Economic Effective Ultrasonic

Calibration Standards
By Mark B. Palynchuk, Western Instruments Inc.
www.westerninstruments.com

Calibration (Reference) Standards are required for a standardized and

reproducible reference on which to base acceptance and rejection of “naturally”
occurring defects. Calibration Standards have “artificial defects” machined into
them that are required by either industry specifications, by end users or for
internal control so that initial and periodic calibration of non-destructive testing
equipment can be verified. Calibration ensures that the equipment accepts or
rejects injurious defects with respect to the artificial defect on a repeatable basis.

Calibration Standards for ultrasonic testing are based on the energy reflected
from an artificial defect, however, some specifications also require verification at
mill or conveyer lines speeds. Speed criteria involves energy reflected within a
period of time that must also be considered to ensure that minimum sized defects
are detected.

Historical Background
In the early years of ultrasonic testing for weld defects, notches were used as
artificial defects, because of their previous use as in manual testing, in part
because large transducer elements were being used, obviously at low speeds.
Notches provided a
means of aligning the
transducer with respect
to the longitudinal axis
of the tube and in turn
the weld. First multi-
channel weld testers
were developed to deal
with geometric
characteristics of
defects. [See Figure 1]

The advent of radio

frequency welding, and
increased material
strengths required the
ability to detect short
penetrator type of Figure 1: Sensitivity zones to address OD/ID and LEFT/RIGHT defect
defects. Short, small geometry.
defect detection

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necessitated the development of high speed alarm monitors and improved
transducer technology as it became obvious that the large transducer elements
of the day were not suitable.

Figure 2a) Reflection from flat Figure 2c) Reflection from end
Figure 2b) Reflection from drilled
bottom half hole is not reflected half hole reflects back energy, hole
back. increasing effective reflected
energy

Multi-channel testing was

first introduced in a practical
form in approximately 1960
by a pipe manufacturer. The
probe characteristics are
important but are beyond the
scope of this paper.

To ensure defects were

detected at mill line or
conveyor line speeds it was
recognized that much higher
pulse repetition frequencies
Figure 3A: Crush test of a typical defect picked up by Ultrasonic were required. Initial pulse
testing methods
repetition frequencies were
in the 60 Hz to 90 Hz and
today rates are typically well over 1000 Hz. The combination of low pulse
repetition frequency, large transducers along with inadequate monitors did not
permit the detection of short, small defects and this resulted in the abandonment
of hundreds and even thousands of miles of pipelines (essentially unpublicized).

It is apparent a drilled hole is far more representative of penetrator type defect.

The multi-channel testing systems demonstrated the need for balancing
sensitivity to ID and OD type. Coupled with increasing need to detect a
penetrator type of defects, the concept of half holes from the ID and the OD as
well as through holes was utilized due to their sound reflection areas.

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 Furthermore, as wall
thickness’ got even
heavier and the wall
thickness to diameter
ratios decreased, an
additional concern
about the sensitivity to
detect mid-wall defects
was raised. This mid-
Figure 3B: Tipical defect wall concern lead to the
picked up by Ultrasonic Test
Methods. development of holes
drilled into the end of
calibrations standards ensuring both probes
could identify half holes on the opposite side.
[See Figure 2a) 2b) 2c) and Figure 3]

Machined Notches
As previously referred to, notches evolved out of
their use in manual testing. Notches are
typically 1” to 2” long and are specified for
calibration standards. It has been found that to Figure 3c) [Left]: Photomicrograph of a
obtain reproducibility testing from one direction defect picked up by Ultrasonic testing.
Figure 3d) [Right]: Photomicrograph of a
and then the other direction, and going from one defect picked using ultrasonic testing.
standard to another, it is expensive to set these
up (Capital Costs) whether Electro-Discharge Machining or custom machines are
used. Furthermore, it is expensive to reproduce, particularly the time to do all the
checking of the setups that are required and requires significant skill
development to produce these. [See Figure 4a), b), and c)]
Furthermore, notches are a representation of surface defects and open seams.
They do provide the facility for checking the alignment of the probe to the
centerline. They are very useful as a quick reference as they are long and highly
reflective. We will discuss an alternate method of checking the probe alignment
to the axis of the tube.

Drilled Holes
Holes as can be seen in the Figures 2a) to 2c) are far more representative of
short, small defects. The actual reflective area is not the diameter of the hole,
but is a fraction of it as is illustrated in the Figures 4a) and 4b). Holes are
relatively inexpensive to reproduce and the procedures for doing these are well
established.

Half holes ensure mid-wall sensitivity when using multi-channel units on heavier
wall thickness’. As mentioned previously, holes represent short defects and
small reflective area defects. It is important for half holes to be flat bottom and
illustration 2b) shows the reason for this.

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However, no matter how small a hole you calibrate your system on and its
capability to detect such small defects, ultrasound is not capable of picking up
metallurgical differences such as those found in cold, or paste welds, because
unless there is a physical reflection which will reflect ultrasound there is no
meaningful test. Cold and paste welds can be detected by ultrasound but only if
there is a reflector type of defect associated with such metallurgical conditions.
[See Reference]
An alternate method for checking the alignment of the probe with respect to the
axis of the pipe is the use of a hole drilled into the end of a calibration standard,
(Figure 2c) as has been previously discussed, for checking on the sensitivity to
mid-wall defects because this also provides a very large reflector similar to a
notch. Again, these are relatively easy and inexpensive to produce as compared
to good quality notches.

Figure 4a) Reflection from a 10% Figure 4b) Reflection for a 5% Figure 4c) Reflection from drilled
notch. The defect area is below the notch. The defect area is below the through hole. The defect area is
notch. notch. centered where the largest power
per unit area is. That is along the
central path from the transducer

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Comparison and Analysis of Reflective Areas
The following analysis is a simplified model that illustrates the differences
between the two types of artificial defects described herein. Further, it applies
the results to a real world, “natural” defect that yields order of magnitude results.
Some assumptions are; the probe is a contact probe with a square, 0.5” x 0.5”,
transducer produces sound waves that travel along parallel rays, the tube is
represented by a flat plate 0.25” thick to simplify the geometry (small diameter
tubing would require a more rigorous treatment), the same probe is used on the
notch and the through hole, and that the characteristics will be similar to both
artificial defects.
Calculations of the effective reflective area to the pipe for a 1/8” through hole give
0.025” x 0.250”. If we calibrate this drilled hole to 100% of signal on our display,
we can estimate the % signal that a specific size defect will make. For example,
if we choose a typical defect like figure 3a) with dimensions 0.021” x 0.138”. The
ratio of power input to power returned is equal to the ratio of the areas squared.
Taking the base ten logarithm and multiplying by 10 will give us the dB drop of
the signal. From this we can calculate the % signal produced by the typical
defect. For a typical gain setting of 50 dB the defect will be represented by an
87% signal. For a 10% notch the effective area will be (0.025” x 0.50”). This
results in a gain setting for the 10% notch (relative to the typical gain for the 1/8”
drilled through hole) of 44 dB to obtain 100%. The notch calibration however
only returns about half the effective area of the typical defect because it is
located mid-wall not at the OD where maximum signal in a notch is located and
calibrated to. Therefore, a typical defect will then be represented by a 57%
signal. The 5% notch will have the same relative gain setting of 50 dB with a
typical defect being represented by a 75% signal. Typical gate levels are 80%
for reject and 60% for warning. The defect calibrated on a 1/8” through hole is
easily picked up by the reject gate. The 10% notch however does not even trip
the warning gate, while the 5% notch trips the warning but is significantly below
the reject gate.

Selection of Materials for Calibration Standards

Sections of pipe that are representative of the materials being produced must be
used. This includes diameter, wall thickness, shape and metallurgy. The area of
the tube where the artificial defects are to be generated should be checked
ultrasonically to ensure that there are no internal reflectors that would complicate
the use of the calibration standards. It is generally preferable to select areas in
the 3 or 9 o’clock positions. The testing should include both compression and
shear wave to ensure the pipe section is clear of such internal reflectors. Going
to these precautions avoids having to reject calibration standards after all the
expense has been incurred in generating them.

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Summary
As shown in the previous part of this paper, the actual reflecting area of a hole as
an artificial defect is not the diameter of the hole, but is very much reduced as
can be seen from the graphical representation of an ultrasound beam interacting
with a hole and a notch. Reflection from the hole is illustrated as shown in Figure
4c).

It is important for each manufacturer to determine the type of defects that are
injurious for the particular products that are manufactured by a mill. If the short
defects that have been emphasized in this paper are not of a concern, then the
use of notches is certainly a viable approach. However, with the increasing
demand for uses of welded tubular products such as boiler tubes, oil country
tubulars (including line pipe), tubes used for hydro-forming, drawn over mandrill
products, etc., notches are not applicable.

Figure 5a): Micro of small hook cracks near weld Figure 5b): SEM of tip of crack in 5a) Magnification
interface similar to a weld line defect. 67X

Figure 5c): SEM of 5a) Magnification 2,810X Figure 5d): SEM of Figure 5a) X-Ray spectrum

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REFERENCE:
Cold Weld Detection: Non-Destructive Testing Means & Experimental Review,
A. Palynchuk, Tube 2000 June 1998

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