Journal of

Manufacturing and
Materials Processing

Article
Experimental Evidence on Incremental Formed Polymer Sheets
Using a Stair Toolpath Strategy
Antonio Formisano * , Luca Boccarusso , Dario De Fazio and Massimo Durante

Department of Chemical, Materials and Production Engineering, University of Naples Federico II,
P.le V. Tecchio 80, 80125 Napoli, Italy; [email protected] (L.B.); [email protected] (D.D.F.);
[email protected] (M.D.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-0817685208

Abstract: Incremental sheet forming represents a relatively recent technology, similar to the layered
manufacturing principle of the rapid prototype approach; it is very suitable for small series production
and guarantees cost-effectiveness because it does not require dedicated equipment. Research has
initially shown that this process is effective in metal materials capable of withstanding plastic
deformation but, in recent years, the interest in this technique has been increasing for the manufacture
of complex polymer sheet components as an alternative to the conventional technologies, based
on heating–shaping–cooling manufacturing routes. Conversely, incrementally formed polymer
sheets can suffer from some peculiar defects, like, for example, twisting. To reduce the risk of this
phenomenon, the occurrence of failures and poor surface quality, a viable way is to choose toolpath
strategies that make the tool/sheet contact conditions less severe; this represents one of the main
goals of the present research. Polycarbonate sheets were worked using incremental forming; in detail,
cone frusta with a fixed-wall angle were manufactured with different toolpaths based on a reference
and a stair strategy, in lubricated and dry conditions. The forming forces, the forming time, the twist
angle, and the mean roughness were monitored. The analysis of the results highlighted that a stair
toolpath involving an alternation of diagonal up and vertical down steps represents a useful strategy
to mitigate the occurrence of the twisting phenomenon in incremental formed thermoplastic sheets
and a viable way of improving the process towards a green manufacturing process.
Citation: Formisano, A.; Boccarusso,
L.; De Fazio, D.; Durante, M.
Keywords: incremental forming; polycarbonate; toolpath strategy; forming forces; twisting;
Experimental Evidence on surface quality
Incremental Formed Polymer Sheets
Using a Stair Toolpath Strategy. J.
Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, 105.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ 1. Introduction
jmmp8030105 Polymer materials show good properties like a light weight, strength, corrosion resis-
Academic Editor: Steven Y. Liang tance, price, etc., which make them widely used in the manufacturing industry [1]. Typical
parts made of thermoplastics are manufactured with repetitive operations of heating, shap-
Received: 5 April 2024 ing, and cooling [2]; usually, these operations are oriented to mass production both for
Revised: 18 May 2024
energy costs and investments in equipment and tools. Moreover, the procedures usually
Accepted: 20 May 2024
used in sheet metal forming are frequently employed for the manufacture of polymer sheet
Published: 22 May 2024
parts of different shapes [3]; in these cases, the forming processes strongly depend on the
material properties and the forming temperature, as was highlighted in [4].
During the last decade, the interest in developing procedures with a higher level
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
of flexibility has increased progressively, due to the significant advances in the use of
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. computers applied to manufacturing. For example, consider the additive manufacturing
This article is an open access article technologies [5] or incremental sheet forming (ISF) that can guarantee production without
distributed under the terms and dedicated dies, in a brief time and at a low cost, starting from sheets of pure metals, alloys,
conditions of the Creative Commons polymers, and composites [6,7].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// ISF represents a viable alternative to conventional technologies based on heating–
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ shaping–cooling manufacturing routes, guaranteeing high levels of the materials’ formabil-
4.0/). ity and being able to be carried out at room temperature; a clamped sheet is progressively

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, 105. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8030105 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jmmp

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, 105 2 of 13

deformed by a forming tool that, when controlled using a CNC machine, describes a path
to manufacture the final part [8]. Due to its characteristics, it is strongly oriented towards
the production of batches with small and medium sizes in a variety of fields; for example,
aircraft canopies or medical prostheses can be obtained from polymer sheets formed using
ISF [9]. Furthermore, recent studies have highlighted that ISF for polymer parts allows a
reduction in energy consumption compared to conventional processes [10].
The first studies on the incremental forming of polymer sheets were conducted by
Franzen et al. [11] and focused on the feasibility of ISF for polyvinylchloride (PVC) sheets,
while Martins et al. [12] demonstrated its extendibility to other commercial polymers.
Significant analyses on the influence of the main process parameters were conducted
on polypropylene (PP) sheets in [13] as well as on polyamide (PA), polycarbonate (PC),
polyethene terephthalate (PET) and PVC [14–16] to determine their formability limits.
Other studies were aimed at finding new methods to better investigate the formability
limits [2,17].
Moreover, the behaviour of new materials like the biocompatible polycaprolactone
(PCL) when incrementally formed was analysed [4], as well as the efficiency of new
solutions to improve the quality of the ISF polymer parts; consider, for example, some
previous authors’ works that investigated a prior cold-rolling process of the sheets [18] or
their self-heating as the effect of the feed rate and the spindle [19].
Another relevant field of investigation, strictly linked to formability, was related to the
failure and defect modes. As reported by [11], a ductile fracture at the transition region
between the wall and the corner radius or tearing along the walls, and/or defects like
wrinkling and twisting, can affect the polymer sheets processed by ISF. The occurrence
of these defects, although not representing sheet fractures, limits the formability of the
ISF parts. Moreover, they are strictly connected; in particular, the wrinkles can be twisted
around the axis of revolution in the direction of tool rotation. Then, the twisting can worsen
the quality of polymer parts made by ISF; it is a phenomenon due to an uncontrolled
pivoting of the formed parts around an axis orthogonal to the clamping frame and is caused
by the tangential forces (with the consequent in-plane shear) that the forming tool exerts
on the sheet.
The twisting phenomenon is observed in all materials, like metals [20], but it is
particularly perceived in thermoplastic sheets [21] due to their softer nature. A viable way
to prevent it is to act on the toolpath strategy; for example, it can be significantly reduced
by using an alternating toolpath in anticlockwise and clockwise directions, so as shown
by [8] and, for PC parts, by [22]. Even this solution, under severe forming conditions in
terms of sliding forces on soft materials like thermoplastic sheets, can avoid instabilities and
consequent wrinkling on the formed parts [23]. Another method is to reduce the forming
forces that act on the sheet plane; note that the occurrence of the phenomenon is more
probable for higher and more regular plane forces because they determine a combination
of continued strain accumulation and asymmetric strain levels [24,25].
According to what is reported above and following previous authors’ work aiming to
optimise the forming process through a numerical approach [26], the main aim of this paper
is, but not limited to, to investigate how to reduce the twisting phenomenon and, with it,
the occurrence of failures, through the choice of toolpath strategies that make the tool/sheet
contact conditions less severe. Cone frusta with a fixed-wall angle were produced using
thin PC sheets, using the single-point incremental forming (SPIF) through setting typical
process parameters [22] and different toolpath strategies.
The material used in this study is an amorphous thermoplastic polymer also known
as a “transparency metal” due to its relevant mechanical and physiochemical properties;
significant toughness, stiffness, strength, heat and flame resistance, and dimensional sta-
bility, among others [27], make it strongly used in several applications in the fields of
communication, transport, medical apparatus, aerospace environment, and so on [28].
 stability, among others [27], make it strongly used in several applications in the fields of
communication, transport, medical apparatus, aerospace environment, and so on [28].
Some features from the experiment were analysed, i.e., the forming forces, the
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, 105 forming time, the twisting angle and the surface roughness, to investigate the pros and
3 of 13
cons and to show the potential of the non-reference toolpath strategy for reducing the risk
of failures and other defects on incrementally formed polymer parts.
Some features from the experiment were analysed, i.e., the forming forces, the forming
2. Materials
time, and angle
the twisting Methods
and the surface roughness, to investigate the pros and cons and to
showThe
the experiment
potential of the
onnon-reference
Makrolon PCtoolpath
sheets strategy
(suppliedforby
reducing
Bayer)the riskaof
with failures t = 1.5
thickness
and other defects on incrementally formed polymer parts.
mm was conducted by carrying out SPIF tests at room temperature; SPIF represents the
simplest variant
2. Materials of ISF and involves the use of a simple tool, a clamping frame, and the
and Methods
absence
The of dies. A C.B.
experiment Ferrari PC
on Makrolon high-speed four-axis
sheets (supplied vertical
by Bayer) withmachining
a thickness tcentre drove the
= 1.5 mm
forming tool, a non-rotating hemispherical head stainless steel stylus with
was conducted by carrying out SPIF tests at room temperature; SPIF represents the simplesta diameter D=
10 mm;of
variant this
ISFtool
and setup provided
involves very
the use of goodtool,
a simple results when performing
a clamping frame, and thetheabsence
SPIF ofofPC thin
dies. A[22].
sheets C.B. The
Ferrari high-speed
main four-axis
properties of thevertical
sheetsmachining centre drove
and the forming the forming
tool are reported tool,
in Table 1
a non-rotating hemispherical head stainless steel stylus with a diameter D = 10 mm;
[29]; note that the plastic properties of the tool are not reported since it, compared to the this
tool setup
sheet, can beprovided very good
considered results
infinitely when performing the SPIF of PC thin sheets [22].
rigid.
The main properties of the sheets and the forming tool are reported in Table 1 [29]; note
that the plastic properties of the tool are not reported since it, compared to the sheet, can be
Table 1. Main properties of tool and sheet [29].
considered infinitely rigid.
Properties Tool Sheet
Table 1. Main properties of tool and sheet [29].
Material Stainless steel Polycarbonate
Properties
Density [g/cm3] Tool 7.85 Sheet 1.2
Young’s modulus [GPa]
Material Stainless steel 210 Polycarbonate 2.3
Density [g/cm3 ] 7.85 1.2
Poisson’s ratio [-] 0.3 0.3
Young’s modulus [GPa] 210 2.3
Yield stress
Poisson’s ratio [-][MPa] 0.3 - 0.3 60
Yield stress [MPa]
Ultimate elongation [%] - - 60 110
Ultimate elongation [%] - 110

The tests provided the manufacture of cone frusta with a fixed-wall angle; these
The tests provided the manufacture of cone frusta with a fixed-wall angle; these
components were characterised by a height h = 20 mm, a radius of the major base R = 35
components were characterised by a height h = 20 mm, a radius of the major base R = 35 mm,
mm, a wall
a wall angleangle
α = 60α◦ =and
60°aand a square
square flange flange
with a with
side La =
side
100Lmm.
= 100Amm. A clamping
clamping frame frame
constituted theblocking
constituted the blockingsystemsystem of the
of the sheet.
sheet. TheThe geometrical
geometrical features
features of the components
of the components
and the forming tool with their values are reported in Figure 1, while
and the forming tool with their values are reported in Figure 1, while the experimentalthe experimental
setup duringaaSPIF
setup during SPIFtesttest
is is shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 2. 2.

Figure 1. Geometrical features of the fixed-wall angle cone frusta and of the forming tool.

The forming process under exam involved a localised and incremental deformation of
the sheet as the effect of its interaction with the forming tool; the risks of failing tests due to
the tool/sheet interaction were reduced by lubricating the sheets with mineral oil for cold
forming [30].
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, 105 4 of 13

Figure 1. Geometrical features of the fixed-wall angle cone frusta and of the forming tool.

Figure2.2. Experimental
Figure Experimentalsetup
setupduring
duringan
anincremental
incrementalforming
formingtest.
test.

Two
The different toolpathunder
forming process strategiesexam (ofinvolved
which a not-to-scale
a localised and schematisation
incrementalisdeformation
reported in
Figure 3) were considered, for a total of four toolpath types; for
of the sheet as the effect of its interaction with the forming tool; the risks of failing all the cases, a feed rate of
tests
1000
due mm/min was set.interaction
to the tool/sheet The two strategies required
were reduced by that the tool the
lubricating covered
sheets60with
equally spaced
mineral oil
points
for cold forforming
each complete
[30]. turn of a conical helix, while the vertical distance between two
consecutive turns was
Two different equal strategies
toolpath to vs. = 1 mm (see, ina Figures
(of which 3a and
not-to-scale 3b, respectively,
schematisation for the
is reported
three-dimensional representation
in Figure 3) were considered, for aof some
total turns
of four of the helix
toolpath types;andfor aallcomplete
the cases,turn in rate
a feed the
XY-plane view, common for the two toolpath strategies).
of 1000 mm/min was set. The two strategies required that the tool covered 60 equally
spacedWith the first
points strategy,
for each the distance
complete turn of between
a conical two
helix,consecutive points was
while the vertical covered
distance by a
between
segment; it can be considered as a reference toolpath (ref_tp)
two consecutive turns was equal to vs. = 1 mm (see, in Figure 3a and Figure 3b, strategy. The second strategy
(hr_tp) provided
respectively, for an
thealternation of an upward
three-dimensional and a vertical
representation down
of some segment
turns between
of the helix and twoa
consecutive
complete turn points of XY-plane
in the the helix; view,for this strategy,for
common three
the different
two toolpathvalues of the height of the
strategies).
rampWith(hr) of thethe upward
first segment
strategy, were tested.
the distance between Theytwo were equal to hr
consecutive = 0.5was
points mmcovered
(hr0.5_tp),by
hr = 1.0 mm (hr1.0_tp) and hr = 1.5 mm (hr1.5_tp); for the last
a segment; it can be considered as a reference toolpath (ref_tp) strategy. The second one, tests without lubrication
(hr1.5_tp_dry)
strategy (hr_tp) were also carried
provided out to evaluate
an alternation of antheupward
influence and of the lubrication
a vertical down conditions
segment
for the toolpath, which is expected to guarantee less severe contact
between two consecutive points of the helix; for this strategy, three different values conditions [26]. Theofdif-
the
ferences
height of the ramp (hr) of the upward segment were tested. They were equal to hr =the
between these strategies can be observed in the representation of a half-turn in 0.5
YZ-plane view of Figure 3c. Note that the arrows in Figure 3 indicate
mm (hr0.5_tp), hr = 1.0 mm (hr1.0_tp) and hr = 1.5 mm (hr1.5_tp); for the last one, tests the toolpath direction.
To control the process, two components of the forming forces were monitored and
without lubrication (hr1.5_tp_dry) were also carried out to evaluate the influence of the
acquired; in detail, the vertical (FZ ) and one horizontal component (FX ) were acquired
lubrication conditions for the toolpath, which is expected to guarantee less severe contact
through a Kistler 9257A piezoelectric dynamometer at 2000 Hz and subsequently filtered
conditions [26]. The differences between these strategies can be observed in the
using a NI 9239 input module and the VBA 1.0 B software (see the reference axes for the
representation of a half-turn in the YZ-plane view of Figure 3c. Note that the arrows in
forces and the position of the dynamometer in Figure 2). At the same time, the forming
Figure 3 indicate the toolpath direction.
time was measured.
To control the process, two components of the forming forces were monitored and
Moreover, the twist angle θ was evaluated as a measure of the twisting magnitude;
acquired; in detail, the vertical (FZ) and one horizontal component (FX) were acquired
to do this, the bottom of the undeformed sheets (which did not come in contact with the
through a Kistler 9257A piezoelectric dynamometer at 2000 Hz and subsequently filtered
forming tool) was marked with a cross and its rotation at the end of the test, compared
using a NI 9239 input module and the VBA 1.0 B software (see the reference axes for the
to its original position, was measured [23]. Figure 4 reports a CAD representation of
forces and the position of the dynamometer in Figure 2). At the same time, the forming
this evaluation.
timeFinally,
was measured.
and according to [31] for the recommended cut-off (equal to 0.8 mm), the mean
roughness (Ra ) ofthe
Moreover, thetwist
worked angle θ waswas
surfaces evaluated
measured as ausing
measure of the twisting
a Mitutoyo magnitude;
Surftest SJ-301 tester
to do this, the bottom of the undeformed sheets (which did
(Berg Engineering & Sales Company, Inc., Rolling Meadows, IL, USA), with differential not come in contact with the
forming tool)
inductance usedwasasmarked with amethod
the detecting cross and anditswith
rotation at thefilter
Gaussian end of themeasures
(ten test, compared
for each to
case, along the meridional direction of the walls).
 its
its original
original position,
position, was
was measured
measured [23].
[23]. Figure
Figure 44 reports
reports aa CAD
CAD representation
representation of
of this
this
evaluation.
evaluation.
Finally,
Finally, and
and according
according to to [31]
[31] for
for the
the recommended
recommended cut-off
cut-off (equal
(equal to
to 0.8
0.8 mm),
mm), the
the
mean roughness (R a) of the worked surfaces was measured using a Mitutoyo Surftest SJ-
mean roughness (Ra) of the worked surfaces was measured using a Mitutoyo Surftest SJ-
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, 105 301
301 tester,
tester, with
with differential
differential inductance
inductance used
used as
as the
the detecting
detecting method
method and
and with
with Gaussian
5 of 13
Gaussian
filter
filter (ten
(ten measures
measures forfor each
each case,
case, along
along the
the meridional
meridional direction
direction of
of the
the walls).
walls).

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

(c)
(c)
Figure
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Not-to-scale
Not-to-scale schematisation
Not-to-scale schematisation of
schematisation of the
of the toolpath
the toolpath strategies:
toolpath strategies: (a)
strategies: (a) conical
(a) conical helix;
conical helix; (b)
helix; (b) XY-plane
(b) XY-plane and
XY-plane and
(c) YZ-plane views of the toolpaths.
(c) YZ-plane views of the toolpaths.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. CAD
CAD representation of the evaluation of the twist angle.
CAD representation
representation of the evaluation of the twist angle.

3. Results
This section summarises the main results from the experimental tests (two repetitions
for each case). Due to the very good repeatability of the experimental results, for the sake of
conciseness and brevity, only the representative curves and average values of the features
investigated are reported.
 This section summarises the main results from the experimental tests (two repetition
for each case). Due to the very good repeatability of the experimental results, for the sak
of conciseness and brevity, only the representative curves and average values of th
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, 105 features investigated are reported. 6 of 13

3.1. Defectiveness
3.1. Defectiveness
All the tests were carried out without the occurrence of failures and wrinkles; at th
sameAlltime,
the tests
they were carried twisting.
all showed out without the occurrence
Concerning of failures
this, you can seeand
in wrinkles; at bottom
Figure 5 the
the same time, they all showed twisting. Concerning this, you can see in Figure
surface of a sound component created by the ref_tp (Figure 5a) and one by the hr1.5_t 5 the
bottom surface of a sound component created by the ref_tp (Figure 5a) and one by the
(Figure 5b); these toolpaths represent the limit cases in terms of the severity of the contac
hr1.5_tp (Figure 5b); these toolpaths represent the limit cases in terms of the severity of the
conditions.
contact conditions.

(a)

(b)
Figure5.5.Cone
Figure Cone frustum
frustum manufactured
manufactured using:
using: (a)ref_tp;
(a) the the ref_tp;
(b) the(b) the hr1.5_tp.
hr1.5_tp.
 mentioned toolpaths is reported in Figure 6; a better qualitative interpretation of them is
possible by observing the 70 ÷ 80 percent time range (see Figure 7). See this for a simpler
comparison of the trends; the processing time on the abscissa axis is reported in percent
terms,
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, because it is not the same for the different toolpaths, due to their different lengths.
8, 105 7 of 13
In this regard, Table 2 reports the forming time depending on the toolpath.
To compare quantitatively the forming forces for the different toolpaths, some
relevant information was collected
3.2. Forming Forces and Times from the data of the two last complete turns (see the
part of the trend in the rectangular
The complete trend of the boxtwo
in Figure 6a). From
components this
of the data set,
forming a boxplot
forces for theof the
above-
vertical component of the forming
mentioned toolpaths forces
is reported is generated,
in Figure reporting
6; a better fiveinterpretation
qualitative relevant values (seeis
of them
Figure 8a): possible by observing
minimum, first the 70 ÷ 80 percent
quartile, secondtime range (see
quartile Figure 7).
(median), See this
third for a simpler
quartile and
comparison of the trends; the processing time on the abscissa axis
maximum. Moreover, Figure 8b reports the average of FZ and of the absolute values of FX,is reported in percent
terms, because it is not the same for the different toolpaths, due to their different lengths.
labelled as FZ,m and |FX|m, respectively.
In this regard, Table 2 reports the forming time depending on the toolpath.

(a)

(b)
Figure 6. Complete trend of trend
Figure 6. Complete the forming forces forces
of the forming using:using:
(a) the(a)ref_tp; (b) the
the ref_tp; hr1.5_tp.
(b) the hr1.5_tp.
nuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, 105 8 of 13

(a)

(b)
Figure 7. Graph
Figure of 70 ÷ 80ofpercent
7. Graph 70 ÷ 80time range
percent timetrend
rangeof the of
trend forming forces
the forming using:
forces (a) the
using: ref_tp;
(a) the (b)(b)the
ref_tp; the
hr1.5_tp. hr1.5_tp.

Forming
Table 2. time
Table 2. Forming for time for the different
the different toolpaths.
toolpaths.

Toolpath Toolpath Forming

Forming TimeTime
[s][s]
ref_tp ref_tp 200.5
200.5
hr0.5_tp 241
hr0.5_tphr1.0_tp 241286.5
hr1.0_tphr1.5_tp 286.5
337.5
hr1.5_tp 337.5
To compare quantitatively the forming forces for the different toolpaths, some relevant
information was collected from the data of the two last complete turns (see the part of
the trend in the rectangular box in Figure 6a). From this data set, a boxplot of the vertical
component of the forming forces is generated, reporting five relevant values (see Figure 8a):
minimum, first quartile, second quartile (median), third quartile and maximum. Moreover,
 J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, 105 9 of 13

Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13

Figure 8b reports the average of FZ and of the absolute values of FX , labelled as FZ,m and
|FX |m , respectively.

(a)

(b)
Figure 8. Forming
Figure 8.force data analyses
Forming force datafrom the last
analyses twothe
from complete turns
last two of theturns
complete different toolpaths:
of the different toolpaths:
(a) boxplot for the vertical component; (b) the average of the vertical component and of the absolute
(a) boxplot for the vertical component; (b) the average of the vertical component and of the absolute
values of the horizontal
values of thecomponent.
horizontal component.

3.3. Twist Angles

3.3. Twist Angles
Tablethe
Table 3 reports 3 reports the twist
twist angle angle
for the for thetoolpaths
different different (for
toolpaths hr1.5_tp,
(for thethis
the hr1.5_tp, is boththis is both
in lubricated
in lubricated and dry conditions).
and dry conditions).

Table
Table 3. Twist 3. Twist
angle angle
for the for the
different different toolpaths.
toolpaths.

Toolpath Toolpath Twist Angle, Angle, θ [◦ ]

θ [°]
Twist
ref_tp ref_tp 7.0 7.0
hr0.5_tp hr0.5_tp 6.9 6.9
hr1.0_tp hr1.0_tp 6.6 6.6
hr1.5_tp 6.1
hr1.5_tp 6.1
hr1.5_tp_dry 6.2
hr1.5_tp_dry 6.2

3.4. Roughness
Finally, Table 4 reports the mean roughness for the different toolpaths (for the
hr1.5_tp, both in lubricated and dry conditions).
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, 105 10 of 13

3.4. Roughness
Finally, Table 4 reports the mean roughness for the different toolpaths (for the hr1.5_tp,
both in lubricated and dry conditions).

Table 4. Mean roughness for the different toolpaths.

Toolpath Mean Roughness, Ra [µm]

ref_tp 0.59
hr0.5_tp 0.83
hr1.0_tp 0.78
hr1.5_tp 0.66
hr1.5_tp_dry 0.77

4. Discussion
Following the first sentence of the results, all the tests were carried out without
incurring failures (see Figure 5). Then, all the toolpaths guarantee the correct execution of
the SPIF process. This is in line with what was expected, in light of the results in terms
of formability from varying wall angle cone frusta tests carried out by the authors and
presented in a previous work [22], which highlighted a maximum wall angle in similar
conditions of about 80◦ (significantly higher than the one chosen for the fixed-wall angle of
the cone frusta manufactured in this experiment).
Considering the analysis of the forming forces, from Figures 6a and 7a, it should
be noted that the reference strategy shows a trend that is typical for the SPIF of cone
frusta when using a conical helix toolpath [32], as a result of the continuous vertical
down movement of the forming tool that involves a continuous and constant tool/sheet
contact condition. The vertical component follows the tensile trend of the material, first
with a significant and then second a more gradual increase with the forming time. Little
oscillations are due to a little variability in the sheet stiffness because the distance of the
tool (describing circular turns) from the frame (with a square shape) is not constant. The
horizontal component shows a typical sinusoidal trend with an increasing amplitude, as
does the vertical one. The stair path strategy (see Figures 6b and 7b for the hr1.5_tp) also
presents typical SPIF trends, but with a fluctuation that follows the diagonal up and vertical
down parts of the toolpath as a consequence of a partial elastic recovery [33].
As anticipated, the fluctuation of the forces increases from the reference to the stair
path strategy and, for the last one, with the hr (see Figure 8a); conversely, the mean value
of both the force components decreases (see Figure 8b), even if loading and unloading
determine higher force peaks (see the maximum values in Figure 8a). Despite this, not even
for the limit case (hr1.5_tp) do the forces go to zero (see the minimum values in Figure 8a);
the selected toolpaths do not determine the no-contact conditions between the tool and
the sheet at any time of the process. Furthermore, it should be noted that for the toolpath
guaranteeing the less severe contact conditions, the lubrication results are irrelevant; this is
evident by observing the corresponding force values in Figure 8b.
From Table 2, the stair paths present higher lengths and then higher forming times
(increasingly so as hr grows); the reference strategy represents the shortest one, covering a
helix with discrete points, while the other ones gradually diverge from this condition. This
translates into a reduced productivity, compared to ref_tp.
The considerations on the forming forces, particularly the ones summarised in
Figure 8b, translate into similar conclusions for the twisting phenomenon, with its re-
duction for the stair path strategy and with the increase in hr (lubrication conditions
irrelevant for the limit case) as highlighted by the data in Table 3. Despite the reduction
in twisting not being relevant, it is to be expected that it could be significant under more
severe forming conditions (like, for example, on components with higher heights and
lower thicknesses).
The Ra values, reported in Table 4, are slightly lower for ref_tp, and the influence of hr
is not particularly relevant for the stair paths. For hr1.5_tp, the lubrication conditions are
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, 105 11 of 13

quite irrelevant, due to the non-continuous tool/sheet contact that makes the wear action of
the tool in dry conditions less severe. However, in all the cases, the components show high
surface quality: the roughness values are typical of burnished surfaces and the worked
surfaces preserve their transparency.
Finally, despite the reduced productivity due to the higher forming times, the hr1.5_tp
can represent a viable way of improving ISF towards a more efficient and green manufac-
turing process [34]. This is because of the reduction in the average of the forming forces, the
irrelevance of the lubrication conditions (there is no need to clean or dry the parts before
further production steps such as coating or joining processes) and the FEM prediction of
reduced energy consumption [26]. Concerning the last point, the simulations portend a
reduced total energy linked to reduced sliding energy and an increase in work performed in
permanent deformation, as well as a different way of sheet deforming (from predominant
distortion to compression), passing from a reference to a stair toolpath strategy.

5. Conclusions
An experiment, based on manufacturing using the single-point incremental forming
of a fixed-wall angle cone frusta from polycarbonate sheets, 1.5 mm in thickness, was
presented in the current paper. The aim was to investigate the influence of the toolpath
strategy on features like the forming forces, the forming time, the twist angle, and the mean
roughness of the worked surfaces.
The tests highlighted that, compared to a reference toolpath, a stair path strategy that
alternates diagonal up and vertical down steps allows for the reduction in the average
forming forces, due to a partial elastic recovery during the process, and the twist angle,
albeit slight; the quality of the worked surfaces is very high, regardless of the toolpath type.
Furthermore, a comparison between the tests in lubricated and dry conditions when
using this strategy with a ramp height of 1.5 mm highlights the irrelevancy of the lubrication
conditions. This result, together with previous authors’ FEM analyses, predicts reduced
energy consumption and implies a positive impact on the environment, despite a reduced
productivity connected to higher working times.
Future works could aim to extend the experimental research and to use numerical
methods for the more effective optimisation of the incremental forming of polymer sheets;
different toolpath strategies could be considered to further reduce the defectiveness, as
well as to improve the dimensional accuracy and the surface quality of the incrementally
formed components.

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, A.F. and M.D.; data curation, A.F., L.B. and D.D.F.;
writing—original draft preparation, A.F.; writing—review and editing, A.F. and M.D.; supervision,
A.F.; funding acquisition, A.F. and L.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the “Programma per il Finanziamento della Ricerca di Ateneo
(FRA) 2022” of the University of Naples Federico II.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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