13.

NUCLEI
Nucleus Mass – energy equivalence

• Number of protons in atom (Z) = 4 Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy
Z = Atomic Number + = (, ' c = 3x10 m/s
• Number of neutrons in atom (N) = 3
• Number of Nucleons in atom (A) = 7 The difference in masses of free nucleons and mass of nucleus is
A = Mass Number N = A 2 - called mass defect*

Type Feature Examples ∆( = (( . + () # − . − 1

Isotopes Same protons (2) ! " # S
• !!, !!, !!,
B E
.

• Different neutrons of mass

nucleus . Ikg On
30
8kg
Binding energy is the energy required to completely separate the
.

# #
Isobars • Same mass !!, "!$
number nucleons *

Isotones • Same neutrons !&$ !&' 2. + = ∆(, '

$%!%, '&&'
• Different protons 1. B.E per nucleon is the ratio of total binding energy to the
mass number of the nucleus
Nucleus radius and density 2. It is a measure of stability of a nucleus

! = !! #"/$ !! = 1.2'( = 1.2×10%"& ( 2. +

2. +() =
#
• Density of all nuclei is almost constant
• Approximate density of nucleus is 2.3 x 1017 kg/m3
 z = 79
(protons/elections)
A
-> 197
An
A = 197 (nucleons)
N A 2
79 =
-

T N= 197 -
79
2 N = 118 (metons)
-
B.Epn curve * 1. Two nuclei with lower B.Epn may combine to form a heavier nucleus
with higher B.Epn. This is called fusion
2. A heavy nucleus with lower B.Epn may split into two or more lighter
nuclei with higher B.Epn. This is called fission.

Fission

- • A heavy nucleus with lower B.Epn may split into two

or more lighter nuclei with higher B.Epn. This is called
fission.
• Controlled nuclear fission is used in nuclear reactors
• Uncontrolled nuclear fission is used in atom bombs

Observations:
1. B.Epn is almost constant for 30 < A < 170
2. The curve reaches a maximum of about 8.75 MeV for Fe- 56 (A=
56) and then gradually falls to 7.6 MeV for U-238 (A=238)
3. B.Ebn is lower for both light nuclei (A<30) and heavy nuclei
(A>170) (S(un) Cunstable)
+
Conclusions: energy
1. The nuclear force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a
binding energy of a few MeV per nucleon
2. The constancy of the binding energy in the range 30 < A < 170 is a *

consequence of the fact that the nuclear force is short-ranged.

 Fusion * Death of Sun
1. Fusion: Two light nuclei combine to form heavier nuclei of • The age of the sun is about 5×109 years and it is estimated that
elower binding energy per nucleon, emitting energy in the there is enough hydrogen in the sun to keep it going for another 5
process billion years.
2. Principle source of Sun’s Energy (also hydrogen bomb) • After that, the hydrogen burning will stop and the sun will begin to
3. When fusion is achieved by raising the temperature of the cool and will start to collapse under gravity, which will raise the
system so that particles have enough kinetic energy to core temperature.
overcome the coulomb repulsive behaviour, it is called • The outer envelope of the sun will expand, turning it into the so
thermonuclear fusion called red giant.
For 2 protons to fuse a temperature of almost 3x109K is
required. But Sun’s core has a temperature of 1.5x107K
only. Therefore fusion in the sun involves protons
whose energies are much above the average energy.

Stars
• As the hydrogen in the core gets depleted and becomes helium, Controlled thermonuclear fusion *
the core starts to cool.
• The star begins to collapse under its own gravity which increases 1. In controlled fusion reactors, the aim is to generate steady
the temperature of the core. power by heating the nuclear fuel to a temperature in the range
• If this temperature increases to about 108 K, fusion takes place of 108 K. At these temperatures, the fuel is a mixture of positive
again, this time of helium nuclei into carbon. This kind of process ions and electrons (plasma).
can generate through fusion higher and higher mass number 2. The challenge is to confine this plasma, since no container can
elements. stand such a high temperature. Several countries around the
• But elements more massive than those near the peak of the world including India are developing techniques in this
binding energy curve (Fe) cannot be so produced. connection. If successful, fusion reactors will hopefully supply
almost unlimited power to humanity
Nuclear Force ** Radioactivity **

1. The nuclear force is much stronger than the coulomb force. This
Radioactivity or radioactive decay a nuclear phenomenon in which
is why although there is repulsion between protons, the
an unstable nucleus undergoes a decay and emits some particles
nucleus stays stable.
2. The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero as Decay process Particle
their distance is more than a few femtometres. This leads to
saturation of forces in a medium or a large-sized nucleus, which ! decay Helium nucleus ( ("#$) is emitted
is the reason for the constancy of the binding energy per & decay Electrons or positrons are emitted
nucleon.
3. The potential energy is a minimum at a distance r0 of about 0.8 ' decay High energy (hundreds of keV or more)
fm. This means that the force is attractive for distances larger photons are emitted. Gamma rays)
than 0.8 fm and repulsive if they are separated by distances less

3
than 0.8 fm.
4. The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron X Y .
T class >
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and proton-proton is approximately the same. The nuclear 90 %t

force does not depend on the electric charge. XPYC

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14. SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS
 In metals conduction can happen in 2 ways
Conductivity *
Case 1: When conduction band and valence band overlap electrons
can easily move from valence band to conduction band. When electric
1. Metals: They have very low resistivity (high conductivity)
field is applied these electrons will create current
(~ 10" − 10$ ./0. Eg: Copper, Aluminium, gold
Case 2: If conduction band partially filled or valence band if partially
empty, electrons can move within these bands and create current.
2. Insulators: They have high resistivity (low conductivity)
Insulators *
(~ 10)!! − 10)!& ./0. Eg: Wood, glass, plastic
For insulators a large band gap
exists (Eg > 3 eV). There are no
3. Semiconductors: They have resistivity and conductivity in between electrons in the conduction band,
metals and insulators and therefore no electrical
(~ 10* − 10)+ ./0. Eg: Si, Ge, Gallium arsenide conduction is possible

Eg = energy band gap

Metals *

Conduction band: Electrons in this band are called free electrons Semiconductors D current
because they can conduct (move) when electric field is applied
For semiconductors band gap is
-electron
Valence band: Electrons in this band are bound to the nucleus and
smaller (Eg < 3 eV). Because of the
are not free to move out generally already
here

g
small band gap, at room

1 temperature some electrons from

valence band can acquire enough
84y energy to cross the energy gap and
does enter the conduction band. These
electrons can move in the no
conduction band. ne
s
current
• Intrinsic Semiconductors: In pure (intrinsic) semiconductors, the
number of free electrons 1, is equal to the number of holes 1- and n type *
both are represented by 1. the intrinsic carrier concentration. 1, = In the energy band diagram of n-
1- = 1. type Si semiconductor, the donor - 47
• Movement of Holes: Holes can “move” through the lattice as energy level ED is slightly below the
neighbouring electrons fill the empty spots. This movement is an EC of the conduction band and
apparent shift in position rather than actual hole movement. electrons from this level move into
the conduction band with very
• Current in Semiconductors: Under an electric field, free electrons small supply of energy.
and holes move. Free electrons generate electron current (3, ), while
holes create hole current (3- ). The total current (3) is the sum of both. 5,: 78189 :1$9;< =$>$=
3 = 3, + 3- ($1$9;< =$>$= 8? $=$@A981B C81DA$C E< F$1AD>D=$1A C8189)

Extrinsic Semiconductors * • Donor Impurity: The pentavalent dopant donates an extra

electron for conduction and is known as a donor impurity.
• When a small amount of a suitable impurity is added to the pure
semiconductor the conductivity of the semiconductor is increased. • Majority charge carriers: Electrons 1, ≫ 1-
• Such materials are known as extrinsic semiconductors or impurity • Minority charge carriers: Holes
semiconductors.
• The addition of a impurity is called doping and the impurity atoms p type ↓
are called dopants. (eg P B)
:
,
For p-type semiconductor, the
acceptor energy level EA is slightly -

Es

above the top EV of the valence band.

With very small supply of energy an
electron from the valence band can
jump to the level EA Electrons rise up Ev
-

(5ef
and holes fall down when they gain
[4et
(4e) (3e- external energy.
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!!: #$$%&'() +,%)-. /%0%/ Diffusion current: During the formation of p-n junction, electrons
(%,%)-. /%0%/ (2 ℎ(/%4 5(,6'%5 7. ')806/%,' 5(&6,') move from n to p side and holes move from p to n side due to
2

concentration difference. The current due to this movement is called

• Acceptor impurity: The trivalent dopant donates a hole for diffusion current.
conduction and is known as a acceptor impurity. Drift current: Due to electric field formed at the junction electrons on
• Negative Charge on Dopant Atom: When a trivalent atom bonds p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a hole on n-side of the *
with a fourth Si atom, it effectively gains a negative charge due to junction moves to p side. The current due to this movement is called
the shared electron. drift current
,- ≫ ,, At equilibrium Diffusion current = Drift current *
• Majority charge carriers: Holes > tre
-

• Depletion region: The junction region where free charge carriers

• Minority charge carriers: Electrons ,- ,, = ,. 2 have been depleted is called depletion region
X -
ve • Barrier potential: The electric field setup in the depletion region
Note: Extrinsic semiconductor lattice is neutral because the total gives rise to a barrier potential which opposes further diffusion
*
number of protons and electrons in the lattice as a whole is same
Forward bias *
p-n junction diode *

• +ve of battery is connected to p t =

side and -ve of battery to n side.

• The effective barrier potential
E
decreases and the diode starts
-
conducting. [in mA)
E
• The width of the depletion region
=
reduces
 - +

* Half wave rectifier

Reverse bias *

• +ve of battery is connected to n 1. Diode D conducts during PL

side and negative of battery to p ⑦ ⑦
the positive half cycle and
side. current flows through RL.
• The effective barrier potential 2. Diode does not conduct
increases during negative half cycle
• Very small reverse current flows
due to minority charges Cra)
as it is reverse biased.
Current does not flow No
• Width of depletion layer increases through RL (load)
3. Frequency of output is A
VI Characteristics * same as that of input

• When forward biased, current increases slowly until cut in

voltage or threshold voltage (0.7 V for Si and 0.2 V for Ge). Full wave rectifier *

After cut in voltage current increases sharply.

• In reverse bias current is very 1. When voltage at A is positive,
D, 3

small (in <#) and remains D1 conducts current from C to

forward bins
constant. It is called reverse r ov
=-

-I
D L
2. When voltage at B is positive,
C

saturation current. G
i

• When reverse voltage reaches D2 conducts current from C to

breakdown voltage current D
3. Frequency of output is double
•
increases sharply.
For diodes, we define a quantity
I : that of input
AAA
voltage
4. A capacitor in parallel will filter
cut in

called dynamic resistance as the

ratio of small change in voltage out AC element of the output
& 58 ,
current
to a small change in current