This chapter summarizes the biological and cultural evolution of early humans from Australopithecus to Homo Sapiens.

It describes biological evolution as genetic changes

from generation to generation that are studied through physical remains. Cultural evolution refers to developments in human culture studied through analyzing lifestyle
changes. Key hominid categories discussed are Australopithecus, Homo Habilis, Homo Erectus, and Homo Sapiens. Traits like upright walking, increasing brain size, tool
use, and shelter building are noted as major developments.

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 ❖ Our ancestors were apes
❖ Hominid evolution progressed along a
single linear track directly from primitive
ancestor to modern form.

Misconceptions:

1) Our ancestors were apes

Contrary to popular belief, evolutionists do not claim we evolved directly from apes. More likely, we evolved from a common ancestor. In other words we are related to
apes, but did not necessarily evolve from them.

2) Hominid evolution progressed along a single linear track directly from primitive ancestor to modern form.
Most evolutionists acknowledge assert that hominids evolved several branches (more like a bush than a stick) and that some of these branches overlapped in time and
space.

2
❖

3
❖It refers to the changes,
modifications, and
variations in the
genetics and inherited
traits of biological
populations from one
generation to another

Scientists study the changes in the physical body of humans, the changes in the shape and size of the
bones

4
❖It refers to the
changes or
development in
cultures from a
simple to a more
complex form of
human culture.

Scientists study the cultural evolution of humans by analyzing the changes in their way of life

5
Born: February 12, 1809,
The Mount House, Shrewsbury, United
Kingdom
Died: April 19, 1882 (age 73 years),
Home of Charles Darwin - Down House,
Downe, United Kingdom
Awards: Copley Medal, Fellow of the Royal
Society, Royal Medal, Wollaston Medal
Influenced: Sigmund Freud, Francis
Darwin, Richard Dawkins,
Education:
Christ's College Cambridge (1828–1831),

6
7
 On the Origin of Species (or,
more completely, On the
Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection, or the
Preservation of Favored
Races in the Struggle for Life)

A work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin that is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. It was published on 24 November 1859.[4] Darwin's book
introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection although Lamarckism was also included as a
mechanism of lesser importance. The book presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution.

8
❖ The evolution of species happens
through the process of Natural Selection
❖ The outcome processes that affect the
frequencies of traits in a particular
environment.
❖ Traits that enhance survival and
reproductive success increase in
frequency over time

9
10
se

Every species is made Organisms

up of a variety wherein produce progeny
some are adapted to with different sets
their environment of traits that can
compared to others be inherited

11
 Organisms that have
traits most suitable to
their environment will
survive and transfer
these variations to their
offspring in subsequent
generations

Darwin’s theory of evolution declared that species survived through a process called ‘Natural Selection”, where those that successfully adapted, or evolved, to meet the
changing requirements of their natural habitat thrived, while those that failed to evolve and reproduce died off.

Ember (2002) explains that one of the most controversial aspects of Darwin’s theory was the suggestion that one species could, over time, evolve into another.

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 ❖ The general term
used to categorize
the group of early
humans and other
humanlike
creatures that can
walk, erect during
the prehistoric era

It is one of the earliest members of the primate family Hominidae, containing humans, their immediate ancestors, and close extinct relatives

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 ❖ HOMO – is used to determine the
species of human beings
❖ HOMINIDS – is the direct ancestors
of homo species

Human Evolution – is the evolutionary process leading to the appearance of modern-day humans.

HOMO – is used to determine the species of human beings.

HOMINIDS – is the direct ancestors of homo species

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Stone tools have been used throughout human history but are most closely associated with prehistoric cultures and in particular those of the Stone Age.
The study of stone tools is a cornerstone of prehistoric archaeology because they are essentially indestructible and therefore a ubiquitous component of the archaeological
record.

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The Stone Age was nearly 500,000 years ago. During it, our ancient human relatives chopped down trees and used the wood to build tools and wedges. They also built
what could be the earliest known wooden structure.
In 2019, researchers came across primitive woodworking. They were digging through Kalombo Falls. It is an archaeological site in Central Africa’s Zambia. The group was
chiefly searching for stone works from an era called the Stone Age. This was a prehistoric time when stone was used to make sharp tools. The group did not expect to
discover a wooden platform structure or tools.
A modern dating technique called luminescence suggests that the large wooden objects are at least 476,000 years old. That’s 100,000 years before the existence of Homo
sapiens, or modern humans. This means that ancient hominins must have made them.

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Bone tools have been documented from the advent of Homo sapiens and are also known from Homo neanderthalensis contexts or even earlier. Bone has been used for
making tools by virtually all hunter-gatherer societies, even when other materials were readily available. Any part of the skeleton can potentially be utilized;
however, antlers and long bones provide some of the best working material. Long bone fragments can be shaped, by scraping against an abrasive stone, into such items
as arrow and spear points, needles, awls, and fish hooks.

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18
19
1. BODY SIZE – enormously body size
2. RELATIVE BRAIN SIZE – larger primates
usually have larger brains. Fruit-eating
primates tend to have larger brains than
leaf-eating primates.
3. TOOL MAKING - only human primates
such as apes use tools, although several
monkey species use “weapons” like
branches, stones, or fruit.
4. LANGUAGE – only humans have
symbolic spoken language. But early
human primates use alarms and sound

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SAHELANTHROPUS ARDIPITHECUS AUSTRALOPITHECUS

HOMO

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 6-7 million years old
It had both apelike and
humanlike characteristics:
❖ A skull similar to
Australopithecus and
modern humans
❖ Height almost similar with
the chimpanzee
❖ Brain size: 320-380 cc
❖ Small teeth
Sahelanthropus tchadensis
❖ Had the ability to walk
upright

Discovery Date: 2001

Where Lived: West-Central Africa (Chad) A research team of scientists led by French paleontologist Michael Brunet uncovered the fossils in 2001
When Lived: Sometime between 7 and 6 million years ago

Overview:
Sahelanthropus tchadensis is one of the oldest known species in the human family tree. This species lived sometime between 7 and 6 million years ago in West-Central
Africa (Chad). Walking upright may have helped this species survive in diverse habitats, including forests and grasslands. Although we have only cranial material
from Sahelanthropus, studies so far show this species had a combination of ape-like and human-like features. Ape-like features included a small brain (even slightly smaller
than a chimpanzee’s), sloping face, very prominent browridges, and elongated skull. Human-like features included small canine teeth, a short middle part of the face, and a
spinal cord opening underneath the skull instead of towards the back as seen in non-bipedal apes.

How do we know Sahelanthropus walked upright?

Some of the oldest evidence of a humanlike species moving about in an upright position comes from Sahelanthropus. The foramen magnum (the large opening where the
spinal cord exits out of the cranium from the brain) is located further forward (on the underside of the cranium) than in apes or any other primate except humans. This
feature indicates that the head of Sahelanthropus was held on an upright body, probably associated with walking on two legs.

History of Discovery:
The first (and, so far, only) fossils of Sahelanthropus are nine cranial specimens from northern Chad. A research team of scientists led by French paleontologist Michael
Brunet uncovered the fossils in 2001, including the type specimen TM 266-01-0606-1. Before 2001, early humans in Africa had only been found in the Great Rift Valley in
East Africa and sites in South Africa, so the discovery of Sahelanthropus fossils in West-Central Africa shows that the earliest humans were more widely distributed than
previously thought.

How They Survived:

Unfortunately, most of Sahelanthropus’ teeth are heavily worn, and there have not yet been studies of its tooth wear or tooth isotopes to indicate diet. However, we can
infer based on its environment and other early human species that it ate a mainly plant-based diet. This probably included leaves, fruit, seeds, roots, nuts, and insects.

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 5.6 million years old
Nickname: Ardi
Discovery Date: 1994
Where Lived: Eastern Africa
(Middle Awash and Gona,
Ethiopia)
❖ Height about 4 feet
❖ Weight about 120 pounds
❖ Small brain
❖ Biped
Ardipithecus ramidus ❖ Lived in jungles and forest
like chimpanzees

Nickname: Ardi
Discovery Date: 1994
Where Lived: Eastern Africa (Middle Awash and Gona, Ethiopia)
When Lived: About 4.4 million years ago

Height: Females: average 3 ft 11 inches (120 centimeters)

Weight: Females: average 110 lbs (50 kg)

Overview:
Ardipithecus ramidus was first reported in 1994; in 2009, scientists announced a partial skeleton, nicknamed ‘Ardi’. The foot bones in this skeleton indicate a divergent
large toe combined with a rigid foot – it's still unclear what this means concerning bipedal behavior. The pelvis, reconstructed from a crushed specimen, is said to show
adaptations that combine tree-climbing and bipedal activity. The discoverers argue that the ‘Ardi’ skeleton reflects a human-African ape common ancestor that was not
chimpanzee-like. A good sample of canine teeth of this species indicates very little difference in size between males and females in this species.

Ardi’s fossils were found alongside faunal remains indicating she lived in a wooded environment. This contradicts the open savanna theory for the origin of bipedalism,
which states that humans learned to walk upright as climates became drier and environments became more open and grassy.

History of Discovery:
A team led by American paleoanthropologist Tim White discovered the first Ardipithecus ramidus fossils in the Middle Awash area of Ethiopia between 1992 and 1994.
Since that time, White’s team have uncovered over 100 fossil specimens of Ar. ramidus . White and his colleagues gave their discovery the name Ardipithecus
ramidus (‘ramid’ means ‘root’ in the Afar language of Ethiopia and refers to the closeness of this new species to the roots of humanity, while ‘Ardi’ means ‘ground’ or
‘floor’). At the time of this discovery, the genus Australopithecus was scientifically well established, so White devised the genus name Ardipithecus to distinguish this new
genus from Australopithecus. In 2009, scientists formally announced and published the findings of a partial skeleton (ARA-VP-6/500), nicknamed "Ardi", first found in 1994.

How They Survived:

Ardipithecus ramidus individuals were most likely omnivores, which means they enjoyed more generalized diet of both plants, meat, and fruit. Ar. ramidus did not seem to
eat hard, abrasive foods like nuts and tubers.

How do we know they were omnivores?

The enamel on Ar. ramidus teeth remains show it was neither very thick nor very thin. If the enamel was thick, it would mean Ar. ramidus ate tough, abrasive foods. If the
enamel was thin, this would suggest Ar. ramidus ate softer foods such as fruit. Instead, A. ramidus has an enamel thickness between a chimpanzee’s and
later Australopithecus or Homo species, suggesting a mixed diet. However, the wear pattern and incisor sizes indicate Ar. ramidus was not a specialized frugivore (fruit-
eater). Ar. ramidus probably also avoided tough foods, as they did not have the heavy chewing specializations of later Australopithecus species.

23
How do we know they were omnivores?
The enamel on Ar. ramidus teeth remains show it was neither very thick nor very thin. If the enamel was thick, it would mean Ar. ramidus ate tough, abrasive foods. If the
enamel was thin, this would suggest Ar. ramidus ate softer foods such as fruit. Instead, A. ramidus has an enamel thickness between a chimpanzee’s and
later Australopithecus or Homo species, suggesting a mixed diet. However, the wear pattern and incisor sizes indicate Ar. ramidus was not a specialized frugivore (fruit-
eater). Ar. ramidus probably also avoided tough foods, as they did not have the heavy chewing specializations of later Australopithecus species.

24
 5 million years old
“The Southern Ape”
❖ Brain size: 500 cc or almost
1/3 size of the modern
human brain
❖ Upright
❖ Biped
❖ Tool users not tool makers
❖ Food scavengers
Australopithecus

Australopithecus, (genus Australopithecus), group of extinct primates closely related to, if not actually ancestors of, modern human beings and known from a series
of fossils found at numerous sites in eastern, north-central, and southern Africa. The various species of Australopithecus lived 4.4 million to 1.4 million years ago (mya),
during the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs (which lasted from 5.3 million to 11,700 years ago). The genus name, meaning “southern ape,” refers to the first fossils found,
which were discovered in South Africa. Perhaps the most famous specimen of Australopithecus is “Lucy,” a remarkably preserved fossilized skeleton from Ethiopia that has
been dated to 3.2 mya.

As characterized by the fossil evidence, members of Australopithecus bore a combination of humanlike and apelike traits. They were similar to modern humans in that
they were bipedal (that is, they walked on two legs), but, like apes, they had small brains. Their canine teeth were smaller than those found in apes, and their
cheek teeth were larger than those of modern humans.
hominid fossil sites in sub-Saharan AfricaA selection of locations in sub-Saharan Africa where hominid fossils have been found.(more)

The general term australopith (or australopithecine) is used informally to refer to members of the genus Australopithecus. Australopithecines include the
genus Paranthropus (2.3–1.2 mya), which comprises three species of australopiths—collectively called the “robusts” because of their very large cheek teeth set in massive
jaws. Non-australopithecine members of the human lineage (hominins) include Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7–6 mya), Orrorin tugenensis (6 mya), Ardipithecus
kadabba (5.8–5.2 mya), and Ar. ramidus (5.8–4.4 mya)—that is, pre-Australopithecus species that are considered to be ancient humans—and one additional species of
early human, Kenyanthropus platyops (3.5 mya). The first undisputed evidence of the genus Homo—the genus that includes modern human beings—appears as early as
2.8 mya, and some of the characteristics of Homo resemble those of earlier species of Australopithecus; however, considerable debate surrounds the identity of the
earliest species of Homo. In contrast, remains older than six million years are widely regarded to be those of fossil apes.

25
 There are 6 species of the Australopithecus and
they are divided into two major categories

Robust Gracile

Gracile:
Definition: "Gracile" comes from the Latin word "gracilis," meaning slender or delicate. It refers to a lighter, more slender body type and skeletal structure.
Characteristics: Gracile skeletons tend to have more delicate bones and smaller muscle attachment sites. In hominins, gracile forms generally have less pronounced
brow ridges, smaller teeth, and less robust jaw muscles.
Example: In the context of early human ancestors, species like Australopithecus afarensis are considered gracile.

Robust:
Definition: "Robust" comes from the Latin word "robustus," meaning strong or sturdy. It refers to a heavier, more robust body type and skeletal structure.
Characteristics: Robust skeletons have more pronounced muscle attachment sites, thicker bones, and generally larger teeth. In hominins, robust forms typically
show more pronounced brow ridges and stronger jaws.
Example: Species like Paranthropus boisei are considered robust due to their heavy and robust cranial features and large teeth.

These terms help anthropologists and paleontologists describe and classify different hominin species based on their physical characteristics and adaptations.

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 Australopithecus afarensis

Nickname: Lucy's species

Discovery Date: 1974
Where Lived: Eastern Africa
(Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania)
When Lived: Between about
3.85 and 2.95 million years ago

Height: Males: average 4 ft 11 in (151 cm); Females: average 3 ft 5 in (105 cm)

Weight: Males: average 92 lbs (42 kg) ; Females: average 64 lbs (29 kg)

Overview:

Australopithecus afarensis is one of the longest-lived and best-known early human species—paleoanthropologists have uncovered remains from more than 300
individuals! Found between 3.85 and 2.95 million years ago in Eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania), this species survived for more than 900,000 years, which is over
four times as long as our own species has been around. It is best known from the sites of Hadar, Ethiopia (‘Lucy’, AL 288-1 and the 'First Family', AL 333); Dikika, Ethiopia
(Dikika ‘child’ skeleton); and Laetoli (fossils of this species plus the oldest documented bipedal footprint trails).
Similar to chimpanzees, Au. afarensis children grew rapidly after birth and reached adulthood earlier than modern humans. This meant Au. afarensis had a shorter period
of growing up than modern humans have today, leaving them less time for parental guidance and socialization during childhood.

Au. afarensis had both ape and human characteristics: members of this species had apelike face proportions (a flat nose, a strongly projecting lower jaw) and braincase
(with a small brain, usually less than 500 cubic centimeters -- about 1/3 the size of a modern human brain), and long, strong arms with curved fingers adapted for climbing
trees. They also had small canine teeth like all other early humans, and a body that stood on two legs and regularly walked upright. Their adaptations for living both in the
trees and on the ground helped them survive for almost a million years as climate and environments changed.

History of Discovery:
The species was formally named in 1978 following a wave of fossil discoveries at Hadar, Ethiopia, and Laetoli, Tanzania. Subsequently, fossils found as early as the 1930s
have been incorporated into this taxon.

How They Survived:

Au. afarensis had mainly a plant-based diet, including leaves, fruit, seeds, roots, nuts, and insects… and probably the occasional small vertebrates, like lizards.
How do we know what Au. afarensis ate?
Paleoanthropologists can tell what Au. afarensis ate from looking at the remains of their teeth. Dental microwear studies indicate they ate soft, sugar-rich fruits, but their
tooth size and shape suggest that they could have also eaten hard, brittle foods too – probably as ‘fallback’ foods during seasons when fruits were not available.

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 Australopithecus anamensis

Discovery Date: 1995

Where Lived: Eastern Africa
(Lake Turkana, Kenya and
Middle Awash, Ethiopia)
When Lived: About 4.2 to 3.8
million years ago

Australopithecus anamensis has a combination of traits found in both apes and humans. The upper end of the tibia (shin bone) shows an expanded area of bone and a
human-like orientation of the ankle joint, indicative of regular bipedal walking (support of body weight on one leg at the time). Long forearms and features of the wrist
bones suggest these individuals probably climbed trees as well. The cranium combines some more ancestral features, such as a protruding face and a long and narrow
braincase, with some more derived features, such as forwardly projecting cheekbones similar to Paranthropus.

History of Discovery:
In 1965, a research team led by Bryan Patterson from Harvard University discovered a single arm bone (KNM-KP 271) of an early human at the site of Kanapoi in northern
Kenya. But without additional human fossils, Patterson could not confidently identify the species to which it belonged. In 1994, a research team led by paleoanthropologist
Meave Leakey found numerous teeth and fragments of bone at the same site. Leakey and her colleagues determined that the fossils were those of a very primitive
hominin and they named a new species called Australopithecus anamensis (‘anam’ means ‘lake’ in the Turkana lanaguage). Researchers have since found other Au.
anamensis fossils at nearby sites (including Allia Bay), all of which date between about 4.2 million and 3.9 million years old. In 2019, a team led by Yohannes Haile-Selassie
announced a nearly complete Au. anamensis cranium from Woranso-Mille, Ethiopia, dated to 3.8 million years ago.

How They Survived:

Australopithecus anamensis individuals had thickly-built, long, narrow jaws with their side rows of teeth arranged in parallel lines. Their strong jaws combined with heavily
enameled teeth suggest Au. anamensis individuals may at times have eaten hard, abrasive foods, but they likely were plant-eaters in general, relying on both fruits and
tough foods such as nuts. The sites where remains of Au. anamensis have been found were forests and woodlands that grew around lakes.

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 Australopithecus africanus

Discovery Date: 1924

Where Lived: Southern Africa
(South Africa)
When Lived: About 3.3 to 2.1
million years ago

Au. africanus was anatomically similar to Au. afarensis, with a combination of human-like and ape-like features.
The Taung child, found in 1924, was the first to establish that early fossil humans occurred in Africa. After Prof. Raymond Dart described it and named the
species Australopithecus africanus (meaning southern ape of Africa), it took more than 20 years for the scientific community to widely accept Australopithecus as a
member of the human family tree.

The hunter or the hunted?

No stone tools have been discovered in the same sediments as Au. africanus fossils; however, for a long time researchers believed Au. africanus was a hunter. Raymond
Dart created the term ‘osteodontokeratic’ culture (osteo = bone, donto = tooth, keratic = horn) in the 1940s and 1950s because remains of this species were found
alongside broken animal bones. Dart assumed these broken animal bones, teeth and horns were used by Au. africanus as weapons; however, in the 1970s and 1980s,
other scientists began to recognize that predators such as lions, leopards, and hyenas were instead responsible for leaving these broken animal bones. These predators
even ate Au. africanus individuals, too.
Despite the carnivorous preferences of their contemporaneous predators, Au. africanus individuals had a diet similar to modern chimpanzees, which consisted of fruit,
plants, nuts, seeds, roots, insects, and eggs.

How do we know what they ate?

Scientists can tell what Au. africanus may have eaten from looking at the remains of their teeth---tooth-size, shape, and tooth-wear can all provide diet clues. Dental
microwear studies found more scratches than pits on Au. africanus teeth compared to a contemporaneous species, P. robustus. This pattern indicates that Au.
africanus ate tough foods but also had a very variable diet including softer fruits and plants.

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 Australopithecus aethiopicus

Discovery Date: originally

proposed in 1967
Where Lived: Eastern Africa
(Turkana basin of northern
Kenya, southern Ethiopia)
When Lived: About 2.7 to 2.3
million years ago

Overview:

Paranthropus aethiopicus is still much of a mystery to paleoanthropologists, as very few remains of this species have been found. The discovery of the 2.5 million year old
’Black Skull’ in 1985 helped define this species as the earliest known robust australopithecine. P. aethiopicus has a strongly protruding face, large megadont teeth, a
powerful jaw, and a well-developed sagittal crest on top of skull, indicating huge chewing muscles, with a strong emphasis on the muscles that connected toward the back
of the crest and created strong chewing forces on the front teeth.

History of Discovery:
Paranthropus aethiopicus was originally proposed in 1967 by a team of French paleontologists to describe a toothless partial mandible (Omo 18) that was thought to differ
enough from the mandibles of the early human species known at that time. This naming of a new species was generally dismissed; many paleoanthropologists thought it
premature to name a new species on the basis of a single incomplete mandible. In 1985, when Alan Walker and Richard Leakey discovered the famous "Black Skull" west of
Lake Turkana in Kenya, the classification reemerged. With its mixture of derived and primitive traits, KNM-WT 17000 validated, in the eyes of many scientists, the
recognition of a new "robust" australopithecine species dating to at least 2.5 million years ago in eastern Africa.

How They Survived:

The shape and large size of the teeth indicate a largely vegetarian diet.

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 Australopithecus robustus

Discovery Date: 1938

Where Lived: Southern Africa
(South Africa)
When Lived: About 1.8 to 1.2
million years ago

Height: Males: average 3 ft 9 in (1.2 m) tall; Females: average just under 3 ft 3 in (1 m)

Weight: Males: average 119 lbs (54 kg); Females: average 88 lbs (40 kg)

Overview:
Paranthropus robustus is an example of a robust australopithecine; they had very large megadont cheek teeth with thick enamel and focused their chewing in the back of
the jaw. Large zygomatic arches (cheek bones) allowed the passage of large chewing muscles to the jaw and gave P. robustus individuals their characteristically wide, dish-
shaped face. A large sagittal crest provided a large area to anchor these chewing muscles to the skull. These adaptations provided P. robustus with the ability of grinding
down tough, fibrous foods. It is now known that ‘robust’ refers solely to tooth and face size, not to the body size of P. robustus.

History of Discovery:
When scientist Robert Broom bought a fossil jaw fragment and molar in 1938 that didn’t look anything like some of the Au. africanus fossils he’d found during his
career, he knew he was on to something different. After exploring Kromdraai, South Africa, the site where the curious fossils came from, Broom collected many more
bones and teeth that together convinced him he had a new species which he named Paranthropus robustus (Paranthropus meaning “beside man”).

How They Survived:

Robust species like Paranthropus robustus had large teeth as well as a ridge on top of the skull, where strong chewing muscles attached. These features allowed
individuals to crush and grind hard foods such as nuts, seeds, roots, and tubers in the back of the jaw; however, P. robustus didn’t just eat tough foods. This early human
species may have been more of a dietary generalist, also eating variety of other foods such as soft fruits and possibly young leaves, insects, and meat.
While scientists have not found any stone tools associated with Paranthropus robustus fossils, experiments and microscopic studies of bone fragments show that these
early humans probably used bones as tools to dig in termite mounds. Through repeated use, the ends of these tools became rounded and polished. Termites are rich in
protein, and would have been a nutritious source of food for Paranthropus.

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 Australopithecus boisei

Discovery Date: 1959

Where Lived: Eastern Africa
(Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania,
Malawi)
When Lived: About 2.3 to 1.2
million years ago

Height: Males: average 4 ft 6 in (137 cm); Females: average 4 ft 1 in (124 cm)

Weight: Males: average 108 lbs (49 kg); Females: average 75 lbs (34 kg)

Overview:
Like other members of the Paranthropus genus, P. boisei is characterized by a specialized skull with adaptations for heavy chewing. A strong sagittal crest on the midline of
the top of the skull anchored the temporalis muscles (large chewing muscles) from the top and side of the braincase to the lower jaw, and thus moved the massive jaw up
and down. The force was focused on the large cheek teeth (molars and premolars). Flaring cheekbones gave P. boisei a very wide and dish-shaped face, creating a larger
opening for bigger jaw muscles to pass through and support massive cheek teeth four times the size of a modern human’s. This species had even larger cheek teeth than P.
robustus, a flatter, bigger-brained skull than P. aethiopicus, and the thickest dental enamel of any known early human. Cranial capacity in this species suggests a slight rise
in brain size (about 100 cc in 1 million years) independent of brain enlargement in the genus Homo.

History of Discovery:
Paleoanthropologists actually found the first fossils belonging to P. boisei in 1955, but it wasn’t until Mary Leakey’s 1959 discovery of the ‘Zinj’ skull (OH 5) that scientists
knew what they had found was a new species. ‘Zinj’ became the type specimen for P. boisei and, soon after, arguably the most famous early human fossil from Olduvai
Gorge in northern Tanzania.

How They Survived:

This species was nicknamed Nutcracker Man for its big teeth and strong chewing muscles, which attached to the large crest on the skull. Those features show
that Paranthropus boisei likely ate tough foods like roots and nuts. But dental microwear patterns seen on P. boisei teeth are more similar to living fruit-eaters with fine
striations, rather than large, deep pits seen in the teeth of living species that eat grass, tough leaves and stems, or other hard, brittle foods. While the morphology of P.
boisei skull and teeth indicate it could have chewed hard or tough foods, dental microwear analysis does not demonstrate that they regularly did so, suggesting a wider,
more diverse diet for P. boisei. It's possible that this species only ate hard or tough foods during times when its preferred resources were scarce, relying on them as
fallback foods.

This species lived in environments that were dominated by grasslands but also included more closed, wet habitats associated with rivers and lakes.

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41
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The footprints of our predecessors
The Laetoli footprints were most likely made by Australopithecus afarensis, an early human whose fossils were found in the same sediment layer. The entire footprint trail
is almost 27 m (88 ft) long and includes impressions of about 70 early human footprints. 3.6 million years ago in Laetoli, Tanzania, three early humans walked through wet
volcanic ash. When the nearby volcano erupted again, subsequent layers of ash covered and preserved the oldest known footprints of early humans.

Team members led by paleontologist Mary Leakey stumbled upon animal tracks cemented in the volcanic ash in 1976, but it wasn’t until 1978 that Paul Abell joined
Leakey’s team and found the 88ft (27m) long footprint trail referred to now as “The Laetoli Footprints,” which includes about 70 early human footprints.

The early humans that left these prints were bipedal and had big toes in line with the rest of their foot. This means that these early human feet were more human-like
than ape-like, as apes have highly divergent big toes that help them climb and grasp materials like a thumb does. The footprints also show that the gait of these early
humans was "heel-strike" (the heel of the foot hits first) followed by "toe-off" (the toes push off at the end of the stride)—the way modern humans walk.

The close spacing of the footprints is evidence that the people who left them had a short stride, and therefore probably had short legs. It is not until much later that early
humans evolved longer legs, enabling them to walk farther, faster, and cover more territory each day.

How do we know these are early human footprints?

The shape of the feet, along with the length and configuration of the toes, show that the Laetoli Footprints were made by an early human, and the only known early
human in the region at that time was Au. afarensis. In fact, fossils of Au. afarensis were found nearby to the footprints and in the same sediment layer, telling scientists
that Au. afarensis was in the area at the same time the footprints were left.

Exhibit Item
Site: Laetoli, Tanzania
Year of Discovery: 1978
Discovered by: Mary Leakey and Paul Abell
Age: About 3.6 million years old

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Nickname: Handy Man
Discovery Date: 1960
Where Lived: Eastern and Southern Africa
When Lived: 2.4 million to 1.4 million years ago

Height: average 3 ft 4 in - 4 ft 5 in (100 - 135 cm)

Weight: average 70 lbs (32 kg)

Overview:
This species, one of the earliest members of the genus Homo, has a slightly larger braincase and smaller face and teeth than in Australopithecus or older hominin species.
But it still retains some ape-like features, including long arms and a moderately-prognathic face.
Its name, which means ‘handy man’, was given in 1964 because this species was thought to represent the first maker of stone tools. Currently, the oldest stone tools are
dated slightly older than the oldest evidence of the genus Homo.

History of Discovery:
A team led by scientists Louis and Mary Leakey uncovered the fossilized remains of a unique early human between 1960 and 1963 at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The type
speciman, OH 7, was found by Jonathan Leakey, so was nicknamed "Jonny's child". Because this early human had a combination of features different from those seen
in Australopithecus, Louis Leakey, South African scientist Philip Tobias, and British scientist John Napier declared these fossils a new species, and called them Homo
habilis (meaning 'handy man'), because they suspected that it was this slightly larger-brained early human that made the thousands of stone tools also found at Olduvai
Gorge.

How They Survived:

Early Homo had smaller teeth than Australopithecus, but their tooth enamel was still thick and their jaws were still strong, indicating their teeth were still adapted chewing
some hard foods (possibly only seasonally when their preferred foods became less available). Dental microwear studies suggest that the diet of H. habilis was flexible and
versatile and that they were capable of eating a broad range of foods, including some tougher foods like leaves, woody plants, and some animal tissues, but that they did
not routinely consume or specialize in eating hard foods like brittle nuts or seeds, dried meat, or very hard tubers.
Another line of evidence for the diet of H. habilis comes from some of the earliest cut- and percussion-marked bones, found back to 2.6 million years ago. Scientists usually
associate these traces of butchery of large animals, direct evidence of meat and marrow eating, with the earliest appearance of the genus Homo, including H. habilis.

Many scientists think early Homo, including H. habilis, made and used the first stone tools found in the archaeological record—these also date back to about 2.6 million
years ago; however, this hypothesis is difficult to test because several other species of early human lived at the same time, and in the same geographic area, as
where traces of the earliest tool use have been found.

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Discovery Date: 1891
Where Lived: Northern, Eastern, and Southern Africa; Western Asia (Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia); East Asia (China and Indonesia)
When Lived: Between about 1.89 million and 110,000 years ago

Height: Ranges from 4 ft 9 in - 6 ft 1 in (145 - 185 cm)

Weight: Ranges from 88 - 150 lbs (40 - 68 kg)

Overview:
Early African Homo erectus fossils (sometimes called Homo ergaster) are the oldest known early humans to have possessed modern human-like body proportions
with relatively elongated legs and shorter arms compared to the size of the torso. These features are considered adaptations to a life lived on the ground, indicating the
loss of earlier tree-climbing adaptations, with the ability to walk and possibly run long distances. Compared with earlier fossil humans, note the expanded braincase
relative to the size of the face. The most complete fossil individual of this species is known as the ‘Turkana Boy’ – a well-preserved skeleton (though minus almost all the
hand and foot bones), dated around 1.6 million years old. Microscopic study of the teeth indicates that he grew up at a growth rate similar to that of a great ape. There is
fossil evidence that this species cared for old and weak individuals. The appearance of Homo erectus in the fossil record is often associated with the earliest handaxes, the
first major innovation in stone tool technology.
Early fossil discoveries from Java (beginning in the 1890s) and China (‘Peking Man’, beginning in the 1920s) comprise the classic examples of this species. Generally
considered to have been the first species to have expanded beyond Africa, Homo erectus is considered a highly variable species, spread over two continents (it's not
certain whether it reached Europe), and possibly the longest lived early human species - about nine times as long as our own species, Homo sapiens, has been around!

History of Discovery:
Eugène Dubois, a Dutch surgeon, found the first Homo erectus individual (Trinil 2) in Indonesia in 1891. In 1894, Dubois named the species Pithecanthropus erectus, or
‘erect ape-man.’ At that time, Pithecanthropus (later changed to Homo) erectus was the most primitive and smallest-brained of all known early human species; no early
human fossils had even been discovered in Africa yet.

How They Survived:

The tall bodies and large brains of Homo erectus individuals required a lot of energy on a regular basis to function. Eating meat and other types of protein that could be
quickly digested made it possible to absorb nutrients with a shorter digestive tract, making more energy available faster. There is also speculation that honey and
underground tubers may have been significant food sources for Homo erectus.
Soon after we see evidence in the fossil record of the earliest Homo erectus fossils (by about 1.9 million years ago), we see evidence in the archeological record for the
first major innovation in stone tool technology (by about 1.76 million years ago). Known as the Acheulean stone tool industry, it consisted of the creation of large cutting
tools like handaxes and cleavers. Increased reliance on a broader set of tools may have helped Homo erectus survive during changing climates.
The earliest evidence of hearths (campfires) occur during the time range of Homo erectus. While we have evidence that hearths were used for cooking (and probably
sharing) food, they are likely to have been places for social interaction, and also used for warmth and to keep away large predators.

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Discovery Date: 1908
Where Lived: Europe; possibly Asia (China); Africa (eastern and southern)
When Lived: About 700,000 to 200,000 years ago

Height: Males: average 5 ft 9 in (175 cm); Females: average 5 ft 2 in (157 cm)

Weight: Males: average 136 lbs (62 kg); Females: average 112 lbs (51 kg)

Overview:
This early human species had a very large browridge, and a larger braincase and flatter face than older early human species. It was the first early human species to live in
colder climates; their short, wide bodies were likely an adaptation to conserving heat. It lived at the time of the oldest definite control of fire and use of wooden spears,
and it was the first early human species to routinely hunt large animals. This early human also broke new ground; it was the first species to build shelters, creating simple
dwellings out of wood and rock.

History of Discovery:
In 1908 near Heidelberg, Germany, a workman found the type specimen of H. heidelbergensis in the Rösch sandpit just north of the village of Mauer. This mandible was
nearly complete except for the missing premolars and first two left molars; it is heavily built and lacks a chin. German scientist Otto Schoentensack was the first to describe
the specimen and proposed the species name Homo heidelbergensis.
Before the naming of this species, scientists referred to early human fossils showing traits similar to both Homo erectus and modern humans as ‘archaic’ Homo sapiens.

How They Survived:

There is evidence that H. heidelbergensis was capable of controlling fire by building hearths, or early fireplaces, by 790,000 years ago in the form of fire-altered tools and
burnt wood at the site of Gesher Benot Ya-aqov in Israel. Why did they come together at these early hearths? Perhaps to socialize, to find comfort and warmth, to share
food and information, and to find safety from predators.
H. heidelbergensis probably took advantage of natural shelters but this species was also the first to build simple shelters. Evidence for this comes from the site of Terra
Amata, France.

H. heidelbergensis was also the first hunter of large game animals; remains of animals such as wild deer, horses, elephants, hippos, and rhinos with butchery marks on
their bones have been found together at sites with H. heidelbergensis fossils. Evidence for this also comes from 400,000 year old wooden spears found at the site of
Schöningen, Germany, which were found together with stone tools and the remains of more than 10 butchered horses.

One site in Atapuerca, northern Spain, dating to about 400,000 years ago, shows evidence of what may be human ritual. Scientists have found bones of roughly 30 H.
heidelbergensis individuals deliberately thrown inside a pit. The pit has been named Sima de los Huesos (‘Pit of Bones’). Alongside the skeletal remains, scientists
uncovered a single well-made symmetrical handaxe —illustrating the tool-making ability of H. heidelbergensis.

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Nickname: Neanderthal
Discovery Date: 1829
Where Lived: Europe and southwestern to central Asia
When Lived: About 400,000 - 40,000 years ago

Height: Males: average 5 ft 5 in (164 cm); Females: average 5 ft 1 in (155 cm)

Weight: Males: average 143 lbs (65 kg); Females: average 119 lbs (54 kg)

Overview:
Neanderthals (the ‘th’ pronounced as ‘t’) are our closest extinct human relative. Some defining features of their skulls include the large middle part of the face, angled
cheek bones, and a huge nose for humidifying and warming cold, dry air. Their bodies were shorter and stockier than ours, another adaptation to living in cold
environments. But their brains were just as large as ours and often larger - proportional to their brawnier bodies.
Neanderthals made and used a diverse set of sophisticated tools, controlled fire, lived in shelters, made and wore clothing, were skilled hunters of large animals and also
ate plant foods, and occasionally made symbolic or ornamental objects. There is evidence that Neanderthals deliberately buried their dead and occasionally even marked
their graves with offerings, such as flowers. No other primates, and no earlier human species, had ever practiced this sophisticated and symbolic behavior.

DNA has been recovered from more than a dozen Neanderthal fossils, all from Europe; the Neanderthal Genome Project is one of the exciting new areas of human origins
research.

History of Discovery:
Neanderthal 1 was the first specimen to be recognized as an early human fossil. When it was discovered in 1856 in Germany, scientists had never seen a specimen like it:
the oval shaped skull with a low, receding forehead and distinct browridges, the thick, strong bones. In 1864, it became the first fossil hominin species to be named.
Geologist William King suggested the name Homo neanderthalensis (Johanson and Edgar, 2006), after these fossils found in the Feldhofer Cave of the Neander Valley in
Germany (tal—a modern form of thal—means “valley” in German). Several years after Neanderthal 1 was discovered, scientists realized that prior fossil discoveries—in
1829 at Engis, Belgium, and in 1848 at Forbes Quarry, Gibraltar—were also Neanderthals. Even though they weren’t recognized at the time, these two earlier discoveries
were actually the first early human fossils ever found.

How They Survived:

Compared to early humans living in tropical Africa, with more abundant edible plant foods available year-round, the number of plant foods Neanderthals could eat would
have dropped significantly during the winter of colder climates, forcing Neanderthals to exploit other food options like meat more heavily. There is evidence that
Neanderthals were specialized seasonal hunters, eating animals were available at the time (i.e. reindeer in the winter and red deer in the summer). Scientists have clear
evidence of Neanderthal hunting from uncovering sharp wooden spears and large numbers of big game animal remains were hunted and butchered by Neanderthals.
There is also evidence from Gibraltar that when they lived in coastal areas, they exploited marine resources such as mollusks, seals, dolphins and fish. Isotopic chemical
analyses of Neanderthal bones also tell scientists the average Neanderthal’s diet consisted of a lot of meat. Scientists have also found plaque on the remains of molar
teeth containing starch grains—concrete evidence that Neanderthals ate plants.

The Mousterian stone tool industry of Neanderthals is characterized by sophisticated flake tools that were detached from a prepared stone core. This innovative technique
allowed flakes of predetermined shape to be removed and fashioned into tools from a single suitable stone. This technology differs from earlier ‘core tool’ traditions, such

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as the Acheulean tradition of Homo erectus. Acheulean tools worked from a suitable stone that was chipped down to tool form by the removal of flakes off the surface.

Neanderthals used tools for activities like hunting and sewing. Left-right arm asymmetry indicates that they hunted with thrusting (rather than throwing) spears that
allowed them to kill large animals from a safe distance. Neanderthal bones have a high frequency of fractures, which (along with their distribution) are similar to injuries
among professional rodeo riders who regularly interact with large, dangerous animals. Scientists have also recovered scrapers and awls (larger stone or bone versions of
the sewing needle that modern humans use today) associated with animal bones at Neanderthal sites. A Neanderthal would probably have used a scraper to first clean the
animal hide, and then used an awl to poke holes in it, and finally use strips of animal tissue to lace together a loose-fitting garment. Neanderthals were the first early
humans to wear clothing, but it is only with modern humans that scientists find evidence of the manufacture and use of bone sewing needles to sew together tighter
fitting clothing.

Neanderthals also controlled fire, lived in shelters, and occasionally made symbolic or ornamental objects. There is evidence that Neanderthals deliberately buried their
dead and occasionally even marked their graves with offerings, such as flowers. No other primates, and no earlier human species, had ever practiced this sophisticated and
symbolic behavior. This may be one of the reasons that the Neanderthal fossil record is so rich compared to some earlier human species; being buried greatly increases the
chance of becoming a fossil!

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Where Lived: Evolved in Africa, now worldwide
When Lived: About 300,000 years ago to present

Overview:
The species that you and all other living human beings on this planet belong to is Homo sapiens. During a time of dramatic climate change 300,000 years ago, Homo
sapiens evolved in Africa. Like other early humans that were living at this time, they gathered and hunted food, and evolved behaviors that helped them respond to the
challenges of survival in unstable environments.

Anatomically, modern humans can generally be characterized by the lighter build of their skeletons compared to earlier humans. Modern humans have very large brains,
which vary in size from population to population and between males and females, but the average size is approximately 1300 cubic centimeters. Housing this big brain
involved the reorganization of the skull into what is thought of as "modern" -- a thin-walled, high vaulted skull with a flat and near vertical forehead. Modern human faces
also show much less (if any) of the heavy brow ridges and prognathism of other early humans. Our jaws are also less heavily developed, with smaller teeth.
Scientists sometimes use the term “anatomically modern Homo sapiens” to refer to members of our own species who lived during prehistoric times.

History of Discovery:
Unlike every other human species, Homo sapiens does not have a true type specimen. In other words, there is not a particular Homo sapiens individual that researchers
recognize as being the specimen that gave Homo sapiens its name. Even though Linnaeus first described our species in 1758, it was not customary at that time to
designate type specimens. It is rumored that in 1994 paleontologist Robert Bakker formally declared the skull of Edward Drinker Cope as the “lectotype”, a specimen
essentially serving as the type specimen. When Cope, himself a great paleontologist, died in 1897, he willed his remains to science, and they are held by the University of
Pennsylvania. But a type specimen must be one examined by the original author who names a species, so Cope’s remains do not qualify.

How They Survived:

Prehistoric Homo sapiens not only made and used stone tools, they also specialized them and made a variety of smaller, more complex, refined and specialized
tools including composite stone tools, fishhooks and harpoons, bows and arrows, spear throwers and sewing needles.

For millions of years all humans, early and modern alike, had to find their own food. They spent a large part of each day gathering plants and hunting or scavenging
animals. By 164,000 years ago modern humans were collecting and cooking shellfish and by 90,000 years ago modern humans had begun making special fishing tools.
Then, within just the past 12,000 years, our species, Homo sapiens, made the transition to producing food and changing our surroundings. Humans found they could
control the growth and breeding of certain plants and animals. This discovery led to farming and herding animals, activities that transformed Earth’s natural landscapes—
first locally, then globally. As humans invested more time in producing food, they settled down. Villages became towns, and towns became cities. With more food
available, the human population began to increase dramatically. Our species had been so successful that it has inadvertently created a turning point in the history of life on
Earth.

Modern humans evolved a unique combination of physical and behavioral characteristics, many of which other early human species also possessed, though not to the
same degree. The complex brains of modern humans enabled them to interact with each other and with their surroundings in new and different ways. As the environment
became more unpredictable, bigger brains helped our ancestors survive. They made specialized tools, and use tools to make other tools, as described above; they ate a
variety of animal and plant foods; they had control over fire; they lived in shelters; they built broad social networks, sometimes including people they have never even
met; they exchanged resources over wide areas; and they created art, music, personal adornment, rituals, and a complex symbolic world. Modern humans have spread to

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every continent and vastly expanded their numbers. They have altered the world in ways that benefit them greatly. But this transformation has unintended consequences
for other species as well as for ourselves, creating new survival challenges.

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