Biology Unit 1 Notes

1t CellTheory

Livingorganisms are composed of cells

cells are the fundamental building blocks of all
living
organisms
The smallest organisms are unicellular
They consist of one cell
Largerorganisms are multicellular
They are composed cells
of many
common Features
cell is surrounded a membrane
every living
which separates the by
cell contents from everythingelse
from outside
cells contain material which stores all
genetic
instructions needed for the cell's activities of th
manyof these activities arechemical reactions catalyzed
byenzymes produced inside the cell
cells have their own releasesystem that powers
cell's energy
all of the activities

cell theory
Cells are the smallest unit
1
2 All livingthings are composed cell of life
3 Cells of
arise from pre existing cells
only
magnification arealSIZE
cell theory's exceptions
Striated Muscle
they are muchlarger than most animal cells
Aseptate HyphaFungi
some fungi are
fungi cosist
of narrow thread like structures called
not partitioned hyphae
s hence in some the hyphae are divided into small
y septa
are a continous cell types
walls of fungi
called
septa
cytoplasmalong each
hypha uninterrupted tube like structure
is an
the lengthof the with nuclei spread along it
hyphae
many
Challenges the idea that livingstructures're composed
of discrete cells
 Giant Algae
Subdivision into organisms that feedtientfies
are glees
giant algae
eperate cells photosynthesis and store their genes inside nuclei butthey
are simpler in their structure and organizationthan plants

that to much
cells larger
some
algae
still seem to grew a size yet
they
Acetabularia
be
single
Unicellular Organisms celltcotries out all
Organisms consisting of only one
in that cell
functions of life
chenticatterside me
ÉÉÉÉÉ
energy gang
to provide
g
and the cell including cell respiration
to releaseenergy
organisms must obtainfood
to provide energyfor
metabolism

ÉÉÉtyTo react to
Irons
of an irreversible'Initese i
changes in theenvironment get size
abilityto react to stimuli
guqin size

ÉÉi Ée th Tasteproducts keepingtondffntitiethe

withintolerable limits
organism
hernconditions

IqmgI
Producing Offsprings either sexually
on

Paramecia
are unicellular organisms that are found infreshwad
or other marine environments
Reproduction
the nucleus the cell can divide to produce
of
the extra nuclei that are needed when cell
reproduces Often it reproduces asexually
Nutrition
the Food Vacuoles contain smaller organisms that
the Paramecium has consumed
are digested and the nutrients an
They gradually
absorbed into the cytoplasm where
s materials needed for growth they
provid
energy
 Excretion
the cell membrane Paramecium controls what
of
chemicals enter s leave

Excretion happens simply for

respiration
It ggistheniggetta by wasteproducts diffusing

Movement Response
the cilia moves the Paramicium through
Beating of
the H2o and this can be controlled the cell so
that it moves in a particular by
direction in response to
changes in the environment
Metabolism
Metabolic reactions take place in the cytoplasm
the reactions that release energy
including
respiration by
Enzymes in the cytoplasm are the catalysts that
cause these reactions to happen

contractile vacuoles at each end of the cell fi

up with water and then expel it through the plasma
for paramecia membraneiii of the
cell to keep the cell s water
content within tolerable limits

www mn
Reproduction
Jiff the nucleus of the cell divide to producegenetically
identical nuclei asexual reproduction
here
exam as
is
for
well Nuclei can also
fuse s divide to out
sexual reproduction carry
Nucleus can be coveredhey chloroplasts
Metabolism
metabolic reactions take the
with enzymes present to place inthem cytoplasm
speed up
Excretion
the cell wall is permeable s it is
if Fullycell
permeable the membrane freely
inside it that controls what
chemicals enter s leave
is a waste product
Oxygen
and is excreted of
out
photosynthesis
the
membrane by diffusing through
 SAN ratio
Decrease of limitation
cell size
exponentially the metabolic rate a cell is proportional to thevolume
the cell of
Cell divide
of
For metabolism to continue substances used inthe
that theycan reactions must be absorbed and waste products
maintain thesame must be removed the plasma membrane
dume but the rate through
at which substances cross this membrane
drasticallyincreasedepends on its surface area
A
Eh If
will
SA V is too
ratio small then substances
not enter the cell as
quickly as
they ar

heat produced required and waste products will accumulate

because
due than they are produced
can be excreted
more
rapidly
they
metabolism I

waste product Ifbecause

SA v ratio is too small it overheat
accumulation the metabolism produces may
heat faster
than it is lost over the cell's surface
larger cells need more
for movement metabolism
energy
SA equates to more material
longer
I Volume increases faster than the SA b
I examples I pageffinious
eaters
Vili
ruffled c
Intestinal tissue ofthe within the lungs
structure
that increase digestive tract may form a have membraneous extensions
SA ruffled structure vili to called microvilli
theinner
to ing
increase sit
of lining Function to increasethe total ment
surface

Emergent
Interaction
Properties
individual
of component produce newfunction

Multicellular organisms are capable

functions that unicellular organisms
of
could
completing
not undertake
this is due to the collective actions indie
of
cells combining create new synergisticeffects
to

cells be grouped together to form tissues

Organsmay
are then formed
from thefunctionalgrouping
of multiple tissues
organs thatoutinteract mayformorgansystems capable
of carrying specific body
out
function
the
Organ systems carry
complete organism
life function of the
cell Tissue Organ often Organism
Mae Cardiac Tissue
Heart
Haggler Human
 ys
cell
Differentiation
he process duringspecialized tissues contolexelop cell
by differential
Effie
development
herebynewlyformed
in multicellular organisms
c in multicellular organisms cells perform different
more specialised
S distinct from
functions
ne another as
mature
often a group of cells specialize in the same
way
called
they
tiffin They are
at beginning
cell is unspecialized
specialized the cells in a tissue
By becoming
can carry out their role more
Tissue so
efficiently
many differentroth
than if had
they
The development of cells in different ways to
out
specific functions is called differential
carry
Gene Expression 8 Differentiation
Differentiation involves the expressionofsome genes and not
others in a cell's genome
There are cell types but they all have the same
many
set of genes despite large differences in their structure
and activities
when a is used in a cell the gene is being expressed
The info gene
in it is used to make a protein or othergene product
cell Differentiation happens because
is expressed in different cell different
a sequen
of
Thegenes
control of
types to
expression is therefore the
development
gene key
The activation instructions genes within a
ofdifferent
chemicalsignals will cause it to differential
given cell by
Euchromatin active genes expandedform transcrib
Heterochromatin inactive genes morecondensed Nottranscribed
 Stentelle
The capacity cells to divide s differential
of stem
along different patways is recess
in embryonic development
extremely It also make stemcells suitable for therapeutic uses
versatile
At development thecells an
capable of early stages of embryonic
dividing manytimes capable of dividing many times to producelarge amounts
of tissue
They are also extremely versatile flexible and can
differentiate alongdifferent pathways into any of th
cell
types found in that particular animal
Stem cells
can divide continously to producecopious quantities
of new cells self Renewal
useful for the growth of tissues or thereplacement
cells that lost
have been
of or damaged

Not Fully differentiated and therefore can differential

in differentways to produce different cell types
Potency
stem cells are
Therefore embryonic
can be used to produce regenerated
usefulsuch
verytissue
They
as skin forpeople who have suffered burns
Therapeutic
Healing diabetes I where the
typeor patients lost
patients
particular cell it is
used to type whole newmalfunctioning
may be grow organs future

therapeutic Using embryonic stem cells to producelarge quantities of

striated muscle fibres or meat for human consumption
BeefBurgers
In the embrogine stem cells are themostversat
early
Once stages
committed a cell may still be able to divide but
all of these cells will differentiate in the same
are no longer stem cells ways
they

ÉÉpetent Pluripotent multipotent Unipotent

conformany can
cell
type formany can differentiate can not Different
as well as th into a numberof but are capable of
6 extra embryonic BT related self renal
closely
placenta tissue Embryonicstem cell types ie musclestemcells
i e zygote cells ie name poi
adult stemcells
 Fromfertile
egg Embryonic stemcells
amman
candifferentiateinto
thebody
anytypein due to accumulation
to be
ofmutations
likely
removal
geneticallydifferent
cells fromembryo k
of
it unless only for 2 are taken
EMILIE'detc
emanate
AdultStemCells It
difficult to obtain Source of easilyobtained
less growthpotential stem cells already availableservice
Less chanceofmalignant compatible w thetissues
fully
the adult norejection
tumours
lesscapacity to differentiate into
oflimited to differen
into ability
different cell types different celltypes
removalof the stem cells does not a limited quantities
kill the adult a umbilical cord is disco
regardless
can be
storage

expensi e
Statgarelt's
malfunctioning
oneswith
goodones
Disease

FEET
sung
PDesenerative

ParkinIisease
centaeng
cause beat
of elopami
secreting
cells
Poststabin

replacingdeadones wilivingones

Leukemia Paralegia
therapeuticUse
Bonemarrowtransplant stem Cells f GRepair Damage
Paralysedvictims
Diabetes
Burn Victims
Graft new shin Replace non function islet
cell
Replace tissue
 Magnification
Image Size
Magnification Actual size

Actuas Size I Image size 1m00s

Magnification 1cm Dm

Watteuttion In Meters Equivalent

Meters looomm
m
ppl m

og yo
t Millimeterslong pooped 3M 1000 1000µm
1
Micrometer m tea
to 6m 1000am
x 100
Nanometer fog m poodpicometer

x a magnification

son Magnification Scale

 rowaryotic cell 1 2 Ultrastructure of cells
cells w no Resolution
nucleus
Inharyotic cell
makingthe separate parts
is called resolution of
an object distinguished

cells w nucleus by eye

Imain Kingdomof Prokaryotic celt Pro Before karyonNucleus
romaryotes simple cell structure without compartments
Archaebacteria do not have a nucleus
Eubacteria
Prokaryotes
are the first organisms toevolve Earth
They have the simplest structure
on

They
Mostly small in size
Found almost exenzingermeable
rganelles Has cell cell wall
membranes
compartments in cell wall is thicker strongerthan the cell membrane
cytoplasm of a protects the cellcell's
eukaryotic cell maintains the shape
not have distinct prevents it from bursting lysis
ructures contains peptidoglycan
pecialized
functions extracellular

No Nucleus
705 Ribosome Filled with cytoplasm
Circular DNA Cytoplasm is not diviIntednanffidgipathents by
membranes
46 Nucleus therefore a simpler structure
Mo Membrane No membrane bound organism No cytoplasmic organed
Bounded organelles Except 70s Ribosomes Responsible w polypeptidesynthesis
Jlasmids Circular DNA gonophore
Not associated
by proteins
nucleoid lighter
means nucleus like
appearance
lighter area
contains DNA but not a true nucleus
Contains plasmids
an autonomous circular DNA molecules that maybe
transferred between bacteria horizontalgenetransfer

Contains slime capsule

a thick polysaccharide used for protectionagain
layer
dessicationdryingout 8 phagocytosis

Contains flagella contains pili

long slenderprojectionscontaining Hair like extensionsthatenate
motorprotein that enables movementadherence to surfacesattachment
forlocomotion pili or mediate bacterial conjugat
sexpili
 Drawing prokaryotic cel
t t t t t t t t
Piti 8Flagellum I
cell Membrane
cytoplasm
1Ribosomes
m
Cell PlasmaMembrane
w
Ribosome capsule
Nuclefidgionyacelle
Histone proteins circular real
eukaryote cell Division in Prokaryotes

1
Archae 3 prokaryote Binary Fission asexualreproduction
Histoneonly Division of preexisting cells
the single circular chromosome isreplicated
Cholesterol 2copies move to opposite ends
Onlyin animals Division
of the cytoplasm y
eukaryotic gym identical

Yucleus Eukaryotic Cell Eu Good True Kanyon Nucleus

MembraneBounded
Organelles evolved fromprokaryotes
805 Ribosomes
ties complex internal structure
more
The cytoplasm
Catering
of the eukaryotic cell is
membrane bound organelles
compartmentalize

Has
Compartmentalised
a Nucleus by
contains a co
Nene Free Ribosomes gIIggfIaspeipnerarprotei
Famer brane Phospholipidbilayerwith
msn.gg
H'hesite
as
Proteins Releasing
enzymesorinother
me my
constructed inthe
ways
nudes
nucleonsinner
sitefor
translations

processes
calledcisternaeceiverers ribosome
attached
toreros
proteins
Donothave reached
fromrer Iggy.gg E.aesneary
ribosomes

IIIs'icee ofproteinssecretory
process Double
residescarry t here proteinsto
i cnn.atistones
m
plasma embrane
forsecretion
o containschromosomes

innerregionnucleons
vacuoles
usedtotransportmaterials sitewhere
iii Anaisreplicatedand
transcribedtoformmanacexportedvinny
inside cell

liquidwheremetabolicactio
themto
someuse
experexcyte Ritson pcircle
Tsosome thelinesinsidecrista usually
innerfluidmatrix spherical
Iusedtobreakdowningested 5h
Peroxisome

gjf t settler.ee
cent.is
na.eamamiaanaeesmemoraneou Iekespithii
foodinvesicles qq.gg contain avariety
maximum eeyycatalyzestoxicTM dudes Atp th
line
substances synth
Mon case
peroxide
sother
metabolites
hasnor Membrane Plant cell
Iona SmootER Cell wall of
made cellule

ÉF
Nucleolusc Providessupportsmechanicalstrength
Nucleus a HE preventsexcesswater

RoughEr C seen membrane

f
GolgiApparatus o
resides Microtubule
I
cutest
cnn.ie
stroma
inpid
winternal
i
stackthyeanoids
produce gucosesotherorispanas
by photosynthesis
8
É mitochondria

maybepresent
starch
u FreeRibosome JPeroxisome
Tenter Vacuole t
Fund
y
filledinternalcavitysurrounded
byamembrane
maintainshydrostatic
Plant
cell
p ressure
chlorophest
Exocrine Gland Cellsofthe
Hormones Thefunctionofthe is photosynthesis
into blood land cells secretesubstances
leaf
producingorganic
compounds from 025Eggman
Endocrinecellssecretehormones busing
intothe bloodstream
lightenergy
Exocrinecells secrete digestive PalisadeMesophyll cells are the cells
Ii
enzymes into a duct that carries that carries out most photosynthesis
themto thesmall intestinewherethe leaf
theydigestfood
surrounded
by a cell mall w a plasm mem
cells have organellesneededto
synthesizeproteins in largequantities
processthem tomake themready
forsecretiontransportthem tothe
plasma membrane sthenrelease
seem
 lif Microscopes
lease bends light
magnify images
natural colour
dye maybe
resolve
applied to

electron
use electromagnets
greater way Sres
Dead specimens in

METTLER
enerate cross
ins map
ection
by
electrons
essingspecimens
byscattering
rough
electrons
resolution
igher

i
depth

HigherRange
Iota of
atarat magnification
colour Higher Resolution
 73 Membrane Structure
impaler Phospholipid bilayer flexibilitydue to Phospholipids
Phospholipids form bilayers in Hod due to the amphipathic
Fatty properties phospholipidmolecules
Acid has a hydrophilic head
I Phospholipid is amphipathic
Mph has a hydrophobic tail

HydrophilicHead Hydrophobic Tail

Gray
Phosphate 2 Hydrocarbon Chain
When Mixed wits when mixed with Hao they're
it attaches to water attached to eachother Not t

Becauseofthisarrangementipnospthoripidsbecome
he bilayersurrounds arranged into double layers with hydrophilichead facing
selfwith cytosolcell's outwards S hydrocarbon tails facinginwards
on theenvironment
Hydrophobic Hydrocarbontails

HydrophilicHeads

Models of Membrane structure

1 Dawson Danielli Model
In 1935 Dawson S Daniell i studied micrograph cell
membranes f
noted that the plasma membrane was made
They
2 dark parallel lines with
light region in between
From this developed a model of membrane with
a thick they
layer of proteins on either side of the
phospholipids

The Falsification of the Dawson Danielle Model

Freeze etched electron micrograph
the technique involves
then fracturing them
rapid freezing of cells and
the fracture occurs the lines weakness the
centre along
included of
of membrane
The structure the membrane Proteins
Insane of
Improvement in biochemical techniques allowed proteins t
E be extractedfrom membranes
e globularshe
They werefoundto be very varied in sizethatandwould
unlike the other structural proteins form
continents the
layers
the proteins
onthe periphery
of membrane
were hydrophobic on at least partof the
Prete surface so they would teetermattracted to the hydrocarbonton
 Fluorescent Antibody
Tagging
Fluorescent markers were attached to antibodies that
bind to membrane proteins
They were marked in differentcolours
The cells were fusedtogether and within to mins the
the proteins in different were mixed within the mentor
of the fused cell which showed that membraneproter
are free to move within the membrane rather than
beingfixed in aperipherallayer
After these discoveries Dawson Danielle model was
falsified and as a replacement the singer Nicolso
Fluid Mosaic model was adopted
Membrane Proteins
Membrane proteins are diverse in terms structure
function S their position in the membrane
of
PrimaryFunction to form a barrier which ions s hydrophi
molecules cannot easily pass
this carried out thephospholipidbilayer
by
ex Attachment points hecytoskeleton or extracellular matrix
Hormone binding sites hormone receptors i e insulin receptor
qzyy.gg yay pathways Immobilized
enzymes with the active site on the outside i esmall
metabolic intest
s Anchorage cell adhesion to
Junction
form tightjunctions btw groups of cells in tissuesfor
Enzymaticact 6 transduction cell to cell communication i.e receptors 4 neurotransmitters atsynapses
channels tepassivetransport to allow hydrophilic particles across
Transport
by
Recognition facilitated diffusion
Pumps te activetransport whichuses ATP to move particlesacross themembr
roteins

e a
i
Regions
Hydrophilic
ydrophobie
ssociated Hydrophobic on at least partof Hydrophilic ontheirsurface

macaroon chains Tecate

They are TRANSMEMBRANE É
in j gdainaemen
therefore they're embedded inthe Most are attached on thesurface

Often areversibleattachment
Theyextend across themembrane somehave asingle hydrocarbonchar
throughthe
Hydrophilicpartsprojecting attachedtothem
regionsofphosphate headsoneachside inserted into the membrane
Permenantly Attached Anchoring theproteinto thememe
surface

more active the membrane higher the protein content

the highest protein contents are in the membranes of
chloroplast S mitochondria which are active in photosynthes
S respiration I 751 protein
 Eiteity
sisi
oingoooooirao
0000 0000 8.10 000

OOOOO OOOO OÉii'o 00 000

OU
toerag

Integral HIS Peripheral Channel

Protein
Protein Protein

Cholesterol
cholesterol is a component animalcellmenbrand
reducehmembrane of
fluidity cholesterol is a
typeof didnt it is notafate
themembrane
Most
of it is hydrophobic so it is attached to the
hydrophobic hydrocarbon toils in the centre
but one end has hydroxyl
It is therefore attracted to thegroup which isheads
hydrophilic
on the
phosphate
peripheryof the membrane
Therefore they're positioned in between phospholipids
in the membrane

i
fluidity and permeability to some salutes

The hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails

usually behave as a liq
The hydrophilic phosphate heads usually behave morelike so
Overall membrane is fluid as components of the
membrane are
freeton
more fluid less able to control the substancesentering
it would be restricted

cholesterol distrepts the regular packing the hydrocarb

tails so it prevents them from of
behaving armia
osasoliot lt
also restricts molecular motionstherefore
Inconsonant
it
Reduces permeability to hydrophilicparticles ie Nat
its shape
m
This helps in the formation
ions

ofvesicyduring
endocytosis
 fusion isthepassive1 4 Membrane Transport
ovement ofparticles a Simple Diffusion small non polar polarC
fromareas ofhighto Diffusion is the spreadingout of particles inliquids s gasses
until happens due the continuous random motion particles
low concentration
an equilibriumisreached
of
hisresultsfrom From AHigh Concentration Low CONCENTRATION
andomcollisions btw Movement ALONG Down The Concentration Gradient
articles srequires
a
energy NOENERGY USED PassiveTransport

aster Tatemsimple Diffusion across membranes involves particles pass

btw the phospholipids in the membrane
Take reffitt it can happen if the phospholipid is semi
only bilayer
É permeable permeable to the particles
Non polar particles such as 02 can
diffuseeasily
the centre membrane is hydrophobic
aofor 0
so
T Cons with
changes cannot easilypassthrong
Polar molecules chargedslightly com diffuse at low rates
Small power particles like urea or ethanol passthrough
more easily than large particles
b Facilitated Diffusion
Ions s other particles that cornet diffuse between
mspÉt phospholipids
with are channels
a integralproteins
can pass into or out of cells if there
for them through the plasma membrane
hydrophilic innerpore
channelcomprisedof a
ansmembranesubunits These channels are holes with a narrow
titis's diameter The walls the very
channel consists
ahgiekthdiittyerpj.fr
narrowestregion of
voltagegated
ypically of protein
The diameter and chemical properties channel
opened closed
of
between
cycle
informationdependsonthe
that I
transmembrane
voltage ensure
Nat or only
Kt Not Bolt type of particle passes through
Because these channels help particles to passthrough
act a bridge the membrane concentration to a
as
n between ins lower
from a
higher
concentration the process is called
out of the all facilitated diffusion
and enable the
nansportof cells can control which types of channels are
non polar
large synthesized placed in plasma membrane thus cells
cannot diffuse
the K Channel in Axons
trough
membrane to diffuse Help in maxing Kt ions out of the axons to cause repolarisal
IOpen s close with changes in electrical potential to gotten
Cytosol voltage Closewhen exon is polarized but open in response to depolarization
the channel Cytosol con block
gates Channel w ball S chain
 Diffusion Rate C Osmosis
emptyinggTRater Osmosis the net water molecules in so
of a cell
movement
of
At Ratel
Water is able to move in S out most cells
Rate of
Insert Effectnumber of H2o molecules moving in soot is Equal
No Net Movement
Osmosis occurs due to
the differences in the
substances dissolved in Haosolutes
gncentration of
stances dissolve forming intermolecular bonds
Lower Higher with H2Omolecules
by
acute water these bonds restrict the movement H2Omolecules
noentration concentration of
for that reason regions with Higher solute concentration
igher have tower concentration of H2o molecules free to move
owe tiger
concentration than with lower concentration
nontration regions
For that reason net movement water is from the
et movement of
region of Lower solute concentration to regions u
tow soluteHighwater Higher H2O concentration
concentration
to Passive because 1 has to be expendeddirectly
towwater
energy
to make it occur
ghSolute
concentration
Osmosis can happen in
any cell But Cells can
there be channel
ypotonic fighter proteins called aquaperines kidney 8 Root Hair cells
X X Area with Hypotonic
ypertonic IteSafer a lower
Hypertonic higher or fits
salute water
concentration concentration Hypertonic
Area with Area with Hypotonic
Hypotonic a tower
iii
salute
a
higher
water
Ito
concentration concentration Hypertonic
Area with

concentration
Tetteh
concentration
NÉ ovE ment
hypertonic cell
shrink
Hypertension Isotonisation HTPS.twii
hypotonic cell Normal
enlarges bursts Shriveled Lysed
Animal Hagoutofthecell No NetMovement Hyo into thecell
A plasmamembrane
of cell
OES not changetherefore
Flaccid
burst
Plant
phosmolyzed
Turgid
Hangout ofthecell No NetMovement Hyo into thecell
cell
 5
is the total concentration
Osmolarity
active solutes ofosmoticall
medical procedures it is important
During
to bathe in an 15070N k solution
tissues so that
cells are Not damaged
tall sodium Most tissue samples are stored in normal saline
chloride which is Nacl solution
ento cisotmsu
Rinse wounds
gg
Moisten Damaged Areas before treatment

saline solution can be

safelyintroduced to thepatient'sbloodstream by
I an intraveneas
be used as the basis for eyedrops
Active transport
cells sometimes take in substances even though th
is already a higher concentration inside than out
The substance is absorbed the against concentration
gradient
Cells sometimes pumpsubstances out even though there is a
large concentration outside
TP is produced
n cells
by Active transport is a form of transport that repair
mitochondriathrough the use of in the ATP and is against
cellular aerobic energy
the concentration form of
gradient
figure
respiration

esides are small

membrane Pgregtiaffff
eight
materialstobetakenintoceelleymaterialsfromthe cell
ngrembedded endocytosis
th of
ones
a droplet in the membrane that arePinocytosis
side offluidable to pushmolecules
Phagocytosis s Proteinsaresynthesized
Remitted
herical OWN Wsh err by s
ribosomes thenenter er

0 moleaneseresidesand from
off
nelocytosis s exocytosis the use ofATP particle
are active sincethey Eachpump is specialized iatefenorane Gaff the re'scarrytheproteins
carry large
to
transport a certain
molecule which converts reaches
the
engulfs
If
vs m
residesloud from
way ATP toADPintheprocess solidparticles off
immune pompom mean apparatusscary
sa say
resistance themodifiedproteinstothe
voltagegateds
decreases

the
opensonlywhen some
Phage
iscreated
plasmamembrane
concentration is
highenough
stay
move
on
around
Pinching Vesicles
fusewith the
plasma membrane
whenitdrops it the
cytoplasm
closesagain pseudopodia Haul'd Thecontent theresides
of
are expelled
LARGE
j Themembraneflattensa
again
 Neurons are a specialized cell that
typeofover
are adaptedto distancesthroughoutthe
carrysignals long body
They do so
byusing axons
Anerveimpulseinvolves the rapidmovement
membrane
of Nat s Kt ionsacross exo
As concentration These movements
is Na s k channels
occur
byfacilitateddiffusionthro
change signal
occur bc
the concentration
of the concentration gradient inside outsidethe
built up
njhffifrmpn.phcand carried out
gradients
Nat kt
are
by activeanspore
by pump

II Éemoedded
des whichallows
themembrane
in
Cycleof
a
the Na KPump

na ions enter thepumps attach to their bindingsit

Jump is voltage ATP ADP ATPtransfers aphosphategroupfromitself

this causes the pump to changeshape s theinteriordos
gated
The interior of the pumpopens and release 3Nations
2kt ions enters
from outside s attach to theniging

k causes the release of the phosphategroup

Binding
This of
causes the to changeshapeagain
pump
Now it can open again only to the inside oftheaxon
The interior of the pump opens to the inside of the
axon sthe 2 kt ions are released
Nations can enter S bindagain
 15 Origin of cells
in order
Abiogenesis hypothesize life heto
for that have emerged scientists
smaller complexes started
t

I
f Carbon compounds
must be produced first since
amino acids
fatty acids
the building
blocks oflife they're
Polymers inorganic compounds
3 Membranes carbon compounds must be able to assemble int
4 Inheritance polymers proteins polysaccharides D which contribute
to cell structures
I
Protocell Membranes must form from carbon compounds
this creates a space
for internal chemistry to occur
There must be a mechanism for inheritance which passes
on to
offsprings that
genes RNA
It was determined
molecule
was most
likelythis
Pritiffivetingerpment Chef
Chemical y Cooling Holder
Evolution Inorganic Chemicals
Energycapture
small Organic Molecules
a
popeization
Macromolecules Plasma Membrane

Proto cell
Biological
Evolution Cell
L S
Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration
 É

ux is g veriyer
Heating electrontorta
be atmosphere
wasnot present
UV electrical
Isign
Olusumu
inorgrimpound
cooling

1 Boil to induce the primitive atmosphere

2 Vapor mixes w various gasses reducing atmosphere
3 Mixture exposed to electrical discharge simulatinglightning
4 Mixture allowed to cool sun rays
5 Condense mixture analysed organic
compounds
 cells arise
from pre existing cell
enetic code is However the Earth was harsh S no
universal so it produces life was pres
the same amino acid So it
logically follows that the 1st cells must have
from living materials that were present
translation regardless
emerged
on Earth
non
oforganism
cell arisenfrom a
inglecommonancestor further Evidence on Earth
for the same of life
a common origin
is that all organisms use
with minor gene variations genetic code
This similarity implies that all life has a common
ancestor
The code determines the nature S structure
that an synthesizes
ofproteins
organism
The same with slightvariations s orders can
be genes
in organisms additional evidence of
found
common many
the time it ancestry
was believed that Pasteur's Experiment
ells were able the generalprinciple that cells come frompre
o occur cells was tested only
Louis Pasteur in 18thCentury
existing
His by
experiments verified the principal
sontaneously
whichmeans
they Swan Neck Flashes
arisefromnothing
first was
boiled feast filled with nutrient broth and then

Boiling killed any organisms s the neck prevented

particles in the air from in
No contact with air s no floating
spontaneous generation occurred
Thesecond flash that was filled w nutrient broth was also
boiled but the neck was broken which allowed free
air flow After waiting he sees that there has been a
microbial growth occurred
From this Pasteur concluded that the swan neckprevent
the air particles to into theflash whichproved that
there ME get
was
anyspontaneous generations ofcells
 Endosymbiotic Theory
is 2 The cells were prokaryotic in
symbiosis
but first
structure time evolved
simple
into the
rganismliving over
know they
ogethen eukaryotic cell we
that
With endosymbiosis a eell takes in a small
cell larger
So thebysmall
one
endocytosis
cell is in a vesicle in the cytoplasm o
p insteenswere
simpleinstructure
prowanetics
time
aster it
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eneyevedinsmaiosisstere
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digested
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É kept alive and useful functions for the larger

became

performs
aspiration

cell

The smaller cell divides as frequently as the larger cell s

all cells produced contains a part
ofthe engulfed cell
This process happened at least 2 times
Mitochondria Chloroplast
A cell that respired A heterotrophic cell took in a
anaerobically took in a photosynthetic bacterium which
bacterium that respired supplied it with organiccompounds this
aerobically supplying bothwith making it an autotroph
itself sATP
the larger well
Thephotosyntheticprokaryote evolved
energy into chloroplaststhe hanger cell
Thisgavethe large cell evolved into photosynthetic enlarge
competitiveadvantage because
aerobic respiration ismoreefficient

Gradually aerobic bacterium

evolved into mitochondria s
thelarge cell evolvedinto
heterotrophiceukaryotes

This explains the characteristics ofmitochondria 8chloroplast

divide like cells BinaryFission
I they grow
they have
705 proteins
a NAKEDLOOP
of DNA like prokaryotes
like prokaryotes makingtheir own proteins
found
Double membrane as when cells were
expected taken
into
avesicle
by endocytosis
 a cell's 1.6 Cell Division
wing
fetime it grows A nucleus of a eukaryotic cell can divide to f
reproducesmany 2 genetically identical nuclei mitosis
by
mes
hecycle of events Mitosis allows the cell to divide into 2 daughter cell
that allow this each with f the nuclei s therefore genetically
of
happen is called identical to the other
Matte Before mitosis happens all of theDNA in the nucleus
the role
of the must be replicated interphase
chromosome is to Interphase is the period before mitosis
separate the each chromosome is converted from a single DNA molecule
ANA precisely into 2 identicle DNA molecules called chromatids
during celldivision mitosis one of these chromatids posses to each
During
geneticinfocarried daughter nucleus
Mitosis is involved whenever cells with geneticallyidentical
nuclei arerequired
DuringEmbryonic Development
Growth
Tissue Repair
Asexual Reproduction
Mitosis is a continuous process

Interphase
any metabolic s a
very active phase
of the cell cycle
eactions occur the process in between consecutive celldivisionswhere the
a cellrespiration cell prepares for the celldivision

goes are DMA replication in the cytoplasm

molecules that interphase onlyhappens during
areinvolved in
the mitochondria in the cytoplasm
controlling
cell cycle During
increase
interphase of
They interact This is due to growth S division of mitochondria
withproteins s Inplants s algae of chloroplast increases
control the chloroplast increases in the same way
cyclebyevent
controlling
also synthesize cellulose s vesicles to add
secific They
it to their cell walls
use
cyclinD activeoverall
cyclinE Sphase
gelina Gaphase Cell Growth
E increases Prepetation
GelinB mitosis cell insize synthesis for
cell Division
yelin
binds s activates
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kinesisCDK P
synthesis fates Replicationof
DNA
organelles
Sksattachto phosphate Do
up tootherproteinsinthe
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ele whichtriggerotherproteinsenzymes cytoplasmicorganelles
become
asks
active s carryout
s other molecules x2
y Proteinsrequired

produced
 Supercoiling of chromosomes
Chromosomes condense
by superailing duringmitosis
mitosis the 2 chromatids that make up each
During
chromosome must be separated 8moved to opposite poles
condensation
of DNA molecules are immensely
Chromosomes it is long chromosomes into
essential to package
therefore
much shorter structures
occurs in the first stagesofmitosis
Occurs repeatedly the DNA molecule
Supercoiling by
make the chromosome shorter
coiling
wider Cal histones
Proteins called histones it are associated with
DNA ineukaryote chromosomes help with supercoiling s enzyme

intense
cell grows neismegisees
DNAreplicated
Chromosomesreplicated ÉÉ
Duplicated
I s
chromosomes
iitbecome visible
Microtubules
S attach fully
to the
devele
centromeres
Neededorganelles supercoiling Sister Chromatid pairs
replicated Nucleolus breaksdown
Neededproteinsproduced Microtubules growfrom equator
Centrioles etc microtubuleorganizingcares to The orientation of each
pair is random
Nuclear Membrane
Breaks Down
we
2n
ones
an É ÉÉÉ
n

3 Anaphase 4 Telophase
Microtubules contracts Chromosomes arrive al
split the sister chromatids
at the centromere
each of the poles s
microtubules break down
Microtubules pull the Nuclear membranebegin
increase in chromatids to opposite to reform around the
chromosome poles of the cellsis chromosomes
number Each chromatid now Chromosomes uncoil s
a chromosome becomeinvisiblethroughthdrosco

an p
t 1EI É an
Begins after Cytokinesis Divisionof cytoplasm
the end
anaphase begins
Not during
mitosis of telophase
part of
Process where cytoplasmphysically divides the cell
in 2 S occurs in s animals
plants
differently
contractile
ring Animal cells since no cell wall simpler
of microfilaments plasma membrane pinches s 2

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EI2u nuclei become separated
causes constriction a
at cell centre 2 new cells
Each cell w a complete set
of identical chromosomes
New Cytoplasm organellesscentri
cell Plate formsalong the center
gig the cell s joins to the cellment
of
Vacuoles release cellulose needed
to form a cell wall
Plasma membrane forms on either side of the new wall

when the membrane joins with the cell membrane 2 new cells
have formed

cells in mitosis e may

Mitotic Index Total Cells
 nceabnormal cell Tumours
division occurs malignant the cell is vital for an
i
many
Regulation of
cycle
tumourbegins organism's survival howeversometimes it can
gowrong
untreated This
ifmetastasised result in cancer
form
can be
can

cancerouscellsdetach amours are the result

ofan excess uncontrolled cell
fromprimarytumour division S mitosis which cells in
cancirculate around the
penetratinglymphor a tissue
causes of
by
onlyvessels
loud This can occur in or tissue as a result of
then itcanspreadto
mutations the
inany organ
code
othertissues genetic

Daffin
metastisis is usgenndofan mgmi.am
the movement
of these cancerous site of the original
cells to the cancerous cells
spread theytumours
can
form
ther secondary
bodyregions
cancer can occur in differentforms in different
tissues can be caused
s
genetic s environmental conditions
by a
range of
4
are that can
Mutagens
DNA physical biological agents
modify can be radiation chemical compounds or
Mutagens
even biological compounds
Changes in DNA are not harmful but if the mutation
affects a involved in the cell cycle entumour
can result gene

Mutagens that cause cancer are called carcinogens

Carcinogens are causing agents that increase
cancer
thechanges mutation of tumour repressor genes
of
the proto oncogenes
poptosis programmed
colterath that ex UV radiation chemicals viruses
maintains integrity
be genes that become altered or genes
f a tissue
eerosis unprommed
eney
that
can
become overexpressed
celt death Typically are involved in someaspect of cellcycle
they control
ate has been Some oncogenes can prevent apoptosis while other
hard to collect can promote cells to divide s
replicate
there is a time
log btw consumptions
strong correlation btw incidence of cancer I smoking
cancer occurrence Result of carcinogenicsubstances contained in them
alsogeneticfactors Because
clearconsidered of the content the correlation isgenerally