnson, Samuel 209, 209 Khameini, Ali 356, 357, 362 Lade, Battle of (494BcE) 38
155, 157, 165 C2BRS29 327 Jolliet, Louis 183, 185 Khanwa, Battle of (1527) 150 Laetus 66
Ivan V, Tsar 187, 189 Yamato kingdom 69, 78, 78 Jomon culture 29, 29 Kharavela 55 Lagos Bay, Battle of (1759) 211
IVE (in-vitro fertilization) 357 Yoshino period 127 Jordan 335, 366, 378 Kharkov 324 Lahore 245
Ivory Coast 378 Jarrow Crusade [1936] 307 José |, King of Portugal 208 Khartoum 259 Laiazzo, Battle of (1294) 121
Iwo Jima, Battle of (1945) 328, 328 Jassy 201 Joseph Il, Emperor 214, 223 Khazar Empire 90, 94, 96 Lancaster, House of 142
Java 168 Jovian, Emperor 74 Khitan Mongols 98 Langobardi tribe 65

J
Jayavarman II 94 Juan of Austria, Don 158, 159 Khmelnytsky Uprising (1648) 177 language, evolution of 13, 14
Jayavarman VII 114, 114, 115 Juan Carlos, King of Spain 352 Khmer Empire 94, 109, 114, 131 Laos 337
Jefferson, Thomas 230, 230, 231, 236 Juarez, Benito 249, 251 Khmer Rouge 352, 353, 353, 354, 369 Lapérouse, Comte de 222
Jacinto, Battle of (1836) 240 Jemaah Islamiyah 372 Juba Il, King of Mauretania 56, 57 Khoikhoi people 267 lasers 340
Jackson, Michael 357 Jemappes, Battle of (1792) 226 Judaea Khoisan people 194-95, 194 Latin America see Central America;
Jacobins 227 Jena, Battle of (1806) 232, 232 Jewish revolts against Rome 60, Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah 354, South America
Jacobites 187, 195, 204, 214 Jenner, Edward 228 61, 67 354, 355, 362 Latin Empire 119
Jadwiga of Poland 127 Jérdme, St 75 Maccabean revolt 51 Khorramshahr 355 Latin League 43, 44
Jaffa 106, 107 Jerusalem Romans annexe 58, 61 Khrushchev, Nikita 338, 338, 340, Latvia 318
Jagiello of Lithuania, King of Poland Babylonians capture 36 Judah 36 342, 344 Laval, Pierre 305
127 Bar Kochba revolt 63 Judaism Khyber Pass 257 Lavalleja, Juan Antonio 238
Jamaica Christians expelled from 117 Khazars 96 Kievan Rus 97, 98-99, 100 Lawrence, T.E. 280
Eyre attacks black community 252 Crusader state 105, 112 Romans outlaw 63 Kim It Sung 332 Laws of the Twelve Tables (Roman)
independence 342 Dome of the Rock 89, 89 see also Jews Kindertransport 312 40
maroons 228, 228 Hasmonaean kingdom 51, 52 Jugurtha, King of Numidia 52 King, Martin Luther 340, 343, 343, League of Nations 330
Port Royal earthquake 188, 188 King David establishes 30 Julia Domna 66, 66 344, 345, 346, 346 creation of 286
slave rebellion 212 Knights Templar 107 Julian the Apostate, Emperor 72, 73, King, Rodney 365 and Italian invasion of Ethiopia
James |, King of England 164, 165, Maccabean revolt 51 74 King James’ Bible 166-7, 166 305, 306
166-7, 168 Romans capture 54 Julian calendar 160, 208 Kirina, Battle of (1235) 116 US does not ratify 288-9
James ll, King of England 179, 184, Saladin conquers 113 Julianus, Didius 66, 66 Kirov, Sergei 304 Lebanon
186, 187, 188, 195 Sixth Crusade 116 Julius Il, Pope 146, 147 Kissinger, Henry 350 British hostages 359, 360, 365
Jamestown 165, 165, 167, 168, 169 Temple destroyed 61 Julius Nepos, Emperor 78 Kitchener, Lord 275, 275 civil war 339, 352
Jan Ill Sobieski, King of Poland 183, World War | 283 Jupiter 354 Knights Hospitaller 119, 179 Israel invades 353, 357, 357, 358,
186 Jesuits 151, 152 Justin |, Emperor 80 Knights Templar 107, 107, 113, 122, 370
Japan and colonization of Brazil 154 Justin Il, Emperor 82 122 Syrian troops withdraw from 374
47 ronin uprising 191, 197 banned from Massachusetts Bay Justin Martyr 64 Knossos 24 US embassy bombed 357
annexes Korea 270 Colony 175 Justinian |, Emperor 80-1, 80, 87 Kobe earthquake (1995) 367 US “Irangate” scandal 359
Anti-Comintern Pact 307 expelled from Portugal 211 Justinian Il, Emperor 89, 90 Korea Lechfeld, Battle of (955) 100
anti-foreigner acts 251 expelled from Spain 215, 275 Jutes 77, 79 annexed by Japan 270 Lee, Robert E. 249, 252
assassination of prime minister in China 188, 195 Jutland, Battle of (1916) 280 independence 264 Legnano, Battle of (1176) 112
299299. New World settlements 215, 275 Korean War 335, 335, 337 Lehman Brothers 376

K
Asuka Enlightenment 82 purged in Japan 161 Koryo Empire 127 Leibniz, Gottfried 183, 183
Christianity banned in 161, 163 Jesus Christ 59, 59, 64, 90 Koryo kingdom 99 Leif Ericson 102
civil war 127 Jews Neo-Confucianism 127 Leipzig, Battle of {1813} 234
control of daimyo 173 anti-Semitism in Soviet Union 336 Kadyrov, Akhmad 374 Silla kingdom 88, 88, 99 Leisler, Jacob 187, 187
earthquake and tsunami 378, 379 Babylonian exile 36 Kahlenberg, Battle of (1683) 186, 186 Sino-Japanese War 263, 263 Lemnos 178, 178
first emperor 34 Balfour Declaration 283 Kaifeng 108 war with Japan 162 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich 282, 284, 288,
first novel 102 British Union of Fascists and 307 Kalahari Desert 245 Yi dynasty 127 289, 291, 293
Fujiwara regency 96, 112 Dreyfus Affair 267 Kalinga 46, 50, 55 see also North Korea; South Korea Lennon, John 349
Gempei Wars 112, 112 and Hitler's rise to power 302, 302 Kalmar, Battle of (1611) 166-7 Koresh, David 366 Leo |, Emperor 79
Great Fire of Meireki 178 Holocaust 318, 322 Kalmar War (1611-13) 167 Koryo kingdom 99 Leo |, Pope 78
Great Kanto earthquake 292-3, 293 Khazars 96 Kamehameha lI, King of Hawaii 233 Kosovo 363, 369, 376 Leo Ill, Emperor 90
Hiroshima 329 Kindertransport 312 Kamehameha Ill, King of Hawaii 238 Kosovo, Battle of (1389) 127 Leo IV, Emperor 93

independence 336 Kristallnacht 311, 377 kamikaze attacks 327, 328 Kostunica, Vojislav 370 Leo VI, Emperor 97
migration to Palestine 290, 330, 330 Kandahar 162, 202, 202 Krak des Chevaliers 119, 119 Leon 99, 101
isolationism 172, 244
Leonardo da Vinci 144, 145 London continued McCarthy, Senator Joseph 335, Mansa Musa 123 Maximin Daia 71
Leonidas |, King of Sparta 38, 39 Great Plague 180-1, 180 337 Mantinea, Battle of (418BCE) 40 Maximinus, Emperor 71
Leonowens, Anna 246 IRA terrorism 357, 366, 368 McCarthyism 335 Manuel |, King of Portugal 144 Maximus, Magnus 75
Leontius, Emperor 89 Iranian Embassy siege 355 Macdonald, Ramsay 293, 300 Manuel Il, King of Portugal 269 Maya
Leopold |, Emperor 186, 187 London Underground 251, 257 Macedonia 43, 46, 271, 370 Manupur, Battle of (1748) 205 Chichen Itza 97, 97
Leopold |, King of the Belgians 239, St Paul's Cathedral 194, 194 Macedonian Wars Mao Zedong Classic period 73, 91
242 Stock Exchange 376 First (215-205BCE) 49 death 352 decline of 96, 97
Leopold Il, Emperor 223 World War | 276 Second (200-1978CcE] 50 People’s Republic of China founded gods 97
Leopold II, King of the Belgians 260, Londonderry 349, 350, 350 Third (171-170BCE) 50 334, 334 rise of 30
269 Longinus 80 McGuinness, Martin 375 Maoris 120, 164, 164, 242, 243 Tikal 73, 73, 75, 88, 89, 91,
Leopold Ill, King of the Belgians 316 Longshan culture 20, 23, 23 Machiavelli, Niccolo 147, 202 Mappa Mundi 122, 122 oi
Leopold of Hohenzollern- Lorraine 254 Machu Picchu 132, 132-3 Maratha Empire 183, 196, 196, 198, Mayflower 169
Sigmaringen 254 Los Angeles police force 365 Maclean, Donald 336 201, 203, 211, 212, 218 Mazarin, Cardinal 176, 177,
Lepanto, Battle of (1571) 158, 158 Lothair 94-95 Macmillan, Harold 340 Maratha Wars 179
Lepidus, Marcus 56 Lothair Il, Emperor 107, 108 Macrinus, Emperor 67 First (1775-82) 218 Mbeki, Thabo 369
Lepinski Vir 16 Louis VI, King of France 107 Madagascar 259 Second (1803-1805) 231 Mecca 86, 86, 232, 233, 235
Leshan Buddha 93, 93 Louis VII, King of France 109 Madeira 131 Marathon, Battle of (490BCE) 39 Medes 36
Lesseps, Ferdinand de 249, 258 Louis IX, King of France 117, 119 Madero, Francisco 270 Marcian, Emperor 79 Medici, Cosimo de 131, 137
Leuctra, Battle of (371BCE) 42, 42 Louis XI, King of France 138, 138, Madras 72, 204, 205 Marcionism 64 Medici, Lorenzo “the Magnificent”
Levant 28 140 Madrid 232 Marcomanni tribe 58, 61, 65 de 144
Lewinsky, Monica 369, 36? Louis XII, King of France 145, 147 Maecenas 57 Marconi, Guglielmo 264, 264, 307 artificial heart 336
Lewis, Meriwether 231, 2317 Louis XIII, King of France 166, 170, Maesa, Julia 68 Marcos, Ferdinand 359 artificial sperm 375
Lexington, Battle of (1775) 218, 278 171, 176 Magadha 36-7, 38, 41 Marcus Aurelius, Emperor 64, 65, organ transplants 335, 345
Leyden jar 205, 205 Louis XIV, King of France 179 Magdalenian technologies 15 65 penicillin 296
Leyte Gulf, Battle of (1944) 327 attempts to extend France's Magdeburg, siege of {1631} 171, Marengo, Battle of (1800) 230, 230 plague 64, 65, 124, 126,
Lhasa 195 frontiers 186 171 Margaret of Anjou 133 180-1, 780
Li Si 47 becomes King 176 Magellan, Ferdinand 148-49 Margaret of Parma 158 polio vaccination 337
Li Ssu 48, 49 Canal du Midi 185 Maginot Line 299 Maria Luisa of Parma 223 scurvy 205
Li Yuan, Emperor of China 86 Code Noir 197 Magna Carta (1215) 115, 175 Maria Theresa, Empress 202, 203, smallpox 228, 355, 355
Liberia 236, 236 coronation 177, 177 Magnentius 72 204, 210, 214, 219 syphilis 144
Libius Severus, Emperor 78 death 195 Magyars 95, 97, 98, 100, 223 Marie Antoinette, Queen of France thalidomide 349
Libya 349, 358, 359, 361 Franco-—Dutch War 182 Mahapadma Nanda 43 216, 216, 221, 226, 226 vaccines 228
Licinius, Emperor 71 Nine Years War 187, 187 Mahayana Buddhism 114 Marie de Medici, Queen of France Medina 86, 232, 235
Ligny, Battle of (1815) 234 revokes Edict of Nantes 186 Mahdi (Muhammad Ahmad bin Abd 171, 171 Mediolanum 48
Lille, siege of (1667) 187 Versailles 184 Allah) 259 Marius, Gaius 52, 53 megaliths 16-17, 17, 20
Lincoln, Abraham 249, 249, 250, 251, War of Devolution 181, 787 Mahmud 102 Marlborough, Duke of 192, 192, Megiddo 30
251, 252, 252 War of the Spanish Succession 191 Mahmud Hotaki, Shah of Persia 193 Mehmed |, Sultan 130
Lindbergh, Charles 295, 295, 301 Louis XV, King of France 195, 217, 217 197 Marley, Bob 356 Mehmed II, Sultan 136, 137, 137,
Lindisfarne Gospels 90, 90 Louis XVI, King of France 216, 277, Maiden Castle, Dorset 53 Marne 278, 275 140
Lingdi, Emperor of China 65 221, 224, 225, 226 Maiman, Theodore 340 Marquette, Jacques 183, 185 Mehmed V, Sultan 269, 269
Linnaeus, Carl 201, 207, 203, 209, Louis XVIII, King of France 234, 236 Maine (France) 138 Marrakech 109 Mehrauli 136
209 Louis the German 94, 95 Majorian, Emperor 78 Mars Polar Lander 369 Meissen porcelain 193, 793
Lipany, Battle of (1434) 131 Louis the Pious, King of the Franks Makarios, Archbishop 338, 351 Marshall, Master William 122 Mekong basin empire 94
Lippershey, Hans 166 94-95, 94 Malacca 146, 174, 174, 228 Marshall Plan 331, 332 Melisende 109
Lisbon earthquake [1755] 209, 209 Louis-Philippe, King of France 238, Malan, Dr D.F. 332 Marston Moor, Battle of [1644] 175 Memphis 23
literature 244-5 Malay Archipelago 111 Martinique 266 Menander |, King of Bactria 50, 51
American writers in Paris 294 Louisbourg, Nova Scotia 270, 211 Malay Peninsula 235, 332 Martyropolis 83 Menelik li, Emperor of Abyssinia 264
anti-war books 297 Louisiana 185, 213, 230-1 Malaya 338 Marx, Karl 243, 244, 245, 252, Menes, King of Egypt 20
English 127, 184, 184, 244 Lowell, Francis Cabot 222 Maldon, Battle of (991] 101 253 Meng Zi 45
first Japanese novel 102 Luanda 182 Malenkov, Georgi 336 Mary, Queen, consort of George V Mentuhotep, King of Egypt 23, 24
French 184 Lubeck 117 Mali 262 270, 293 Mercator, Gerardus 157, 157
Gothic 235 Lucius Verus, Emperor 64, 65 Mali Empire 123, 128, 141 Mary, Queen of Scots 161, 167 Mercedes-Benz cars 260
Renaissance 124 Lucknow, siege of (1857) 248, 248 Malichos |, King of the Nabataeans Mary |, Queen of England 154, Meroé 73
Roman 57 Lucullus 54 57 154, 155 Mesoamerica
Lithuania “Lucy” 12, 12 Malik Shah 106 Mary II, Queen of England 187 Monte Alban 40, 40, 53, 53
Soviet Union suppresses protest in Luddites 233, 233 Mallard (steam locomotive} 310, 370- Mary Celeste 255 Olmecs 29, 30
364 Ludendorff, Erich 275, 281, 285, 11 Masaccio 130-31 Zapotecs 30, 40
under Nazi rule 318 292 Mallet, Pierre and Paul 202 Masada 60, 61 see also Aztecs; Maya
union with Poland 127, 157, 177 Lule, Yusufu 354 Malplaquet, Battle of (1709) 193, 193 Masai people 220 Mesopotamia
war with Teutonic Knights 138 Lumumba, Patrice 340 Malta 230 Masaryk, Jan 332 city-states 20, 21, 22, 23
Little Bighorn, Battle of (1876) 256, Lunda kingdom 203 Mamertines 47 Massachusetts Bay Colony 175 early civilizations 17
262 ‘Euoyang 34 Mamluks Massilia 35 in Ottoman Empire 173
Little Ice Age 175, 186, 186, 189 Lusatia 137 architecture 119 Massinissa, King of Numidia 49, 51 Roman province 63, 66
Little Turtle, Chief 225 Lusitania 276-7 armour 143 Masurian Lakes, Battle of the (1914) World War | 280
Liu Bei 66, 67 Luther, Martin 148, 748, 149, 150 campaigns against Crusader 275 Messalina 5?
Liu Xiaobo 377 Lutheranism 154, 160, 205 kingdoms 119, 121 Mathura 72 Messene 42-3
Live Aid 358, 359 Lutter, Battle of (1626) 170, 170 defeat Mongols 118 Matilda, Empress 108, 108 Messenian helots, revolt of (464BCE)
Livingstone, David 245, 245, 247, Lutyens, Edwin 271 handguns 123 Matilda of Tuscany 104, 108 39
256 Lutzen, Battle of (1632) 172, 172 invasion of Sudan 236, 236 Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary iron-working 26, 28-9, 30, 112
Livonia 116, 156 Luwum, Dr Janani 352 Napoleon defeats 229 137 Mesopotamia 20
Lloyd George, David 286, 286 Luxembourg 316 peace treaty with Ottomans 143 Mau Mau rebellion (1952) 336, 336 Prehistoric peoples 17, 17
Locke, John 188, 188 Lyautey, General 277 rise to power 117 Maues, King of the Sakas 52 Metaurus River, Battle of (2078CE)
Lockerbie air crash [1988] 361 Lydia 34, 35 Mandalay 260 Mauretania 57, 76, 101 49
Lodi dynasty 136, 136 Lysimachus 45, 46 Mande people 116 Maurice, Emperor 82, 83 Metellus, Quintus Caecilius 52
Lollards 126 Mandela, Nelson 362, 369 Mauritius 189, 234, 234 Mexico

M
Lombard League 110, 111, 112 becomes president of South Africa Mauryan Empire 38, 43, 45, 46, 52 assassination of Obregon 296
Lombards 82 366 Maxen, Battle of (1759) 211 civil war 274, 274, 280
Lon Nol, General 349 imprisonment 342, 344, 344 Maxentius, Emperor 71 French involvement in 251,
London Macaranda, siege of 44 release from prison 364, 364 Maximian, Emperor 70 252
al-Qaeda bombs 374-5 Macau 155, 369 sabotage campaign 341 Maximilian |, Emperor 140 Grito de Dolores 233
Blitz 317, 317 Maccabee, Judah 51 Mandela, Winnie 364 Maximilian |, Emperor of Mexico 251, independence 236, 236
frost fairs 186 McCandless, Bruce 358 Manhattan 170, 170 252, 252-53 Monte Alban 40, 40, 53, 53
Great Exhibition 246 McCarthy, John 359, 360, Manhattan Project 329 Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of National Revolutionary Party 296
Great Fire 181, 787, 194 365 Manila 212, 213 Bavaria 219 Obregon government 289
Mexico continued Moon Mussolini, Benito continued Nehru, Jawaharlal 344 Nivelle Offensive (1917) 282
Porfirio Diaz’s revolt 256 landings on 346, 347, 348, 349, 349 Salo Republic 325 Nelson, Horatio 229, 231 Nixon, Richard 340, 340, 346, 349,
Regeneration movement 270 space probes 340 World War II 316 Neo-Confucianism 127 350, 351
Spanish conquest 150 Moors 90, 99, 105, 109, 115, 117 Mustafa II, Sultan 217 Neolithic 16-17 Nizari Ismailis 105
Spanish occupiers expelled 184-5 Morant Bay 252 Mutapa empire 136 Nepal 215, 375 Nkrumah, Kwame 330, 338
Teotihuacan 54, 55, 64, 64, 66, 70, Moravia 95, 96, 137 Mutina, siege of (43BCE] 56 Nepos, Aulus Platorius 63 Noah's Ark 111
70, 89, 89,97 Morgan, Henry 181, 187 Mwene Mutapa see Great Zimbabwe Nero, Emperor 59, 60 Nobel Peace Prize 344, 353, 370, 377
Texas War of Independence 240 Morges Manifesto 341 My Lai massacre [1968] 346 Nerva, Emperor 62 Nobel Prize for Physics 271
War of Independence 233 Moro, Aldo 353 Mycenaeans 26-7, 28, 28 Nestorian Christians 87 Nobunaga, Oda 156, 156, 159, 160,
War of the Reform 249, 249, 251 Morocco Mylae, Battle of (260B8CE) 46, 47 Netherlands 162
war with US 244, 245 Almoravids 104, 105 Myriocephalum, Battle of (1176) 112 Anglo-Dutch Wars 177, 180, 787, Nootka Sound 227
see also Aztecs Arab Spring 378 Mysore 205, 212 220 Nordlingen, Battle of (1634) 172, 172
Miao people 138 as French protectorate 271 Mysore Wars creation of Belgium 239 Noricum 57
Michael Ill, Emperor 96 Barbary pirates 211, 277 Second (1780-84) 220 Dutch Revolt 155, 157-61, 157, 163, Norman Conquest (1066) 104, 104
Michelangelo 145, 145, 146, 146 independence 338 Fourth (1799} 229 163, 166 Normandie 305
microscopes 180, 180 invasion of Songhay Empire 162 East Indies colonies 174 Normandy landings (1944) 326, 326

N
Microsoft 352 Marinid dynasty 124 explorers 168 North, Frederick 229
Middle East see individual countries Ottoman influence 159 North American settlements 167 North Africa
Midway, Battle of (1942) 320, 322, 323 Rif republic 289 slave trade 168, 168 Barbary pirates 154
Mihailovic, Draza 324 Sa‘di dynasty 147 Nabataean kingdom 57, 62 spice trade 163, 163 French colonies 271
Mikhail, Tsar 165, 167 Spanish colonization 147 Nabopolassar, King of Babylon 36 War of Devolution 181, 182 Ottomans gain control of 159
Milan 130, 131, 133, 219, 279 and Spanish Reconquista 124 Nader Shah 201, 207, 202, 205, 211 World War II316, 327 Roman campaigns 52, 56
Milan, Edict of (313) 71 under Spanish rule 306 Nagabhata II 94 see also Dutch Republic World War II 323
Milazzo, Battle of (1718) 196 Morse, Samuel 240-1, 243, 243 Nagasaki 157, 321, 329 Neuve Chapelle, Battle of (1915) 276 see also individual countries
Milosevic, Slobodan 363, 364, 365, Mortimer, Roger 123 Nagashino, Battle of (1575) 159, 159 Neves, Tancredo 358 North America
369, 370, 372 Moscow 155, 233, 233 Nagy, Imre 338 New Amsterdam 167, 180, 180 Adena culture 30
Milton, John 181 Mosley, Oswald 304, 304 Najera, Battle of (1367) 125, 125 New Deal 301, 303, 304-5, 310 British settlements 160, 165, 165,
Milvian Bridge, Battle of (312) 77 Mostar Bridge 366 Najibullah, Mohammad 362 New Granada 220, 233, 235 167, 169
Minamoto clan 112 Moulin, Jean 324 Namibia 361, 364 New Guinea 165, 259, 322 Cabot reaches Newfoundland 144
Minas Gerais 189 Mound City, Ohio 54 Namur, siege of [1695] 189, 189 New Mexico 192 Cahokian culture 110, 770
Minden, Battle of (1759) 211 Mount Pelée 266 Nanchao, Kingdom of 118 New Model Army 175 Continental Congress 217
Mindi, Emperor of China 71 Mount St Helens 355, 355 Nancy 140 New Orleans 230-1, 251, 374-5, 375 Cumberland Gap discovered 183
Minoan civilization 20, 23, 24, 24, 27 Mountbatten, Lord Louis 331, 354 Nancy, Battle of (1477) 147 New York Daniel Boone 215
Minorca 193, 210, 221 Mozambique 242, 352 Nanda Empire 43, 45 9/11 bombings 370, 371, 375 Deerfield massacre 192
Minotaur 24 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 213, 213 Nanking 77, 242, 309 Brooklyn Bridge 259 Dutch settlements 167
Minuit, Peter 170, 170 Mu’awiya, Caliph 88 Napata 35 Empire State Building 300, 300 first Lutheran Synod 205
Miro, Joan 294, 294 Mubarak, Hosni 356, 378 Napier, John 167 Freedom Tower 375 French settlements 156, 185, 785,
Mirwais Khan Hotak 193, 194 Mugabe, Robert 355, 372, 377 Napoleon |, Emperor 228-29, 228, jazz 293 202
Mississippi River 183, 783, 185, 202, Mughal Empire 190 230-4, 230 Leisler’s Rebellion (1689) 187, 187 fur trade 182
PKS) ks) Aurangzeb’s reign 178-79, 182, Napoleon Ill, Emperor 250, 251, 254 Stock Exchange 297, 297, 360, 360 Georgia founded 200
Mississippian culture 110 192-3 Napoleonic Code 231, 2317 World's Fair (1939) 313 Hohokam people 90
Missolonghi 237, 237 decline of 179, 182, 192-3 Napoleonic Wars (1803-15) 231-4, New York Radical Women 347 Hudson explores 166, 167
Mithridates |, King of Parthia 48, 51 expansion of 162 231-4 New Zealand Irish immigrants 203
Mithridates Il, King of Parthia 53 foundation of 149, 149 Narmer, King of Egypt 20, 20 Christchurch earthquake 378 Jolliet and Marquette descend
Mithridates IV, King of Parthia 63 and Maratha expansion 196 Narseh, King of Persia 70, 70 Cook discovers 215 Mississippi 183, 783
Mithridates VI, King of Pontus 53, 54 persecution of Hindus 182 Narses 81 Maoris 120, 164, 164, 242 Mallet brothers’ exploration 202
Mitochondrial Eve 14 Shah Jahan’s reign 17% NASA 339, 369 Rainbow Warrior sunk 360, 360 Niagara Falls discovered 184
Mitterand, Francois 367 Sikh threat to 183 Nasrid dynasty 117 settlement of 242, 242 Ponce de Leon discovers Florida
Moche culture 65, 65 Muhammad, Prophet 86, 91 Nasser, Gamal Abdel 336, 338, 349 Wairau Massacre 243 147
Mohammed V, King of Granada 124 Muhammad Ill, Sultan of Morocco 211 Natal, Republic of 243 women’s suffrage 263 prelude to American Revolution
Mohenjo-daro 21, 22, 22 Muhammad of Ghur 111, 777 Natchez American Indians 199 Newcomen, Thomas 190, 192, 218 214, 216, 217
Moimir 195 Muhammad Ali, Pasha 231, 233, 235, National Colonisation Society 240, Newfoundland 144, 160 Pueblo peoples 99, 102, 102, 110
Moliére 184 236, 240 242 newspapers 165, 165 Salem witch trials 188, 188
Moluccas 146-7, 147 Muhammad Tughluk 123 National Recovery Administration Newton, Isaac 187, 287 Seven Years War 209, 210
Mombasa 162, 162, 199, 204 Muhlberg, Battle of (1547) 153 (US) 303, 303 Ngami, Lake 245 slave trade 168
Mongkut, King of Siam 246, 247, 247 Mujahideen (Afghanistan) 354, 362 Native Americans see American Niagara Falls 184, 184 South Dakota explored 203
Mongolia 189 Mujahidin (Iran) 356 Indians Nicaea 105, 114 Spanish colonies 156, 157, 162, 195,
Mongols 115 Mumbai (Bombay) 181, 366, 375, 376 NATO 334, 334 Nicaea, Council of (325) 72, 72 215
attempted invasion of Japan 120, 120 mummies 17 Navarino, Battle of (1827) 238, 238 Nicaragua Spanish explorers 152
campaigns against Seljuks 118, 778 Munda, Battle of (45BCE) 55 Navarre 99 free elections 364 Tuscarora War 194
conflicts with China 138, 208, 212 Munich agreement (1938) 311, 312 Las Navas de Tolosa, Battle of {1212} independence 241 Vikings and 102
expansion of empire 116, 117, 118 Munich Putsch (1923] 292, 293 115, 115 Sandinistas 354, 357 Yamasee War 195
Genghis Khan's empire 114, 114, Murad |, Sultan 125, 127 Nazca culture 43 US “Irangate” scandal 359 see also American Indians;
115 Murad Il, Sultan 130, 130, 132 Nazis William Walker and 247 Canada; United States of
Marco Polo's travels 119 Murad IV, Sultan 173 annex Austria 310-11 Nicephorus, Patriarch of America
Timurid Empire 125, 127, 127, 128 Murasaki Shikibu 102, 102 Anti-Comintern Pact 307 Constantinople 90 North Korea 332, 337, 370, 375, 377
Monophysite Christianity 80 Mursilis 26 Berlin Olympics 307, 307 Nicephorus |, Emperor 94 see also Korea
Monroe, James 237, 237 Mus, Publius Decius 46 concentration camps 328 Nicephorus Il, Emperor 100 North Sea oil 352
Monroe, Marilyn 342, 342 Muscovy 138 “Degenerate Art” exhibition 308 Nicholas |, Tsar 247 North Vietnam 337, 344, 352
Mons 193 Musharraf, General Pervez 369, 375, exclusion from government 299, Nicholas Il, Tsar 263, 263, 268, 274, see also Vietnam
Mons, Battle of (1914) 275 376 301 282, 284 Northern Ireland (Ulster)
Mons Graupius, Battle of (87) 61 music Kristallnacht 311, 377 Nicholas V, Pope 133 “Bloody Sunday” 350, 350
Monte Alban 40, 40, 53, 53 Baroque 190, 196 Munich Putsch 292, 293 Nicopolis Crusade (1396) 127, 127 direct rule ends 375
Monte Cassino 326 jazz 293 parliamentary seats 296, 299 Niépce, Joseph-Nicéphore 238 emigration 203, 203
Montenegro 256, 372, 375 Muslims see Islam rise to power 299, 302, 302 Niger, Pescennius 66 peace process 364, 366-67, 369
Montes Claros, Battle of (1665) 181 Musschenbroek, Pieter van 205 try to seize power in Austria 304 Niger River 228, 259 Protestant paramilitaries 274
Montesinos, Antonio de 147 Mussolini, Benito 305 World War II 322, 322 Nigeria 104, 349, 349, 357, 358 remains British 334
Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, annexes Albania 312 Ndongo 182 Night of the Long Knives (1934) 304 the Troubles 345, 349, 350, 350
Baron de 208 becomes prime minister 291, 297 Neanderthals 13, 73, 14-15, 14, 15 Nightingale, Florence 247 see also Irish Republican Army
Montfort, Simon de 119 death 328-9 Neave, Airey 354 Nile, Battle of the (1798) 228, 229 Northwest Passage 219, 231
Montgolfier, Joseph and Etienne 221, dictatorship 293 Nebuchadnezzar ll, King of Babylon Nile, River 20, 265 Northwest Territory (US) 225,
221 dismissed from office 324 36 Nine Years War (1688-97) 187, 187, 225
Montgomery, General Bernard 323, “March on Rome” 291, 292 Nectanebo II, Pharaoh 42, 43 188, 189, 190 Norway 102, 316
323, 324, 327 Munich agreement 311 Negroponte 141 Nineveh 37 Nova Scotia 222, 228
 Pakistan Paul, St 59, 152 Peru continued
Novgorod Orrorin tugenensis 12
Ortega, Daniel and Humberto 354 Benazir Bhutto assassinated 375 Paull, Tsar 230 Sican culture 106, 106
Cathedral of St Nicholas 106, 706
Orthodox Church 236, 247 Benazir Bhutto becomes prime Paulinus, Suetonius 60 Tupuc Amaru revolt 220
Ivan Ill annexes 138
minister 361 Paullus, Aemilius 50 war with Chile and Bolivia 257
Swedes capture 165 Oscars 297
Osman |, Emperor 120 civil war 350 Pavia, Battle of (1525) 149, 149 war with Spain 252
trade with Hanseatic League 117
Osman II, Sultan 169, 169 creation of 331, 337 Pavia, League of 110 see also Inca Empire
Vikings found 97, 98
Osroes, King of Parthia 63 military coup 352, 369 Payens, Hugues de 107 Peruzzi family 124
Novo Carthago 49
Ostend 164 nuclear weapons 369 Pearl, Daniel 372 Pétain, Marshal Philippe 280, 282,
Nubia 22, 24, 26
Ostrogoths 79, 80, 87 Osama bin Laden killed in 379 Pearl Harbor 319, 3197, 320 316-17
nuclear power 336, 359, 359, 379
Oswald, King of Northumbria 87 Simla Agreement 350 Peasants’ Revolt (1381) 126, 126 Peter | the Great, Tsar 185, 187, 189,
nuclear weapons
Oswald, Lee Harvey 343 terrorist attack in India 372 Pedro |, Emperor of Brazil 236, 236 189, 193, 198
Cuban Missile Crisis 342, 342
Otho, Emperor 60 wars with India 331, 344, 345 Pedro Il, Emperor of Brazil 261 Peter II, King of Aragon 115
Hiroshima 329
Otlukbeli, Battle of (1473) 140 Palenque 96, 96 Pegu 203 Peter Ill, Tsar 213
hydrogen bombs 336
in India and Pakistan 369 Ottawa people 213 Palermo 95 Peipus, Lake, Battle of (1242) 117, 117 Peterloo Massacre [1819] 235, 235
Manhattan Project 329 Otto | the Great, Emperor 99, 100, Palestine Peking 248 Petra 57
100 as Jewish homeland 311, 377 Peloponnesian Wars (431-4048CE) Petrarch, Francesco 124, 125
Rainbow Warrior sunk 360, 360
treaties 343, 350, 360, 372 Otto Il, Emperor 101 Balfour Declaration 283 39, 40-1 Phalangists 357
Numa Pompilius, King of Rome 34 Otto III, Emperor 101 British Mandate 290 Pemba 262 Pharsalus, Battle of (48BCE) 55
Numidia 52 Ottoman Empire Hasmonaean kingdom 51, 52, 55, Penang 228 Philiki Etaireia 236
Nuradin, Emir 110, 111 alliance with France 149 57 Penda, King of Mercia 87 Philip Il, King of Macedon 43, 44
Nuremberg Laws (1935]} 305 and Egypt 217, 230, 233 Jewish immigration 290, Peng Zhen 340 Philip Il, King of France 113, 114-15
“Nutcracker man” 12 Arab revolt 280 330, 330 Penghu, Battle of (1683) 186, 228 Philip Il, King of Spain
Nyasaland Districts Protectorate Austro-Turkish War 180, 202 Jordan annexes part of 335 penicillin 296 Dutch Revolt 157, 159, 160
262 Balkan Wars 256 Mamluk conquests 121 Peninsular War (1808-14) 232, 232 and French Wars of Religion 156
besieges Constantinople 130, 132 partition proposals 308, 331, 332 Penn, William 185, 785, 194, 195 marriage to Mary |154

O
besieges Vienna 150, 150, 186, 190 population growth 290 Pennsylvania 185, 194 Spanish Armada 161
captures Baghdad 173 under Rom