UNIT -1

1. Components of Data Communication

Data communication involves the transfer of data between devices. Key components include:

• Sender: The device that sends the data.

• Receiver: The device that receives the data.

• Message: The information being communicated.

• Medium: The physical path over which the message travels (e.g., cables, airwaves).

• Protocol: The set of rules governing data communication.

• Encoder/Decoder: Devices that convert data from one form to another for transmission and
reception.

2. Four Basic Network Topologies

• Bus Topology: All devices share a single communication line.

• Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central hub.

• Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular fashion.

• Mesh Topology: Devices are interconnected, providing multiple paths for data.

3. Protocols

Protocols are sets of rules and conventions that allow devices to communicate over a network. They
define how data is transmitted and received, ensuring reliable and efficient communication.
Examples include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.

4. Criteria for an Effective and Efficient Network

• Performance: Speed and throughput of data transmission.

• Reliability: Consistent and error-free data transmission.

• Scalability: Ability to expand the network without degradation of performance.

• Security: Protection against unauthorized access and data breaches.

5. Protocols for Detecting Network Issues

• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for error messages and operational
information (e.g., ping).

• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): Used for network management and
monitoring.

• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses.

6. Classes of Transmission Media

• Guided Media: Includes twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber-optic cables.

• Unguided Media: Includes radio waves, microwaves, and infrared waves.

7. Layers of TCP/IP

• Application Layer: Interfaces with user applications (e.g., HTTP, FTP).

• Transport Layer: Manages end-to-end communication and data integrity (e.g., TCP, UDP).

• Internet Layer: Handles packet routing and addressing (e.g., IP).

• Network Interface Layer: Manages physical data transmission over the network.

8. Addressing in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Addressing in TCP/IP involves:

• IP Addressing: Uniquely identifies devices on a network.

• Port Numbers: Identifies specific processes or services within devices.

• MAC Addressing: Identifies network interfaces at the hardware level.

9. Guided vs. Unguided Media

• Guided Media: Uses physical conduits like cables to transmit data. Examples include twisted
pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber-optic cables.

• Unguided Media: Transmits data without physical means, using electromagnetic waves.
Examples include radio waves, microwaves, and infrared waves.

10. Switching Implementation

Switching involves directing data packets from a source to a destination within a network. Types of
switching:

• Circuit Switching: Establishes a dedicated communication path between devices (e.g.,

traditional telephony).

• Packet Switching: Data is broken into packets that are routed independently (e.g., internet
communication).

• Message Switching: Entire messages are routed, often stored-and-forwarded at

intermediate nodes.

UNIT -2

1. Responsibilities of the Data Link Layer

The data link layer is the second layer in the OSI model and is responsible for:

• Framing: Dividing the data stream into manageable units called frames.

• Error Detection and Correction: Identifying and correcting errors that may occur in the
physical layer.

• Flow Control: Ensuring that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver.
 • Media Access Control: Regulating access to the physical transmission medium.

• Addressing: Assigning MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to devices.

2. Types of Errors

• Single-Bit Error: Only one bit of data is corrupted.

• Burst Error: Multiple bits are corrupted within a block of data.

• Random Error: Errors occurring unpredictably and sporadically.

• Systematic Error: Errors that follow a predictable pattern.

3. Available Detection Methods

• Parity Check

• Checksum

• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

• Hamming Code

• Block Parity

4. Define CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)

CRC is an error-detecting code used to identify errors in digital data. It operates by dividing the data
by a predetermined polynomial and appending the remainder as the CRC code to the data. On
receipt, the data is re-verified to detect errors.

5. Steps Followed in Checksum

1. Divide data into fixed-size blocks.

2. Calculate the sum of all blocks.

3. Complement the sum (1’s complement).

4. Transmit the data along with the checksum.

5. Receiver recalculates the sum, complements it, and verifies for errors.

6. Function of Go-Back-N ARQ

Go-Back-N ARQ is a sliding window protocol that:

• Allows the sender to send multiple frames before receiving acknowledgment (up to a
defined window size).
 • Requires retransmission of all frames after an erroneous frame.

• Ensures reliable data delivery by handling packet loss and errors.

7. Categories of Flow Control

• Stop-and-Wait: The sender waits for an acknowledgment after sending each frame.

• Sliding Window Protocols:

• Go-Back-N ARQ

• Selective Repeat ARQ

8. Various Architectures in a LAN

• Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.

• Bus Topology: All devices share a single communication line.

• Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular fashion, with each device linked to two
others.

• Mesh Topology: Each device is interconnected with every other device.

• Hybrid Topology: Combination of two or more topologies.

9. Comparison between CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA

Aspect CSMA/CD (Collision Detection) CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)

Approach Detects collisions and retransmits. Avoids collisions using acknowledgments.

Usage Used in wired networks like Ethernet. Used in wireless networks like Wi-Fi.

Efficiency Effective in low-traffic conditions. Effective in high-traffic environments.

Mechanism Listens to the medium while sending data. Reserves the channel before sending data.

10. Explain Piggybacking

Piggybacking is a technique used in bidirectional data transmission where acknowledgment

information is included in outgoing data frames. This reduces the number of separate
acknowledgment frames required, optimizing bandwidth usage and improving efficiency.
 UNIT – 3

1.How Network Administrator Uses Subnetting

Subnetting is a technique used by network administrators to divide a large network into

smaller, more manageable subnetworks (subnets). This:

• Enhances Security: By isolating subnets, unauthorized access can be limited.

• Optimizes Performance: Reduces network congestion by minimizing broadcast domains.

• Efficient IP Address Utilization: Helps allocate IP addresses based on network size

requirements.

• Facilitates Network Management: Makes troubleshooting and maintenance easier.

2. Comment on ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

ARP is a protocol used to map an IP address to its corresponding MAC address within a local
network. It operates at the network layer and facilitates communication between devices on the
same network. Key points:

• Dynamic Resolution: It dynamically resolves MAC addresses when the IP address is known.

• Broadcast-Based: ARP sends a broadcast to all devices in the network to discover the
intended MAC address.

3. Discuss the Class Field in IP Address

The IP address is divided into five classes (A, B, C, D, and E), distinguished by their initial bits and
network sizes:

• Class A: Supports large networks; first bit is 0 (1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255).

• Class B: For medium-sized networks; first two bits are 10 (128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255).

• Class C: For small networks; first three bits are 110 (192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255).

• Class D: Used for multicasting; first four bits are 1110 (224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255).

• Class E: Reserved for research; first four bits are 1111 (240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255).

4. Why Congestion Occurs in a Network?

Congestion in a network occurs when the demand for network resources exceeds the available
capacity, leading to performance degradation. Causes include:

• High Traffic Volume: Excessive data flow over the network.

• Limited Bandwidth: Insufficient capacity to handle the data load.

• Buffer Overflows: Routers or switches unable to process incoming packets.

 • Poorly Configured Networks: Inefficient routing or improper hardware.

5. What is Multicasting?

Multicasting is a communication method where data is sent from one source to multiple selected
destinations simultaneously. Key characteristics:

• Efficient: Saves bandwidth by sending a single stream to multiple users.

• Uses: Common in video streaming, conferencing, and real-time applications.

• Address Range: Uses Class D IP addresses (224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255).

6. Define Masking

Masking involves using a subnet mask to extract the network and host portions of an IP address.

• Subnet Mask: A 32-bit number used to determine which part of an IP address is the network
and which is the host.

• Example: For IP 192.168.1.1 with subnet mask 255.255.255.0, the network

is 192.168.1.0 and the host ID is 1.

7. Compare ARP and RARP

Feature ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

Purpose Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses. Resolves MAC addresses to IP addresses.

Used for devices within the same Used during device boot-up to obtain an IP
Usage network. address.

Direction IP → MAC MAC → IP

8. Keys for Understanding Distance Vector Routing

• Routing Updates: Routers share routing tables with neighbors periodically.

• Hop Count Metric: Measures the number of hops to reach a destination.

• Bellman-Ford Algorithm: Used to calculate the shortest path.

• Loop Prevention: Techniques like split horizon and hold-down timers prevent routing loops.

9. Classify Routing Algorithms

Routing algorithms are classified into:

1. Static Routing: Routes are manually configured and do not change dynamically.
 2. Dynamic Routing: Routes are updated automatically based on network changes. Examples:

• Distance Vector: Relies on hop counts (e.g., RIP).

• Link State: Considers the entire network topology (e.g., OSPF).

10. Define ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

ICMP is a network-layer protocol used for error reporting and diagnostics. Functions include:

• Error Reporting: Notifies sender about delivery issues (e.g., unreachable destinations).

• Diagnostics: Tools like ping and traceroute use ICMP to test connectivity and trace paths.

UNIT- 4

1. Why is TCP Called Connection-Oriented?

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is called connection-oriented because it establishes a

connection between the sender and receiver before transmitting data. This is done through a
process known as the three-way handshake, which ensures that both parties are ready to
communicate and establishes a reliable link.

2. Process-Process Communication

Process-process communication involves the interaction between processes on the same or

different machines in a network. This communication can be facilitated using various protocols and
mechanisms, such as sockets, message passing, and remote procedure calls (RPC). The goal is to
enable processes to exchange data and coordinate actions.

3. Quality of Service (QoS) Attributes

QoS attributes ensure the performance, reliability, and efficiency of network communication. Key
attributes include:

• Bandwidth: The maximum data transfer rate.

• Latency: The time taken for data to travel from source to destination.

• Jitter: The variation in latency.

• Packet Loss: The number of lost data packets.

• Throughput: The actual data transfer rate.

4. TCP as a Reliable Byte Stream Protocol

TCP is considered a reliable byte stream protocol because it ensures the complete and correct
delivery of data in the order it was sent. It uses:

• Sequence numbers to keep track of data packets.

 • Acknowledgments (ACKs) to confirm receipt.

• Retransmissions in case of lost packets.

• Flow control to manage the rate of data transmission.

5. TCP Header Format

The TCP header consists of several fields:

• Source Port (16 bits) and Destination Port (16 bits)

• Sequence Number (32 bits)

• Acknowledgment Number (32 bits)

• Data Offset (4 bits), Reserved (6 bits), Flags (6 bits)

• Window Size (16 bits)

• Checksum (16 bits)

• Urgent Pointer (16 bits)

• Options and Padding (variable length)

6. Three Events in TCP Connection

The three main events in a TCP connection are:

• Connection Establishment: Using the three-way handshake (SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK).

• Data Transfer: The actual exchange of data between sender and receiver.

• Connection Termination: Using a four-way handshake (FIN, ACK, FIN, ACK) to close the
connection.

7. Performance of TCP State Transition Control

TCP state transition control involves the management of various states like LISTEN, SYN-SENT, SYN-
RECEIVED, ESTABLISHED, FIN-WAIT, TIME-WAIT, and CLOSED. The performance is measured by how
efficiently TCP handles these transitions, maintains connections, and ensures data reliability and
flow control.

8. Categories of QoS Attributes

The two main categories of QoS attributes are:

• User-Related Attributes: Such as perceived quality, delay, and availability.

• Network-Related Attributes: Such as bandwidth, latency, jitter, and packet loss.

9. Encapsulation and Decapsulation in Transport Layer

Encapsulation involves wrapping data with protocol-specific information (headers) before

transmitting it over the network. Decapsulation is the reverse process, where the protocol
information is removed at the receiver's end to extract the original data. This ensures the correct
handling and routing of data packets.
10. Comparing TCP and UDP

Feature TCP
UDP

Connection Connection-oriented Connectionless

Reliability Reliable, with error recovery Unreliable, no error recovery

Flow Control Yes, using windowing No flow control

Overhead Higher Lower

Web browsing, email,

Use Cases Streaming, VoIP, online gaming
file transfer

TCP provides reliability and ensures data integrity, while UDP offers faster data transmission with
less overhead but without the same level of reliability.

UNIT – 5

1. Purpose of Domain Name System (DNS)

The Domain Name System (DNS) translates human-readable domain names (like
www.example.com) into IP addresses (like 192.0.2.1) that computers use to identify each other on
the network. This process allows users to access websites using easy-to-remember domain names
instead of numeric IP addresses.

2. Three Main Divisions of the Domain Name Space

The domain name space is divided into three main sections:

• Top-Level Domains (TLDs): The highest level in the DNS hierarchy, such as .com, .org, .net,
and country-code TLDs like .uk or .jp.

• Second-Level Domains: Directly below TLDs, these are typically the names chosen by
organizations or individuals (e.g., example in example.com).

• Subdomains: Further subdivisions under second-level domains, used to organize different

sections of a website (e.g., blog.example.com).

3. TCP Connections Needed in FTP

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) uses two TCP connections:

• Control Connection: This connection (usually on port 21) is used for sending commands and
receiving responses.
 • Data Connection: This connection (usually on port 20) is used for transferring files between
the client and server. It is established when a file transfer command is issued.

4. Basic Model of FTP

FTP follows a client-server model:

• Client: Initiates the connection and sends commands to the server.

• Server: Receives commands from the client, processes them, and returns responses. The
server also handles the actual file transfer via the data connection.

5. Function of SMTP

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for sending and receiving email between servers. It
ensures that emails are correctly routed and delivered to their intended recipients.

6. How MIME Enhances SMTP

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) extends the capabilities of SMTP by allowing it to
handle different types of content, such as text, images, audio, and video. MIME encodes these types
of content into a format that can be safely transmitted via SMTP.

7. Why is POP Needed for Electronic Messaging?

Post Office Protocol (POP) is used to retrieve emails from a mail server to a local client. POP allows
users to download their emails and read them offline, which is useful for managing email storage
and accessing messages without a constant internet connection.

8. Three Types of WWW Documents

• Static Documents: Fixed content that does not change unless manually updated (e.g., HTML
pages).

• Dynamic Documents: Content that changes based on user interactions or server processes
(e.g., PHP or ASP pages).

• Active Documents: Interactive content that can change in real-time without needing to
reload the page (e.g., JavaScript applications).

9. Fully Qualified vs. Partially Qualified Domain Names

• Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN): A complete domain name that specifies its exact
location in the DNS hierarchy, including all higher-level domains (e.g., www.example.com.).

• Partially Qualified Domain Name (PQDN): A domain name that does not include all higher-
level domains, often relying on context or local DNS settings to resolve (e.g., www within the
example.com domain).

10. Format of HTTP Request Message

An HTTP request message consists of:

• Request Line: Includes the method (GET, POST, etc.), the resource requested (e.g.,
/index.html), and the HTTP version (e.g., HTTP/1.1).
• Headers: Key-value pairs that provide additional information about the request (e.g., Host:
www.example.com).

• Blank Line: Separates headers from the body.

• Body (Optional): Contains data sent with the request, used primarily in POST or PUT
requests.