Chapter Five-OSI Reference Model

Overview & functions of each layer

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 Outline of the lecture

 Layered Framework of OSI  OSI Upper layers

 Overview & functions of each layer  Transport layer
 Packetizing
 OSI lower layers  Addressing
 Physical layer  Multiplexing
and Demultiplexing
 Data link layer  Connection control
 Framing
 Session layer
 Addressing
 Presentation layer
 Error detection and correction
 Application
 Data link control and protocol
 Client server model
 Flow control
 Addressing
 Error control
 Application layers services
 Multiple access
 Network Layer
 Internetworking
 Packetizing and framing
 Addressing
 Network layer protocols

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 Layered frame work of OSI

 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

 A theoretical model-not implemented
(reference)

 Developed by International Standards

Organization (ISO)
 Open – to connect open systems

 Contains seven layers (7)

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 OSI Lower Layers

Physical

Data Link

Network
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 OSI Physical Layer

 Responsible for transmission of bits

 The type of interface used on the networking device
 The type of cable used for connecting devices
 The connectors used on each end of the cable
 Layer actually interact to the physical medium
 Signal encoding: 0 and 1 representation
 Transmission type: serial/parallel
 Transmission mode: simplex, duplex, 1/2
 Topology and multiplexing: star, bus, TDM, FDM ?
 Bandwidth: which bandwidth used
 Signal type: analog or digital signal ?
 The encoding of a message on a signal by converting
binary digits to
 a physical representation based on the media type,
such as
 –electrical for copper,
 – light for fiber, or
 –radio
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wave for wireless
 Note

The unit of communication at the physical

layer is a bit.

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 OSI Lower Layers

Physical

Data Link

Network
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 OSI Data Link Layer
1. Addressing – Headers and trailers are added, containing the physical addresses of the adjacent
nodes, and removed upon successful delivery.
2. Flow control – This avoids overwriting on the receiver’s buffer by regulating the amount of data
that can be sent.
3. Media Access Control (MAC) – In LANs, it decides who can send data, when and how much.
4. Synchronization – Headers have bits, which tell the receiver when a frame is arriving. It also
contains bits to synchronize its timing to know the bit interval to recognize the bit correctly. Trailers
mark the end of a frame, apart from containing the error control bits.
5. Error control – It checks the CRC to ensure the correctness of the frame. If incorrect, it asks for
retransmission. Again multiple schemes (positive acknowledgement, negative acknowledgement, go-
back-n, sliding window, etc.) exist here.
6. Node to node delivery – Finally, it is responsible for error-free delivery of the entire frame/
packet to the next adjacent node (node-to-node delivery).

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 Communication at the data link layer

Legend Source Destination D Data H Header

A R1 R3 R4 B
Data link Data link

Physical Physical
Link 1 Link 3 Link 6
Link 5

D2 H2
Frame
D2 ame
Fr

H2

D2 H2 D2 H2
Frame Frame
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 Note

The unit of communication at the data link

layer is a frame.

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 Framing
 Data-link layer takes packets from Network Layer and encapsulates them into
Frames.
 Then, it sends each frame bit-by-bit on the physical layer.
 At receiver’ end, data link layer picks up signals from physical layer and assembles
them into frames.

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 Addressing

 Data-link layer provides layer-2 hardware addressing mechanism.

 Hardware address is assumed to be unique on the link. It is encoded into hardware at the
time of manufacturing.
 Hardware address is a 6-byte(48 bits) physical address (or MAC- Media Access Control
address) in hexadecimal;
 written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a
colon/hyphen, as shown below:
 Hardware address or a NIC’s address is permanent - a LAN address is burned into its
ROM during manufacturing

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 Error Detection and Correction

 mainly a data link layer function

 networks must be able to transfer data from one
device to another with complete accuracy - our
wish
 data can be corrupted during transmission - many
factors exist - like transmission impairments
 hence, reliable systems must have a mechanism for
detecting and correcting errors
 two types of errors: single-bit and burst
 single-bit error: only one bit in a data unit (byte,
character, packet, ...) has changed;
 while Burst is occurred when more bit are affected

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 Error Detection and Correction cont’d

 Two types of error-detecting codes: parity and CRC

 parity check: most common and simple; two varieties

single parity check 2-D parity check:

• Can also detect (but not correct) any combination of

two errors in a packet
❖detect single bit errors

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 Cyclic Redundancy Check

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 Error correction

error correction by retransmission:

• when an error is detected, the receiver will tell the sender to
retransmit the entire data unit; see next: Data Link Control

forward error correction:

• the receiver can use an error-correcting code to correct certain
errors;
• the hamming code is used to detect and correct errors; you
can read more if you are planning to implement error correction
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 Flow Control

 refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data that the sender can
send before receiving an acknowledgement
 A technique for speed-matching of transmitter and receiver

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Flow Control Protocols: Stop-and-Wait Flow Control

 sender sends one frame, stops until it

receives confirmation from the receiver
and then sends the next frame.
 only one frame can be transmitted at a
time  Inefficiency

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Flow Control Protocols: Sliding Window Flow Control

 sender can transmit several frames

continuously before needing an
acknowledgement (ACK)
 Each frame is numbered with k-bit
sequence number, allowing for 2k
sequence numbers
 Each frame’s number is 1 greater than
the previous frame and each ACK’s
number is the number of the next frame
expected by the receiver

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 Error Control

 refers to both error detection and error correction

 in the data link layer, error control refers primarily to methods of error
detection and retransmission
 anytime an error is detected, specified frames are retransmitted; this
process is called automatic repeat request (ARQ)

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 Error Control…

Requirements for error control mechanism:

 Error detection - The sender and receiver, either both or any, must
ascertain that there is some error in the transit.
 Positive ACK - When the receiver receives a correct frame, it should
acknowledge it.
 Negative ACK - When the receiver receives a damaged frame or a
duplicate frame, it sends a NACK back to the sender and the sender
must retransmit the correct frame.
 Retransmission: The sender maintains a clock and sets a timeout
period. If an acknowledgement of a data-frame previously transmitted
does not arrive before the timeout the sender retransmits the frame,
thinking that the frame or it’s acknowledgement is lost in transit.

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 Multi-Access

 When host on the shared link tries to transfer the data, it has a high probability of
collision.
 Data-link layer provides random access mechanism such as CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA
to equip capability of accessing a shared media among multiple Systems.
 There are other multiple access protocols such as
 Controlled-Access Protocols - get permission
 Reservation
 Polling
 Token Passing Reading(Try your best to understand each)
 Channelization Protocols - simultaneous use
 FDMA - Frequency-Division MA
 TDMA - Time-Division MA
 CDMA - Code-Division MA
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Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

 Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection is a technique for multiple

access protocols.
 If no transmission is taking place at the time, the particular station can transmit.
 If two stations attempt to transmit simultaneously, this causes a collision, which is
detected by all participating stations. The devices will wait for random amount of
time.(Back off)
 After a random time interval, the stations that collided attempt to transmit again.
 If another collision occurs, the time intervals from which the random waiting
time is selected are increased step by step. This is known as exponential back off.
 Specially designed for ethernet not for Wi-Fi due to
❑Collision detection is difficult for Wi-Fi network due to limited radio range and
hidden node problem

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 CSMA/CA

NB: Both RTS & CTS frame includes the duration of time that source needs to occupy the channel-transfer duration
NAV(network animation vector): a period the other station should wait before starting checking for channel idleness

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 OSI Lower Layers

Physical

Data Link

Network
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 OSI Network Layer
 A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to
destination→ routing
 path determination
 Routes can be based on static tables that are ''wired into'' the network and rarely
changed, and can be highly dynamic, being determined a new for each packet
 When two network connected for communication:
 There may be addressing difference
 Protocol difference
 Packet size of each can be different
 It is up to the network layer to overcome all these problems to allow
heterogeneous networks to be interconnected.

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 Network Layer has 4 basic functions:

 Internetworking
 Addressing
 Packetizing
 Fragmentation
 Routing
 Main functions of routers (network layer devices)
 Routing (Path determination): selecting best path b/n end devices
 Routing protocols(RIP, OSPF, BGP)
 Forwarding: move packets from router’s input to appropriate router output

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 Legend Source Destination D Data H Header
A R1 R3 R4 B
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D3 H3
Datagram

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Datagram
 Internetworking

▪ internetworking refers to the logical gluing of heterogeneous physical networks together

to look like a single network to the upper transport and application layers

▪ the above internetwork is made up of 5 networks: 4 LANs and 1 WAN

▪ Si: switch or router; fi: interface
▪ data sent from A to D passes through 3 links
▪ nomenclature:
▪ the source and the destinations are usually referred to as hosts
▪ a host or a router is referred to as a hop
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 Packetizing and Fragmenting

Packetizing:
• encapsulates packets received from upper-layer protocols and makes new packets out of
them; done by the IP protocol in the Internet model
Fragmenting:
• a datagram can travel through different networks; each router decapsulates the IP
datagram from the received frame, processes it, and then encapsulates it in another frame
• the format and size of the
• received frame depends on the protocol used by the physical network from which the
frame has just arrived
• departing frame depends on the protocol used by the physical network to which the
frame is going

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 Addressing

To uniquely and universally identify each device on the internet to allow global
communication between all devices

Analogous to the telephone system; the department of computer science: 251 011
1222922, wherever you are on the globe

Each address belongs to a single host, but a single host can have multiple addresses (if it
has multiple connections to the internet)

The identifier used in the network layer of the internet model is called the internet
address or IP address

It is a 32-bit binary address (in ipv4)

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 Network layer protocols

 There are 5 network layer protocols in the TCP/IP

 The main protocol is IP, the glue that holds the whole internet together and
responsible for host-to-host delivery
 It needs the services of other protocols
 ARP (address resolution protocol) - maps an IP address to a MAC address (of
the next hop)
 RARP (reverse ARP) - maps a MAC address to an IP address; usually used in
some situations such as when a diskless host is booted; it gets the binary
image of its operating system from a remote file server but does not know its IP
address; obsolete, replaced by DHCP- dynamic host configuration protocol
 ICMP (internet control message protocol) - to handle unusual situations
such as the occurrence of an error
 IGMP (internet group management protocol) - for multicasting since IP is
designed for unicast delivery;

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 OSI Upper Layers

Transport

Session

Presentation

Application
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 OSI Transport Layer

 Isolates messages from lower and upper layers

 Segmentation: Breaks down message size
 Error control and flow control: Monitors quality of communications
channel
 Selects most efficient communication service(connection oriented and
connection less transmission service) necessary for a given transmission

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 Transport layer Functions

 Process to process communication

 Addressing: port numbers
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
 Multiplexing and demultiplexing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Congestion control

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data link layer: node-to-node delivery

network layer: host-to-host delivery

transport layer: process-to-process delivery

several processes may be running on the source as

well as the destination; an addressing mechanism is
required

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Packetizing
• the transport layer creates packets out of the
message received from the application layer
• it divides a long message into smaller ones
called segments; they are then encapsulated
into the data field of the transport-layer
packet and headers are added

Addressing
• at the data link layer, we need a MAC address
• at the network layer, we need an IP address
• at the transport layer, we need a transport-layer
address, called a port number, to choose among
several processes [0-65,535]
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 Socket address

❖ process-to-process delivery needs two addresses: IP address and port

number at each end
❖ the combination of an IP address and a port number is called a socket
address

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 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

 the addressing mechanism allows multiplexing and demultiplexing by the transport

layer since there may be several processes that need to send packets, but there is
only one transport-layer protocol (UDP or TCP)

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 Connection Control Services: Connection less and connection oriented

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

connectionless and unreliable reliable, but complex
no flow or error control, no retransmission if data is Error control, Loss control, Sequence control,
corrupted or lost Duplication control,
convenient for Convenient for:
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Remote
• multimedia and multicasting applications login – TELNET, Email – SMTP, World Wide Web –
• for client-server situations HTTP etc.
• e.g., DNS can use UDP, give me the IP address of
the host name www.hu.edu.et

Some well known ports used by UDP(more : Some well known ports used by TCP(more :
www.iana.org ) www.iana.org )
DNS 53 Telnet 23
Echo 7 FTP:Data: 20
TFTP 69 FTP: Control: 21
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 TCP Connection management

 Connection setup (three-way handshake) and connection termination in TCP look as

follows:
 TCP requires connection establishment before data transfer begins.
 For a connection to be established or initialized, the two hosts must synchronize
their Initial Sequence Numbers (ISNs).

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 TCP Transmission
 Reliable delivery in TCP is realized using acknowledgement
 Stop-and-wait protocol scenarios

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 OSI Upper Layers

Transport

Session

Presentation

Application
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 OSI Session Layer

 Establishes logical connections between systems

 Manages log-ons, password exchange, log-offs
 Terminates connection at end of session

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 OSI Upper Layers

Transport

Session

Presentation

Application
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 OSI Presentation Layer

 Provides format conversion or translation (original message → machine

understandable language)
 Data compression
 Maintain data Integrity through encryption and decryption
 SSL(Secure socket layer ) is a protocol used for data encryption

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 OSI Upper Layers

Transport

Session

Presentation

Application
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 OSI Application Layer

 Provides access to network for end-user

 receives services from the transport layer and provides services to users (humans or
software)
 provides user interfaces and support services such as email, remote file access and
transfer, access to the WWW.

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 Receives services from the transport layer and provides services to users
(humans or software)
 Provides user interfaces and support services such as email, remote file
access and transfer, access to the WWW
 Three general issues related to the application layer:
 the client-server paradigm,
 addressing, and services

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 The Client-Server Model

 to do a task, there must be a client and a server

 a computer runs a program to either request a service from another computer (client) or to
provide a service to another computer (server)
 communication takes the form of the client process sending a message to the server process
and then waiting for a reply
 a client program runs when needed, but the server program runs all the time

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 Addressing

A client and a server communicate with each other using addresses

Addressing mechanism in the application layer is different from the ones in other layers

•email address: [email protected]

•Web page (host name): http://www.hu.edu.et

These are aliases convenient for human beings; they must be mapped to IP addresses

An application program needs the services of another program for this; this application program is called DNS -
domain name system: it uses port 53

It is not directly used by the user; but by application programs to perform the mapping

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 Domain Name Resolution

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 Application Layer Services

 Electronic mail
 SMTP: simple mail transfer protocol
 MIME: multipurpose internet mail extensions
 POP3 : post office protocol 3
 IMAP : internet mail access protocol
 Webmail
 File transfer (FTP - file transfer protocol)
 HTTP - hypertext transfer protocol for accessing data on the WWW
 Www
 Multimedia

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Application Services protocols Remarks
File transfer Protocol FTP used to send and received file from a remote host

Simple mail Transfer protocol SMTP Used to only send Email over a network

Hyper text transfer protocol HTTP Used for Internet to send document that encoded in HTML

Post Office Protocol 3 POP3 the whole mailbox will be cleared (transferred) from server to local computer;
view mail only once

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions MIME allows non-ASCII data to be sent using the existing mail programs and protocols
it transforms non-ASCII data at the sender site to ASCII and back to non-ASCII
at the receiving site

Internet Mail Access Protocol IMAP IMAP is similar to POP3 but with the following additional features
a user can: check the email header prior to downloading, search the contents of
the email for a specific string, partially download, email;

allows you to download emails from your email server onto multiple devices.
It keeps your messages on the email server.

Multimedia the combination of text, graphics, images, video and audio used together; at least
one must be continuous (time-dependent like audio, video, animation)

Webmail some websites provide email service to anyone

examples are Yahoo and Hotmail

World Wide Web WWW a repository of information spread all over the world and linked together;
strings of text within a page that link to other documents are called
hyperlinks
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 Summary of OSI Layers

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summary

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