PHYSICS LECTURE NOTES

Instructor: PhD in Physics

Level: Undergraduate

Week 1: Scalar and Vector Quantities, Equilibrium

1.1 Introduction

Physics deals with various quantities used to describe the world. These quantities are divided
into two categories: Scalars and Vectors.

1.2 Scalar and Vector Quantities

Scalars

A scalar quantity has only magnitude (size) and no direction. Examples:

 Mass (kg) – A 5 kg bag of rice.

 Speed (m/s) – A car moving at 60 km/h.
 Time (s) – A race lasting 10 seconds.
 Temperature (°C) – Room temperature at 25°C.
 Energy (J) – A battery storing 500 J.

Vectors

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. Examples:

 Displacement (m) – A person walks 5 m east.

 Velocity (m/s) – A train moves at 30 m/s north.
 Force (N) – A 10 N force applied downward.
 Acceleration (m/s²) – A car accelerates at 3 m/s² eastward.
 Momentum (kg·m/s) – A 1000 kg car moving at 20 m/s south.

Vectors are represented as arrows, where:

 The length of the arrow represents magnitude.

 The direction of the arrow represents the vector’s direction.
1.3 Equilibrium

A body is in equilibrium when the net force acting on it is zero. There are three types:

1. Stable Equilibrium

 If displaced, the body returns to its original position.

 Example: A ball inside a bowl.

2. Unstable Equilibrium

 If displaced, the body moves further away from its original position.
 Example: A ball on top of a hill.

3. Neutral Equilibrium

 If displaced, the body stays in its new position.

 Example: A ball on a flat table.

Worked Examples (10 Examples)

Example 1: Identifying Scalars and Vectors

Question:
Which of the following are scalars, and which are vectors?
(a) Distance
(b) Velocity
(c) Mass
(d) Displacement
(e) Temperature

Solution:

 Scalars: Distance, Mass, Temperature.

 Vectors: Velocity, Displacement.

Example 2: Vector Addition (Using the Parallelogram Method)

Question:
Two forces of 5 N and 12 N act at an angle of 90°. Find the resultant force.
Solution:
Using Pythagoras' theorem:

R=(5)2+(12)2R = \sqrt{(5)^2 + (12)^2} R=25+144=169=13 NR = \sqrt{25

+ 144} = \sqrt{169} = 13 \text{ N}

Answer: The resultant force is 13 N.

Example 3: Resultant of Forces Acting at an Angle

Question:
Two forces 20 N and 30 N act at 60° to each other. Find the resultant force.

Solution:
Using the formula:

R=F12+F22+2F1F2cos⁡θR = \sqrt{F_1^2 + F_2^2 + 2F_1F_2 \cos \theta}

R=(20)2+(30)2+2(20)(30)cos⁡60°R = \sqrt{(20)^2 + (30)^2 + 2(20)(30) \cos
60°} R=400+900+600=1900=43.6 NR = \sqrt{400 + 900 + 600} = \
sqrt{1900} = 43.6 \text{ N}

Answer: The resultant force is 43.6 N.

Example 4: Decomposing a Vector into Components

Question:
A force of 50 N acts at an angle of 30° from the horizontal. Find its horizontal and vertical
components.

Solution:
Using trigonometry:

Fx=Fcos⁡θ=50cos⁡30°=50×0.866=43.3 NF_x = F \cos \theta = 50 \cos 30° =

50 \times 0.866 = 43.3 \text{ N} Fy=Fsin⁡θ=50sin⁡30°=50×0.5=25 NF_y = F \
sin \theta = 50 \sin 30° = 50 \times 0.5 = 25 \text{ N}

Answer:

 Horizontal component = 43.3 N.

 Vertical component = 25 N.
Example 5: Equilibrium Condition

Question:
A person pulls a 10 kg box with a force of 100 N at 30° above the horizontal. If the box is in
equilibrium, what is the opposing force?

Solution:
If the box is in equilibrium, the opposing force must equal the applied force’s horizontal
component:

Fopposing=Fcos⁡θ=100cos⁡30°=100×0.866=86.6 NF_{\text{opposing}} = F \
cos \theta = 100 \cos 30° = 100 \times 0.866 = 86.6 \text{ N}

Answer: The opposing force is 86.6 N.

Example 6: Identifying Equilibrium Types

Question:
State the type of equilibrium for the following:
(a) A pencil balanced on its tip.
(b) A ball placed in a valley.
(c) A book resting on a table.

Solution:
(a) Unstable Equilibrium – Small disturbance makes it fall.
(b) Stable Equilibrium – If displaced, it returns to its original position.
(c) Neutral Equilibrium – If moved, it stays in its new position.

Example 7: Tension in a Rope (Equilibrium Condition)

Question:
A 10 kg block is suspended by a rope. Find the tension in the rope.

Solution:
Using Newton’s second law:

T=mg=(10)(9.8)=98 NT = mg = (10)(9.8) = 98 \text{ N}

Answer: The tension is 98 N.

Example 8: Weight of an Object

Question:
A person has a mass of 75 kg. Find their weight.

Solution:

W=mg=75×9.8=735 NW = mg = 75 \times 9.8 = 735 \text{ N}

Answer: The weight is 735 N.

Example 9: Moment of Force

Question:
A 20 N force is applied 3 m from a pivot. Find the moment of force.

Solution:

M=F×d=20×3=60 NmM = F \times d = 20 \times 3 = 60 \text{ Nm}

Answer: The moment of force is 60 Nm.

Example 10: Static Equilibrium Condition

Question:
A ladder leans against a wall. What condition must be met for equilibrium?

Solution:

1. Sum of forces = 0 (No net force).

2. Sum of moments = 0 (No net torque).

Summary of Week 1 Topics

✔ Scalars have magnitude only; Vectors have magnitude & direction.

✔ Equilibrium occurs when the net force = 0.
✔ Three types: Stable, Unstable, Neutral Equilibrium.
✔ Vectors can be added, subtracted, or decomposed into components.
Great! Let's continue with Week 2: Moment of a Force in the same clear and structured
manner.

Week 2: Moment of a Force

2.1 Moment of a Force (Turning Effect of Force)
The moment of a force is the measure of the turning effect of a force about a pivot or axis. It
depends on two factors:

1. The magnitude of the force applied (F, in Newtons, N)

2. The perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action
of the force (d, in meters, m)

Mathematical Formula:
Moment=Force×Perpendicular Distance\text{Moment} = \text{Force} \times
\text{Perpendicular Distance} M=F×dM = F \times d

 Unit: Newton meter (Nm)

 Direction:
o If the force rotates the object counterclockwise, the moment is
positive.
o If the force rotates the object clockwise, the moment is
negative.

2.2 Types of Moments

1. Clockwise Moment – Rotates an object in the clockwise direction
(negative).
2. Counterclockwise Moment – Rotates an object in the
counterclockwise direction (positive).
2.3 Principle of Moments (Equilibrium Condition)
For an object to be in rotational equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments must equal the
sum of counterclockwise moments.

Mathematical Expression:
∑Mclockwise=∑Mcounterclockwise\sum M_{\text{clockwise}} = \sum M_{\
text{counterclockwise}}

If this condition holds, the object remains balanced and does not rotate.

2.4 Conditions for Equilibrium Under Parallel Coplanar

Forces
For a system of forces in a single plane (coplanar) to be in equilibrium, it must satisfy:

1. Translational Equilibrium – The sum of all forces in both the

horizontal and vertical directions must be zero: ∑Fx=0,∑Fy=0\sum F_x
= 0, \quad \sum F_y = 0
2. Rotational Equilibrium – The sum of all moments about any point
must be zero: ∑M=0\sum M = 0

Worked Examples (10 Examples with

Solutions)
Example 1: Calculating the Moment of a Force

Question:
A 10 N force is applied at a 5 m distance from a pivot. Find the moment of force.

Solution:

M=F×d=10×5=50 NmM = F \times d = 10 \times 5 = 50 \text{ Nm}

Answer: 50 Nm (Counterclockwise if force moves left, Clockwise if force moves right).

Example 2: Moment of Force at an Angle

Question:
A 15 N force is applied at a 3 m distance at an angle of 60° to the horizontal. Find the moment
about the pivot.

Solution:
Only the perpendicular component of force contributes to the moment:

M=Fdsin⁡θ=15×3×sin⁡60°M = F d \sin \theta = 15 \times 3 \times \sin 60°

M=15×3×0.866=38.97 NmM = 15 \times 3 \times 0.866 = 38.97 \text{ Nm}

Answer: 38.97 Nm

Example 3: Identifying Clockwise and Counterclockwise Moments

Question:
A 20 N force is applied 6 m from a pivot in a clockwise direction. What is the moment?

Solution:

M=F×d=20×6=120 Nm (Clockwise, Negative)M = F \times d = 20 \times 6 =

120 \text{ Nm (Clockwise, Negative)}

Answer: -120 Nm

Example 4: Equilibrium Condition (Balancing Moments)

Question:
A seesaw has a 40 N child sitting 2 m to the left of the pivot and a 50 N child sitting x m to the
right. Find xx for equilibrium.

Solution:

∑Mclockwise=∑Mcounterclockwise\sum M_{\text{clockwise}} = \sum M_{\

text{counterclockwise}} 40×2=50×x40 \times 2 = 50 \times x 80=50x80 =
50x x=8050=1.6 mx = \frac{80}{50} = 1.6 \text{ m}

Answer: 1.6 m
Example 5: Two Forces Acting in Opposite Directions

Question:
A 12 N force is applied 4 m from a pivot clockwise, and another 8 N force is applied 6 m
counterclockwise. Is the system balanced?

Solution:

Mclockwise=12×4=48 NmM_{\text{clockwise}} = 12 \times 4 = 48 \

text{ Nm} Mcounterclockwise=8×6=48 NmM_{\text{counterclockwise}} =
8 \times 6 = 48 \text{ Nm}

Since both moments are equal, the system is balanced.

Answer: Yes, the system is in equilibrium.

Example 6: Balancing a Beam with Three Forces

Question:
A 5 m long beam is supported at the center. A 30 N force acts at 1 m left, and a 40 N force acts 2
m right. Find the force at the left end for equilibrium.

Solution:

F×2.5=(30×1)+(40×2)F \times 2.5 = (30 \times 1) + (40 \times 2)

F×2.5=30+80F \times 2.5 = 30 + 80 F×2.5=110F \times 2.5 = 110
F=1102.5=44 NF = \frac{110}{2.5} = 44 \text{ N}

Answer: 44 N

Example 7: Torque in a Door

Question:
A 25 N force is applied 0.8 m from the hinges of a door at 90°. Find the torque.

Solution:

M=25×0.8=20 NmM = 25 \times 0.8 = 20 \text{ Nm}

Answer: 20 Nm

Example 8: Zero Moment Condition

Question:
A force acts along the axis of rotation of a beam. What is the moment?

Solution:
If the force passes through the pivot, d = 0, so:

M=F×0=0M = F \times 0 = 0

Answer: 0 Nm

Example 9: Application in a Spanner (Wrench)

Question:
A 50 N force is applied 0.2 m away from the nut. Find the moment.

Solution:

M=50×0.2=10 NmM = 50 \times 0.2 = 10 \text{ Nm}

Answer: 10 Nm

Example 10: Weight Acting as a Moment

Question:
A 15 kg object hangs 3 m from a pivot. Find its moment.

Solution:
Weight W=mgW = mg

W=15×9.8=147 NW = 15 \times 9.8 = 147 \text{ N} M=147×3=441 NmM =

147 \times 3 = 441 \text{ Nm}

Answer: 441 Nm
Summary of Week 2 Topics
✔ Moment = Force × Perpendicular Distance.
✔ Clockwise moment is negative, counterclockwise moment is positive.
✔ For equilibrium, sum of clockwise moments = sum of counterclockwise moments.

Week 3: Center of Gravity

3.1 Center of Gravity
The center of gravity (C.G.) of an object is the point at which the entire weight of the object
appears to act, regardless of its orientation.

Key Points:

✔ It is a theoretical point where the gravitational force acts on the body.

✔ In uniform objects with regular shapes, it is at the geometric center.
✔ In irregular objects, it depends on mass distribution.
✔ If an object is supported at its center of gravity, it will remain balanced.

Real-Life Applications of the Center of Gravity:

1. Standing Stability – A person leans forward to avoid falling because

their center of gravity shifts.
2. Vehicles – Race cars have a low center of gravity to prevent tipping.
3. Construction – Buildings are designed with a stable base to avoid
collapse.
4. Athletics – High jumpers arch their bodies to manipulate the center of
gravity.

3.2 Center of Mass

The center of mass (C.M.) is the point where the mass of an object is evenly distributed. It is
similar to the center of gravity, but it is defined based on mass rather than weight.

✔ For small objects, C.G. and C.M. are at the same point.
✔ For large objects in varying gravitational fields, they may differ slightly.
3.3 Resultant and Components of Forces
 Resultant Force: A single force that has the same effect as multiple
forces acting together.
 Components of Force: A force can be resolved into two
perpendicular forces using trigonometry.

✔ Horizontal component: Fx=Fcos⁡θF_x = F \cos \theta

✔ Vertical component: Fy=Fsin⁡θF_y = F \sin \theta

3.4 Parallelogram of Forces

The parallelogram rule helps find the resultant of two forces acting at an angle.
✔ If two forces F1 and F2 act at an angle θ, the resultant R is given by:

R=F12+F22+2F1F2cos⁡θR = \sqrt{F_1^2 + F_2^2 + 2F_1F_2\cos\theta}

✔ The direction α of the resultant is given by:

tan⁡α=F2sin⁡θF1+F2cos⁡θ\tan \alpha = \frac{F_2 \sin \theta}{F_1 + F_2 \cos \

theta}

3.5 Components of Forces

A force acting at an angle can be broken into:
✔ Horizontal component: Fx=Fcos⁡θF_x = F \cos \theta
✔ Vertical component: Fy=Fsin⁡θF_y = F \sin \theta

3.6 The Resultant of More Than Two Vectors

✔ The polygon method extends the parallelogram rule for multiple forces.
✔ The analytical method sums components in the x- and y-directions to find the resultant.
Worked Examples (10 Examples with
Solutions)
Example 1: Finding the Center of Gravity for a Regular Shape

Question:
Find the center of gravity of a uniform 2 m long metal rod.

Solution:
Since the rod is uniform, its center of gravity is at the midpoint.

C.G.=Total length2=22=1 m\text{C.G.} = \frac{\text{Total length}}{2} = \

frac{2}{2} = 1 \text{ m}

Answer: 1 m from one end

Example 2: Center of Gravity of a Triangle

Question:
Find the center of gravity of a uniform triangular sheet of base 6 m and height 4 m.

Solution:
For a triangle, the C.G. is one-third the height from the base:

C.G.=13×4=1.33 m\text{C.G.} = \frac{1}{3} \times 4 = 1.33 \text{ m}

Answer: 1.33 m from the base

Example 3: Identifying the Center of Gravity in Irregular Objects

Question:
How do you find the center of gravity of an irregularly shaped metal plate?

Solution:

 Suspend it from different points and draw vertical lines.

 The intersection of these lines gives the C.G..

Answer: Intersection of suspension lines

Example 4: Resultant of Two Forces Using Parallelogram Rule

Question:
Two forces of 30 N and 40 N act at 60°. Find the resultant.

Solution:
Using the formula:

R=302+402+2(30)(40)cos⁡60∘R = \sqrt{30^2 + 40^2 + 2(30)(40) \cos 60^\

circ} R=900+1600+2400×0.5R = \sqrt{900 + 1600 + 2400 \times 0.5}
R=3700=60.83 NR = \sqrt{3700} = 60.83 \text{ N}

Answer: 60.83 N

Example 5: Resolution of Forces

Question:
Resolve a 50 N force acting at 30° into horizontal and vertical components.

Solution:

Fx=50cos⁡30∘=50×0.866=43.3 NF_x = 50 \cos 30^\circ = 50 \times 0.866 =

43.3 \text{ N} Fy=50sin⁡30∘=50×0.5=25 NF_y = 50 \sin 30^\circ = 50 \times
0.5 = 25 \text{ N}

Answer: Fx=43.3F_x = 43.3 N, Fy=25F_y = 25 N

Example 6: Finding the Equilibrium Condition

Question:
A 20 N force acts 3 m left of a pivot. What force must act 4 m right to balance it?

Solution:
Using moment equilibrium:

20×3=F×420 \times 3 = F \times 4 60=4F60 = 4F F=15 NF = 15 \text{ N}

Answer: 15 N
Example 7: Application in Construction

Question:
Why are tall buildings designed with a low center of gravity?

Answer:
A low C.G. makes the structure more stable, reducing the chance of tipping over.

Example 8: Stability of a Car

Question:
Why do sports cars have a lower center of gravity than SUVs?

Answer:
A lower center of gravity improves stability and reduces rollover risk.

Example 9: Athletes Manipulating the Center of Gravity

Question:
Why do high jumpers bend their bodies over the bar?

Answer:
By shifting their center of gravity, they can clear the bar more easily.

Example 10: A Beam with Unequal Masses

Question:
A beam has two weights, 20 N at 2 m and 40 N at 6 m. Find the C.G..

Solution:
Using the moment method:

C.G.=(20×2)+(40×6)(20+40)\text{C.G.} = \frac{(20 \times 2) + (40 \times

6)}{(20 + 40)} C.G.=40+24060=28060=4.67 m\text{C.G.} = \frac{40 +
240}{60} = \frac{280}{60} = 4.67 \text{ m}

Answer: 4.67 m from the reference point

Summary of Week 3 Topics
✔ C.G. is where weight acts.
✔ For uniform objects, it is the geometric center.
✔ C.G. location affects stability (low C.G. = more stable).
✔ Forces can be resolved into components.
✔ Resultant force is found using vector addition.

Week 4: Effect of Forces on Materials

When forces act on a material, they can cause deformation, bending, stretching, or
compression depending on the type and direction of the applied force. Understanding these
effects is essential in engineering, construction, biomechanics, and material science.

4.1 Structure and Forces

A structure refers to any object or system designed to support loads. Forces acting on
structures can cause:
✔ Bending – Occurs in beams and bridges.
✔ Stretching – Seen in cables and ropes under tension.
✔ Compression – Observed in columns and walls.
✔ Shearing – Occurs when layers of a material slide past each other.

Real-Life Examples:

1. Bridges – Must withstand tension, compression, and shear forces.

2. Buildings – Designed to resist wind and earthquake forces.
3. Human Bones – Femur withstands compression; tendons handle
tension.
4. Aircraft Wings – Experience bending and shear forces during flight.
4.2 Stress
Stress measures the internal force per unit area within a material. It determines how much load
a material can withstand.

Stress=Force (F)Area (A)\text{Stress} = \frac{\text{Force (F)}}{\text{Area

(A)}}

✔ Units: Pascal (Pa), where 1 Pa = 1 N/m².

✔ High stress can lead to fracture or failure of a material.

4.3 Strain
Strain is the measure of deformation due to applied stress. It is a dimensionless quantity.

Strain=Change in Length(ΔL)Original Length(L)\text{Strain} = \frac{\

text{Change in Length} (\Delta L)}{\text{Original Length} (L)}

✔ Tensile strain – When an object stretches under force.

✔ Compressive strain – When an object shortens under force.

Example: A steel wire elongating under tension exhibits tensile strain.

4.4 Tensile Stress

Tensile stress occurs when a material is pulled apart.

✔ Found in cables, ropes, tendons, and bridges.

✔ It increases length but keeps volume constant.

Tensile Stress=Tensile ForceCross-sectional Area\text{Tensile Stress} = \

frac{\text{Tensile Force}}{\text{Cross-sectional Area}}

4.5 Compressive Stress

Compressive stress occurs when a material is compressed or squeezed.
✔ Found in columns, bones, and concrete walls.
✔ It decreases length while volume remains constant.

Compressive Stress=Compressive ForceCross-sectional Area\

text{Compressive Stress} = \frac{\text{Compressive Force}}{\text{Cross-
sectional Area}}

Worked Examples (10 Examples with

Solutions)
Example 1: Calculating Stress

Question:
A 500 N force is applied to a metal rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.01 m². Calculate the
stress.

Solution:

Stress=5000.01=50,000 Pa\text{Stress} = \frac{500}{0.01} = 50,000 \

text{ Pa}

Answer: 50,000 Pa

Example 2: Calculating Strain

Question:
A wire of 2 m stretches by 0.002 m under tension. Find the strain.

Solution:

Strain=0.0022=0.001\text{Strain} = \frac{0.002}{2} = 0.001

Answer: 0.001 (dimensionless)

Example 3: Tensile Stress in a Cable

Question:
A bridge cable with a cross-sectional area of 0.02 m² supports a load of 2,000 N. Find the
tensile stress.

Solution:

Tensile Stress=20000.02=100,000 Pa\text{Tensile Stress} = \frac{2000}

{0.02} = 100,000 \text{ Pa}

Answer: 100,000 Pa

Example 4: Compressive Stress in a Column

Question:
A pillar with a 0.5 m² base supports a 30,000 N load. Find the compressive stress.

Solution:

Stress=30,0000.5=60,000 Pa\text{Stress} = \frac{30,000}{0.5} = 60,000 \

text{ Pa}

Answer: 60,000 Pa

Example 5: Effect of Shear Force

Question:
A beam in a building experiences shear stress due to an applied force of 5,000 N over an area
of 0.1 m². Find the shear stress.

Solution:

Shear Stress=50000.1=50,000 Pa\text{Shear Stress} = \frac{5000}{0.1} =

50,000 \text{ Pa}

Answer: 50,000 Pa
Example 6: Calculating Bending Stress in a Beam

Question:
A wooden beam bends under a force of 10,000 N. If its cross-sectional area is 0.05 m², calculate
the bending stress.

Solution:

Stress=10,0000.05=200,000 Pa\text{Stress} = \frac{10,000}{0.05} =

200,000 \text{ Pa}

Answer: 200,000 Pa

Example 7: Comparing Tensile and Compressive Stress

Question:
A metal rod has a tensile stress of 80,000 Pa and a compressive stress of 120,000 Pa. Which is
greater?

Answer:
Compressive stress (120,000 Pa) is greater than tensile stress (80,000 Pa).

Example 8: Understanding Elastic Deformation

Question:
A rubber band stretches under a force but returns to its original shape. What type of deformation
is this?

Answer:
This is elastic deformation because the material returns to its original form.

Example 9: Permanent Deformation in Materials

Question:
A metal wire is stretched beyond its limit and does not return to its original shape. What is this
called?

Answer:
This is plastic deformation, meaning the material has permanently changed shape.
Example 10: Failure of a Material Under Excess Stress

Question:
A steel bar with a maximum stress limit of 500,000 Pa is subjected to 600,000 Pa. What will
happen?

Answer:
The bar will break or fracture because the stress exceeds its tensile strength.

Summary of Week 4 Topics

✔ Stress measures internal force per area.
✔ Strain measures deformation under force.
✔ Tensile stress pulls objects apart.
✔ Compressive stress squeezes objects together.
✔ Shear stress causes layers to slide past each other.
✔ Excessive stress leads to material failure.

Example 6: Finding Working Stress of a Material

Question:
A structural steel beam is designed to handle a maximum stress of 250 MPa under a working
load of 200 MPa. Is it within the safe limit?

Solution:
The working stress should always be less than or equal to the material’s allowable stress.

Working Stress=200 MPa,Allowable Stress=250 MPa\text{Working Stress} =

200 \text{ MPa}, \quad \text{Allowable Stress} = 250 \text{ MPa}

Since 200 MPa < 250 MPa, the material is safe for use.
Answer: Yes, it is within the safe limit.

Example 7: Shear Deformation in a Metal Plate

Question:
A steel plate of thickness 5 cm is subjected to a shear force, causing a displacement of 0.002 m
over a length of 1 m. If the shear stress applied is 100 MPa, find the shear modulus (G).

Solution:

Shear Strain=DisplacementLength=0.0021=0.002\text{Shear Strain} = \

frac{\text{Displacement}}{\text{Length}} = \frac{0.002}{1} = 0.002
G=Shear StressShear Strain=100×1060.002=50×109 Pa=50 GPaG = \frac{\
text{Shear Stress}}{\text{Shear Strain}} = \frac{100 \times 10^6}{0.002}
= 50 \times 10^9 \text{ Pa} = 50 \text{ GPa}

Answer: 50 GPa

Example 8: Determining Bulk Modulus of a Fluid

Question:
A liquid is compressed under a pressure increase of 10 MPa, causing its volume to decrease by
0.1%. Find the bulk modulus of the liquid.

Solution:

K=Volume StressVolume Strain=10×1060.001K = \frac{\text{Volume

Stress}}{\text{Volume Strain}} = \frac{10 \times 10^6}{0.001}
=10×109 Pa=10 GPa= 10 \times 10^9 \text{ Pa} = 10 \text{ GPa}

Answer: 10 GPa

Example 9: Poisson’s Ratio for a Deforming Material

Question:
A cylindrical rod is stretched, increasing its length by 0.005 m while its diameter decreases
by 0.0008 m. If the original length was 1 m and the original diameter was 0.1 m, find Poisson’s
ratio (ν).
Solution:

Axial Strain=ΔLL=0.0051=0.005\text{Axial Strain} = \frac{\Delta L}{L} = \

frac{0.005}{1} = 0.005 Lateral Strain=ΔDD=0.00080.1=0.008\text{Lateral
Strain} = \frac{\Delta D}{D} = \frac{0.0008}{0.1} = 0.008
ν=Lateral StrainAxial Strain=0.0080.005=0.4\nu = \frac{\text{Lateral
Strain}}{\text{Axial Strain}} = \frac{0.008}{0.005} = 0.4

Answer: 0.4

Example 10: Calculating Tensile Strength of a Wire

Question:
A copper wire with a cross-sectional area of 5 × 10⁻⁶ m² breaks under a force of 100 N. Find
the tensile strength.

Solution:

Tensile Strength=ForceCross-sectional Area\text{Tensile Strength} = \frac{\

text{Force}}{\text{Cross-sectional Area}}
=1005×10−6=20×106 Pa=20 MPa= \frac{100}{5 \times 10^{-6}} = 20 \
times 10^6 \text{ Pa} = 20 \text{ MPa}

Answer: 20 MPa

Summary of Key Concepts

Exampl
Property Formula Unit
e

Shear
Steel,
Modulus G=τγG = \frac{\tau}{\gamma} Pascal (Pa)
rubber
(G)

Bulk K=Volume StressVolume StrainK = \frac{\

Water,
Modulus text{Volume Stress}}{\text{Volume Pascal (Pa)
foam
(K) Strain}}

Poisson’s ν=Lateral StrainAxial Strain\nu = \frac{\ Dimensionle Rubber,

 Exampl
Property Formula Unit
e

Ratio (ν) text{Lateral Strain}}{\text{Axial Strain}} ss cork

Shear Bolts,
τ=FA\tau = \frac{F}{A} Pascal (Pa)
Stress (τ) beams

Tensile Steel,
σ=FA\sigma = \frac{F}{A} Pascal (Pa)
Strength copper

Week 6: Motion in a Straight Line (Kinematics

of Linear Motion)
This section introduces the fundamental principles of motion, focusing on objects moving in a
straight line (rectilinear motion). We will cover kinematic equations, velocity, acceleration,
and displacement with detailed examples.

6.1 Introduction to Motion

Motion occurs when an object's position changes over time. In linear motion, this change
happens along a straight path.

✔ Types of Motion:

1. Uniform Motion → Constant velocity (e.g., a car on cruise control).

2. Non-Uniform Motion → Changing velocity (e.g., a car accelerating).

✔ Key Quantities in Motion:

 Displacement (s): The shortest distance from the initial to final

position (vector).
 Velocity (v): Rate of displacement over time (vector).
 Speed (v): Distance covered per unit time (scalar).
  Acceleration (a): Change in velocity over time (vector).

6.2 Equations of Motion (SUVAT Equations)

For objects moving with constant acceleration, the following kinematic equations apply:

1. First Equation:

v=u+atv = u + at

o v = Final velocity (m/s)

o u = Initial velocity (m/s)
o a = Acceleration (m/s²)
o t = Time (s)

2. Second Equation:

s=ut+12at2s = ut + \frac{1}{2}at^2

o s = Displacement (m)

3. Third Equation:

v2=u2+2asv^2 = u^2 + 2as

4. Fourth Equation:

s=(u+v)2×ts = \frac{(u + v)}{2} \times t

These equations help analyze motion without needing forces (pure kinematics).

6.3 Free Fall Motion (Motion Under Gravity)

An object in free fall experiences constant acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81 m/s²).

✔ If dropped: u = 0
✔ If thrown upwards: a = -9.81 m/s² (deceleration)
Worked Examples (10 Problems with Solutions)
Example 1: Calculating Final Velocity

Question:
A car accelerates from 10 m/s to 30 m/s in 5 seconds. Find its acceleration.

Solution:
Using v=u+atv = u + at

30=10+a(5)30 = 10 + a(5) a=30−105=4 m/s²a = \frac{30 - 10}{5} = 4 \

text{ m/s²}

Answer: Acceleration = 4 m/s²

Example 2: Finding Displacement

Question:
A car starts at 5 m/s and accelerates at 2 m/s² for 6 seconds. Find the displacement.

Solution:
Using s=ut+12at2s = ut + \frac{1}{2}at^2

s=(5×6)+12(2×62)s = (5 \times 6) + \frac{1}{2} (2 \times 6^2)

s=30+(1×36)=66 ms = 30 + (1 \times 36) = 66 \text{ m}

Answer: 66 m

Example 3: Velocity After a Given Displacement

Question:
A cyclist starts at rest (u = 0) and accelerates at 1.5 m/s² over a distance of 20 m. Find the final
velocity.

Solution:
Using v2=u2+2asv^2 = u^2 + 2as

v2=0+(2×1.5×20)v^2 = 0 + (2 \times 1.5 \times 20) v=60=7.75 m/sv = \

sqrt{60} = 7.75 \text{ m/s}

Answer: 7.75 m/s

Example 4: Time Taken to Reach a Certain Velocity

Question:
A ball moving at 3 m/s accelerates at 5 m/s² until it reaches 18 m/s. Find the time taken.

Solution:
Using v=u+atv = u + at

18=3+5t18 = 3 + 5t t=155=3 st = \frac{15}{5} = 3 \text{ s}

Answer: 3 seconds

Example 5: Time to Hit the Ground (Free Fall)

Question:
A stone is dropped from a height of 45 m. Find how long it takes to reach the ground.

Solution:
Using s=ut+12gt2s = ut + \frac{1}{2}gt^2

45=0+12(9.81)t245 = 0 + \frac{1}{2} (9.81) t^2 t2=45×29.81=9.17t^2

= \frac{45 \times 2}{9.81} = 9.17 t=3.03 st = 3.03 \text{ s}

Answer: 3.03 seconds

Example 6: Maximum Height in Free Fall

Question:
A ball is thrown upwards with 15 m/s velocity. Find the max height.

Solution:
Using v2=u2+2asv^2 = u^2 + 2as (v = 0 at max height)

0=152+(2×−9.81×s)0 = 15^2 + (2 \times -9.81 \times s)

s=22519.62=11.47 ms = \frac{225}{19.62} = 11.47 \text{ m}

Answer: 11.47 m
Example 7: Time to Reach Maximum Height

Question:
Find the time for the ball in Example 6 to reach max height.

Solution:
Using v=u+atv = u + at

0=15−9.81t0 = 15 - 9.81t t=159.81=1.53 st = \frac{15}{9.81} = 1.53 \

text{ s}

Answer: 1.53 seconds

Example 8: Total Time for Round Trip (Up and Down)

Using the result from Example 7, the total time = 2 × 1.53 = 3.06 seconds

Example 9: Car Stopping Distance

Question:
A car moving at 20 m/s is brought to rest in 50 m. Find acceleration.

Solution:
Using v2=u2+2asv^2 = u^2 + 2as

0=202+(2×a×50)0 = 20^2 + (2 \times a \times 50) a=−4 m/s²a = -4 \

text{ m/s²}

Answer: -4 m/s² (deceleration)

Example 10: Time to Stop a Moving Vehicle

Using v=u+atv = u + at, with v = 0, u = 20, a = -4

t=0−20−4=5 st = \frac{0 - 20}{-4} = 5 \text{ s}

Answer: 5 seconds
Summary of Key Concepts
Concept Formula Example

Car
Velocity v=u+atv = u + at
acceleration

Displaceme s=ut+12at2s = ut + \ Distance

nt frac{1}{2}at^2 covered

Final v2=u2+2asv^2 = u^2 + Free fall

Velocity 2as motion

Free Fall t=2sgt = \sqrt{\frac{2s}

Falling objects
Time {g}}

Week 7: Newton’s Laws of Motion

In this lecture, we will explore Newton’s Three Laws of Motion, their implications, and
practical applications. Newton’s laws are the foundation of classical mechanics and explain the
behavior of objects under forces.

7.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)

Statement:

"An object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion continues in motion with the same
speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an external force."

✔ Key Concept: Inertia

  Inertia is the property of an object to resist changes in its state of
motion.
 The greater the mass, the greater the inertia.

✔ Real-Life Examples:

1. A passenger in a car jerks forward when the brakes are suddenly

applied.
2. A book on a table remains there unless pushed.
3. A satellite in space continues moving indefinitely due to no external
force.
4. A ball rolling on a smooth surface slows due to friction (external force).
5. When a tablecloth is pulled quickly, dishes remain in place.
6. A bus starts moving, and standing passengers lean backward.
7. Shaking a tree causes fruits to fall due to inertia.
8. A bullet fired in space continues moving unless an external force acts.
9. A hockey puck slides on ice until friction stops it.
10. A spacecraft continues moving after its engines shut off.

7.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion (Law of Acceleration)

Statement:

"The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely
proportional to its mass."

✔ Mathematical Form:

F=maF = ma

 F = Force (Newton, N)
 m = Mass (kg)
 a = Acceleration (m/s²)

✔ Implications:

 Higher force → greater acceleration.

 Higher mass → lower acceleration.

✔ Real-Life Examples:

1. Pushing a heavier box requires more force.

 2. A light soccer ball accelerates more than a heavy bowling ball when
kicked.
3. A car accelerates faster when a stronger engine applies more force.
4. A person running with extra weight moves slower.
5. A bus needs more force to stop than a bicycle.
6. A rocket’s acceleration increases as fuel burns and mass decreases.
7. A heavier elevator requires a stronger motor to lift it.
8. A football player with greater mass is harder to tackle.
9. A hammer strikes a nail with greater force if swung faster.
10. A stone thrown with more force moves faster.

✔ Worked Examples (10 Problems with Solutions)

Example 1: Finding Acceleration from Force

Question:
A 10 kg object is pushed with a force of 50 N. Find its acceleration.

Solution:
Using F=maF = ma

a=Fm=5010=5 m/s²a = \frac{F}{m} = \frac{50}{10} = 5 \text{ m/s²}

Answer: 5 m/s²

Example 2: Finding Force Needed for Acceleration

Question:
A 2 kg object accelerates at 8 m/s². Find the force applied.

Solution:
Using F=maF = ma

F=2×8=16 NF = 2 \times 8 = 16 \text{ N}

Answer: 16 N

Example 3: Finding Mass from Force and Acceleration

Question:
A force of 30 N causes an acceleration of 6 m/s². Find the mass.
Solution:
Using F=maF = ma

m=Fa=306=5 kgm = \frac{F}{a} = \frac{30}{6} = 5 \text{ kg}

Answer: 5 kg

Example 4: Deceleration of a Moving Object

Question:
A car of mass 1000 kg decelerates at 4 m/s² due to braking force. Find the force applied.

Solution:
Using F=maF = ma

F=1000×(−4)=−4000 NF = 1000 \times (-4) = -4000 \text{ N}

(Negative sign indicates force opposite to motion.)

Answer: 4000 N (opposite direction of motion)

Example 5: Finding Weight Using Newton’s Laws

Question:
A person has a mass of 70 kg. Find their weight on Earth (g = 9.81 m/s²).

Solution:
Weight W=mgW = mg

W=70×9.81=686.7 NW = 70 \times 9.81 = 686.7 \text{ N}

Answer: 686.7 N

Example 6: Finding Acceleration of a Falling Object

Question:
A 5 kg stone falls freely. What is its acceleration?
Solution:
Since the only force acting is gravity,

a=g=9.81 m/s²a = g = 9.81 \text{ m/s²}

Answer: 9.81 m/s²

Example 7: Net Force on an Object

Question:
Two forces, 10 N east and 6 N west, act on a 3 kg object. Find acceleration.

Solution:
Net force: 10 - 6 = 4 N (East)

a=43=1.33 m/s² (east)a = \frac{4}{3} = 1.33 \text{ m/s² (east)}

Answer: 1.33 m/s² (east)

Example 8: Force Required to Lift an Object

Question:
Find the force required to lift a 15 kg object vertically.

Solution:
Lifting force = weight = mgmg

F=15×9.81=147.15 NF = 15 \times 9.81 = 147.15 \text{ N}

Answer: 147.15 N

Example 9: Rocket Acceleration

Question:
A 1000 kg rocket experiences thrust force of 20,000 N. Find its acceleration.

Solution:
Using F=maF = ma
a=200001000=20 m/s²a = \frac{20000}{1000} = 20 \text{ m/s²}

Answer: 20 m/s²

Example 10: Effect of Mass on Acceleration

Question:
Two objects of 2 kg and 4 kg experience the same force. Compare their accelerations.

Solution:
For 2 kg object:

a=F2a = \frac{F}{2}

For 4 kg object:

a=F4a = \frac{F}{4}

Conclusion: The 2 kg object accelerates twice as much as the 4 kg object.

7.3 Newton’s Third Law of Motion (Action-Reaction Law)

Statement:

"For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction."

✔ Real-Life Examples:

1. Walking: You push backward, ground pushes forward.

2. Rocket launch: Exhaust gases push downward, rocket moves upward.
3. Jumping: You push down, Earth pushes you up.
4. Gun recoil: Bullet moves forward, gun moves backward.
5. Pushing against a wall: It pushes back with equal force.
6. Bird flying: Wings push air down, air pushes bird up.
7. Swimming: You push water backward, it pushes you forward.
8. Rowing a boat: Oars push water back, boat moves forward.
9. Tug-of-war: Teams pull on rope, rope pulls back equally.
10. Balloon release: Air rushes out, balloon moves opposite.
This concludes Week 7: Newton’s Laws of Motion. Let me know if you have any questions
before moving to Week 8: Work, Energy, and Power.

Week 8: Work, Energy, and Power

This week, we will explore the fundamental concepts of work, energy, and power, their
interrelationships, and practical applications. These concepts are crucial for understanding
mechanics and many engineering applications.

8.1 Work
Definition of Work

In physics, work is done when a force applied to an object causes displacement in the direction
of the force.

✔ Mathematical Formula:

W=Fdcos⁡θW = Fd \cos\theta

Where:

 W = Work done (Joules, J)

 F = Applied force (Newtons, N)
 d = Displacement (meters, m)
 θ = Angle between force and displacement

✔ Key Points:

 Work is positive if the force and displacement are in the same

direction.
 Work is negative if the force opposes the displacement.
 Work is zero if there is no displacement or if the force is perpendicular
to the displacement.
8.1.1 Real-Life Examples of Work

1. Lifting a box: Work is done against gravity.

2. Pulling a cart: Force moves the cart forward.
3. Pushing a car on a level road: Work is done when the car moves.
4. Throwing a ball: Work is done to accelerate the ball.
5. Weightlifting: A force applied moves the weights upward.
6. Climbing stairs: Work is done against gravity.
7. Rowing a boat: Oars push water backward, moving the boat forward.
8. Hammering a nail: Force moves the nail into the wood.
9. Cycling uphill: Work is done against gravity.
10. Dragging a suitcase: Work is done if there is movement.

8.1.2 Worked Examples on Work Done

Example 1: Work Done by a Constant Force

Question:
A 50 N force pushes a box 4 m along a surface. Find the work done if the force is in the direction
of motion.

Solution:

W=Fdcos⁡θW = Fd \cos\theta

Since the force is in the direction of motion, θ = 0° and cos 0° = 1.

W=50×4×1=200 JW = 50 \times 4 \times 1 = 200 \text{ J}

Answer: 200 J

Example 2: Work Done at an Angle

Question:
A 10 N force pulls an object 5 m at an angle of 60° to the horizontal. Find the work done.

Solution:

W=10×5×cos⁡60°W = 10 \times 5 \times \cos 60°

Since cos 60° = 0.5,

W=10×5×0.5=25 JW = 10 \times 5 \times 0.5 = 25 \text{ J}

Answer: 25 J

Example 3: Work Done Against Gravity

Question:
A 20 kg box is lifted 2 m vertically. Find the work done. (g = 9.81 m/s²)

Solution:
Weight of the box: F=mg=20×9.81=196.2NF = mg = 20 \times 9.81 = 196.2 N

W=Fd=196.2×2=392.4 JW = Fd = 196.2 \times 2 = 392.4 \text{ J}

Answer: 392.4 J

Example 4: Work Done by Friction

Question:
A 5 kg object moves 3 m with a friction force of 10 N acting opposite to the motion. Find the
work done by friction.

Solution:
Since friction opposes motion, θ = 180° (cos 180° = -1).

W=10×3×(−1)=−30 JW = 10 \times 3 \times (-1) = -30 \text{ J}

Answer: -30 J (work done against motion)

8.2 Energy
Definition of Energy

Energy is the capacity to do work. It exists in various forms, including kinetic energy (KE)
and potential energy (PE).

✔ Types of Mechanical Energy:

1. Kinetic Energy (KE): Energy of motion.

2. Potential Energy (PE): Stored energy due to position.
8.2.1 Kinetic Energy

✔ Mathematical Formula:

KE=12mv2KE = \frac{1}{2} m v^2

Where:

 m = Mass (kg)
 v = Velocity (m/s)

✔ Real-Life Examples of Kinetic Energy:

1. A moving car.
2. A flying airplane.
3. A running athlete.
4. A swinging pendulum.
5. A rolling ball.
6. A bullet fired from a gun.
7. A river flowing.
8. A moving train.
9. A cyclist in motion.
10. Wind blowing.

Worked Example: Kinetic Energy

Question:
Find the kinetic energy of a 2 kg object moving at 10 m/s.

Solution:

KE=12×2×(10)2KE = \frac{1}{2} \times 2 \times (10)^2

KE=1×100=100 JKE = 1 \times 100 = 100 \text{ J}

Answer: 100 J

8.2.2 Potential Energy

✔ Mathematical Formula:
PE=mghPE = mgh

Where:

 h = Height (m)

✔ Real-Life Examples of Potential Energy:

1. Water stored in a dam.

2. A compressed spring.
3. A stretched bow.
4. A raised hammer.
5. A child at the top of a slide.
6. A loaded gun.
7. A roller coaster at its highest point.
8. A hanging clock pendulum.
9. A fruit hanging from a tree.
10. A rock on a hill.

Worked Example: Potential Energy

Question:
A 5 kg object is placed at a 10 m height. Find its potential energy.

Solution:

PE=5×9.81×10PE = 5 \times 9.81 \times 10 PE=490.5 JPE = 490.5 \text{ J}

Answer: 490.5 J

8.3 Power
Definition of Power

Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred.

✔ Mathematical Formula:

P=WtP = \frac{W}{t}

Where:
  P = Power (Watts, W)
 W = Work done (J)
 t = Time taken (s)

✔ Real-Life Examples of Power:

1. A person running fast (higher power).

2. A powerful engine in a sports car.
3. A light bulb consuming electrical energy.
4. A fan operating at high speed.
5. A wind turbine generating power.
6. A crane lifting loads quickly.
7. A washing machine running.
8. A microwave heating food.
9. A hydraulic press in a factory.
10. An electric motor running a conveyor belt.

Worked Example: Power Calculation

Question:
A machine does 1000 J of work in 5 seconds. Find the power.

Solution:

P=10005=200 WP = \frac{1000}{5} = 200 \text{ W}

Answer: 200 W

This concludes Week 8: Work, Energy, and Power. Let me know if you need clarifications
before moving to Week 9: Impulse and Momentum.
Week 9: Impulse and Momentum
This week, we will explore momentum and impulse, their mathematical formulations, real-life
applications, and problem-solving techniques. These concepts are fundamental in physics,
especially in mechanics and collision analysis.

9.1 Linear Momentum

Definition of Momentum

Momentum is the quantity of motion possessed by a moving object. It is a vector quantity,

meaning it has both magnitude and direction.

✔ Mathematical Formula:

p=mvp = mv

Where:

 p = Momentum (kg·m/s)
 m = Mass (kg)
 v = Velocity (m/s)

✔ Key Properties:

 Momentum depends on both mass and velocity.

 An object with more mass or higher velocity has greater
momentum.
 Momentum is conserved in an isolated system.

9.1.1 Real-Life Examples of Momentum

1. A moving car (higher speed = higher momentum).

2. A fast-moving bullet (low mass but high velocity = high momentum).
3. A slow-moving truck (large mass = large momentum).
4. A football kicked by a player.
5. A rolling bowling ball knocking down pins.
6. A moving bicycle.
7. A swimmer pushing off a wall.
8. A rocket launching into space.
9. A tennis ball hit by a racket.
 10. A jumping athlete landing on the ground.

9.1.2 Worked Examples on Momentum

Example 1: Calculating Momentum

Question:
Find the momentum of a 5 kg object moving at 8 m/s.

Solution:

p=mv=5×8=40 kg\cdotpm/sp = mv = 5 \times 8 = 40 \text{ kg·m/s}

Answer: 40 kg·m/s

Example 2: Comparing Momentum

Question:
A 2000 kg car moves at 10 m/s, while a 1000 kg truck moves at 20 m/s. Which has more
momentum?

Solution:
Momentum of the car:

p=2000×10=20000 kg\cdotpm/sp = 2000 \times 10 = 20000 \text{ kg·m/s}

Momentum of the truck:

p=1000×20=20000 kg\cdotpm/sp = 1000 \times 20 = 20000 \text{ kg·m/s}

Both have equal momentum of 20000 kg·m/s.

Example 3: Momentum of a Bullet

Question:
A 10 g bullet moves at 300 m/s. Find its momentum.

Solution:
Convert mass to kg:
10 g=0.01 kg10 \text{ g} = 0.01 \text{ kg} p=0.01×300=3 kg\cdotpm/sp =
0.01 \times 300 = 3 \text{ kg·m/s}

Answer: 3 kg·m/s

9.2 Impulse
Definition of Impulse

Impulse is the change in momentum caused by a force acting over time.

✔ Mathematical Formula:

J=FΔt=ΔpJ = F \Delta t = \Delta p

Where:

 J = Impulse (N·s)
 F = Force (N)
 Δt = Time duration (s)
 Δp = Change in momentum

✔ Key Concepts:

 A greater force or longer time increases impulse.

 Impulse reduces force impact in collisions (e.g., airbags, padded
gloves).

9.2.1 Real-Life Examples of Impulse

1. A boxer using gloves to reduce impact.

2. Airbags reducing injuries in car accidents.
3. A tennis player following through with a shot.
4. A goalkeeper catching a fast-moving ball.
5. A trampoline absorbing a jumper’s landing.
6. A cricketer bending arms while catching a ball.
7. A person jumping on a soft mattress instead of the floor.
8. A pole vaulter landing on a padded surface.
9. A basketball bouncing off the ground.
10. A hammer striking a nail.
9.2.2 Worked Examples on Impulse
Example 4: Calculating Impulse

Question:
A 20 N force acts on an object for 4 s. Find the impulse.

Solution:

J=FΔt=20×4=80 N\cdotpsJ = F \Delta t = 20 \times 4 = 80 \text{ N·s}

Answer: 80 N·s

Example 5: Impulse and Change in Momentum

Question:
A 2 kg ball moving at 5 m/s is stopped in 0.5 s. Find the force applied.

Solution:
Initial momentum:

pi=2×5=10 kg\cdotpm/sp_i = 2 \times 5 = 10 \text{ kg·m/s}

Final momentum:

pf=0 kg\cdotpm/sp_f = 0 \text{ kg·m/s}

Change in momentum:

Δp=0−10=−10 kg\cdotpm/s\Delta p = 0 - 10 = -10 \text{ kg·m/s}

Impulse equation:

FΔt=ΔpF \Delta t = \Delta p F×0.5=−10F \times 0.5 = -10 F=−20 NF = -20 \

text{ N}

Answer: -20 N (force in opposite direction)

9.3 Conservation of Momentum
Principle of Conservation of Momentum

In an isolated system, the total momentum before a collision is equal to the total
momentum after the collision.

✔ Mathematical Formula:

m1v1+m2v2=m1v1′+m2v2′m_1 v_1 + m_2 v_2 = m_1 v_1' + m_2 v_2'

Where:

 m₁, m₂ = Mass of objects

 v₁, v₂ = Initial velocities
 v₁', v₂' = Final velocities

✔ Types of Collisions:

1. Elastic Collision: Momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

2. Inelastic Collision: Momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is
lost.

9.3.1 Real-Life Applications of Momentum Conservation

1. Two cars colliding and moving together.

2. A bullet hitting a target.
3. A rocket launching (recoil of exhaust gases).
4. A billiard ball striking another ball.
5. A jumping person pushing a boat backward.
6. A baseball bat hitting a ball.
7. A bullet leaving a gun.
8. A skater pushing another skater.
9. Two astronauts pushing away from each other.
10. A firecracker exploding into fragments.
9.3.2 Worked Examples on Conservation of Momentum
Example 6: Collision of Two Cars

Question:
A 1000 kg car moves at 20 m/s and collides with a 2000 kg truck at rest. They stick together.
Find their final velocity.

Solution:

m1v1+m2v2=(m1+m2)vfm_1 v_1 + m_2 v_2 = (m_1 + m_2) v_f

1000(20)+2000(0)=(1000+2000)vf1000(20) + 2000(0) = (1000 + 2000) v_f
20000=3000vf20000 = 3000 v_f vf=200003000=6.67 m/sv_f = \
frac{20000}{3000} = 6.67 \text{ m/s}

Answer: 6.67 m/s (after collision)

This concludes Week 9: Impulse and Momentum. Let me know if you need clarifications
before moving to Week 10: Circular Motion and Centripetal Forces.

Week 10: Circular Motion and Centripetal

Forces
This week, we will explore circular motion, the forces involved, and their applications. Circular
motion is fundamental in mechanics, governing everything from planetary orbits to car turns on
curved roads.

10.1 Uniform Circular Motion

Definition of Circular Motion

Circular motion occurs when an object moves in a circular path with a fixed radius. It can be
uniform (constant speed) or non-uniform (changing speed).
✔ Key Concepts:

 The velocity of the object changes direction but not magnitude (in
uniform circular motion).
 The acceleration always points toward the center (centripetal
acceleration).
 The force required to keep an object in circular motion is called
centripetal force.

✔ Mathematical Representation:

ac=v2ra_c = \frac{v^2}{r}

Where:

 a_c = Centripetal acceleration (m/s²)

 v = Tangential velocity (m/s)
 r = Radius of the circular path (m)

10.1.1 Real-Life Examples of Circular Motion

1. A car turning around a roundabout.

2. The motion of planets around the sun.
3. A satellite orbiting the Earth.
4. A fan blade rotating.
5. A roller coaster going through a loop.
6. A child swinging on a rope.
7. The hands of a clock moving.
8. A spinning top.
9. The movement of a centrifuge in a laboratory.
10. An athlete running on a circular track.

10.1.2 Worked Examples on Circular Motion

Example 1: Finding Centripetal Acceleration

Question:
A car moves at 30 m/s around a curve with a radius of 50 m. Find its centripetal acceleration.

Solution:
ac=v2r=30250=90050=18 m/s²a_c = \frac{v^2}{r} = \frac{30^2}{50} = \
frac{900}{50} = 18 \text{ m/s²}

Answer: 18 m/s²

Example 2: Centripetal Acceleration of a Ferris Wheel

Question:
A Ferris wheel has a radius of 15 m and rotates at 10 m/s. Find its centripetal acceleration.

Solution:

ac=v2r=10215=10015=6.67 m/s²a_c = \frac{v^2}{r} = \frac{10^2}{15}

= \frac{100}{15} = 6.67 \text{ m/s²}

Answer: 6.67 m/s²

10.2 Centripetal Force

Definition of Centripetal Force

Centripetal force is the force that keeps an object moving in a circular path. It always acts
toward the center of the circle.

✔ Mathematical Formula:

Fc=mv2rF_c = \frac{m v^2}{r}

Where:

 F_c = Centripetal force (N)

 m = Mass of the object (kg)
 v = Tangential velocity (m/s)
 r = Radius of the circular path (m)

✔ Sources of Centripetal Force:

 Tension in a string (e.g., a stone tied to a string and spun).

 Friction (e.g., a car turning on a curved road).
 Gravity (e.g., planets orbiting the sun).
10.2.1 Real-Life Applications of Centripetal Force

1. A satellite staying in orbit due to gravity.

2. A person swinging a bucket of water without spilling.
3. Cyclists leaning while turning a curve.
4. A stone tied to a rope and spun in a circle.
5. Planets orbiting the sun due to gravitational force.
6. A roller coaster going through loops.
7. Cars moving on curved roads using friction.
8. A washing machine spin cycle.
9. A skater spinning in a circle.
10. A tetherball wrapped around a pole.

10.2.2 Worked Examples on Centripetal Force

Example 3: Finding Centripetal Force

Question:
A 2 kg ball moves at 5 m/s in a circular path of radius 3 m. Find the centripetal force.

Solution:

Fc=mv2r=2×523=2×253=503=16.67 NF_c = \frac{m v^2}{r} = \frac{2 \

times 5^2}{3} = \frac{2 \times 25}{3} = \frac{50}{3} = 16.67 \text{ N}

Answer: 16.67 N

Example 4: Centripetal Force on a Car

Question:
A 1000 kg car moves around a curve with a radius of 50 m at 20 m/s. Find the centripetal force.

Solution:

Fc=mv2r=1000×20250=1000×40050=40000050=8000 NF_c = \frac{m

v^2}{r} = \frac{1000 \times 20^2}{50} = \frac{1000 \times 400}{50} = \
frac{400000}{50} = 8000 \text{ N}

Answer: 8000 N
10.3 Banking of Roads and Circular Motion
Banked Roads and Centripetal Force

When a car turns on a curved road, friction and normal force provide centripetal force. On a
banked curve, the design reduces the dependence on friction.

✔ Equation for Banking of Roads:

tan⁡θ=v2rg\tan \theta = \frac{v^2}{r g}

Where:

 θ = Banking angle
 v = Velocity (m/s)
 r = Radius of curvature (m)
 g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²)

10.3.1 Real-Life Applications of Banked Roads

1. Race tracks are banked to allow high-speed turns.

2. Highways use banked curves to prevent skidding.
3. Roller coasters use banked turns for stability.
4. Bicyclists lean on turns to maintain balance.
5. Airplanes tilt while turning.
6. High-speed rail tracks are banked.
7. Ice skaters lean while turning.
8. A velodrome (cycling stadium) has steep banks.
9. Motorcyclists angle their bikes on curves.
10. Highway exits are curved and slightly inclined.

10.3.2 Worked Examples on Banked Roads

Example 5: Finding Banking Angle

Question:
A car moves at 25 m/s around a banked curve of radius 100 m. Find the required banking angle.

Solution:
tan⁡θ=v2rg=252100×9.8\tan \theta = \frac{v^2}{r g} = \frac{25^2}{100 \
times 9.8} tan⁡θ=625980=0.637\tan \theta = \frac{625}{980} = 0.637
θ=tan⁡−1(0.637)=32.5∘\theta = \tan^{-1} (0.637) = 32.5^\circ

Answer: 32.5°

Summary of Key Formulas

1. Centripetal Acceleration: ac=v2ra_c = \frac{v^2}{r}

2. Centripetal Force: Fc=mv2rF_c = \frac{m v^2}{r}
3. Banking of Roads: tan⁡θ=v2rg\tan \theta = \frac{v^2}{r g}

This concludes Week 10: Circular Motion and Centripetal Forces. Let me know if you have
any questions before we move to Week 11: Work, Energy, and Power.